Chapter 2

Distance Measurement
(With tapes)
Two ways to locate Topographic features

1. By capturing the position of each feature by using GPS positioning

techniques and / or by remote sensing data capture

2. By measuring the distance to the topographic feature from some

common base line or control net
 Distance Measuring Techniques
1. Pacing

Pacing is very useful when looking for

previously set survey markers.
 Distance Measuring Techniques
2. Odometer

Automobile Odometer

A measuring wheel equipped with an odometer

 Distance Measuring Techniques
3. Electronic distance measurement ( E D M )

Source Target

The distance between two stations are measured by any of the following
methods

1. By noting the phase delays between the transmitted and received light signals

2. By measuring the time of travel for pulsed light transmissions

 Distance Measuring Techniques
4. Taping

Distances are measured directly my measuring with a tape

Closed case tape Open reel

 Measuring Distances by using Tape
Taping Accessories
1. Plumb Bob

Plumb bobs are used in taping to permit the

surveyor to hold the tap horizontal when the
ground is sloping.
 Measuring Distances by using Tape
Taping Accessories
1. Plumb Bob

It is also used to transfer a point vertically down to the ground.

 Measuring Distances by using Tape
Taping Accessories
2. Hand Level

Bubble tube
Hand levels are small rectangular or cylindrical
sighting tubes equipped with tubular bubbles
and horizontal cross hairs, that permit the
surveyor to make low precision horizontal
sighting

Hand levels can also be used to assist the surveyors in keeping the tape
horizontal while the tape is held off the ground.
 Measuring Distances by using Tape
Taping Accessories
3. Clinometer

The clinometer is essentially a hand level with an attached protractor, which permits
the determination of low precision angle
 Measuring Distances by using Tape
Taping Accessories
3. Clinometer

A clinometer can be
used to measure the
hight of a building, tree
or a pole, by measuring
the angle marked as z in
the diagram
 Measuring Distances by using Tape
Taping Accessories
4. Ranging rod.

Range poles are made of wood or steel, 2m or

3m long. They painted alternately red and
white in 30 cm sections. These poles are used
while measuring distances longer than the
tape, to align the tape correctly along a
straight line ( The process of the alignment is
called ranging)
 Measuring Distances by using Tape
Taping Techniques (Ground level)

Two persons required : - 1. Head Surveyor :

Carrying the zero end of the tape forward towards
the final point

2. Rear Surveyor :
Hold the other end of the tap (the reel) and directs
the head surveyor on line

Once the whole tape is stretched, the head surveyor put a mark on the ground.
Next, the rear surveyor moves to this mark and the procedure repeats
Measuring Distances by using Tape
Taping Techniques (Ground Not
level)
Measuring Distances by using Tape
Taping Techniques (Ground Not
level)
 Measuring Distances by using Tape
Taping Techniques (Ground Not
level)

If the slope is too great , shorter increments are measured until all the required
distance has been measured. This operation is called breaking tape
 Measuring Distances by using Tape
Tasks of the Rear Surveyor

1. Visually aligns the head surveyor by sighting to a range rod or other target placed
at the forward station

2. Hold the tape on the mark, either directly or with the aid of a plumb bob

3. Calls out the station and tape reading for each measurement and listens for
verification from the head surveyor as the information is being entered in the
field book

4. Keeps a count of all full tape lengths included in overall measurements

5. Maintains all the instruments

 Measuring Distances by using Tape
Tasks of the Head Surveyor

1. Carries the tape forward and ensures that the tape is free from loops, which
could lead to tape breakage

2. Prepares the ground for the mark (e.g., clears away grass, leaves etc.)

3. Places the marks (chaining pins, woof stakes, iron bats., etc.

4. Takes and records measurements of distances, temperature and other factors

 Location Methods
A point is located with respect to a reference line using Location Ties

Three types of location ties

1. Right angle offset tie or the rectangular tie

2. Angle distance tie or Polar tie

3. Intersection tie
 Location Methods
Right angle offset tie or Rectangular tie

The point P is located relative to a known line AB by

determining the distance CB or CA, the right angle at C,
and the distance CP

Angle distance tie or Polar tie

The point P is located relative to a known line AB by

determining the angle θ at A and the distance AP
 Location Methods
Intersection Tie

The point P is located relative to a known line AB

By determining either the angles at A and B to P

OR

By determining the distances AP and BP

 Stationing

Stations or chainages are dimensions measured along

a baseline.
• The beginning point is described as 0+00.

• A point 100 ft(m) from the beginning is 1+00.

• A point 565.98 ft(m) from the beginning is 5+65.98.

• Points measured before the beginning station are 0-50, -1+00, etc.

Offsets are dimensions measured at right angle to a

baseline.
Baseline Stations and Offset
Distances
 Errors
No measurement can be free of errors

Errors are of two types

1. Systematic errors : Those errors whose magnitude and algebraic sign

can be determined.
Eg : Error due to expansion of steel tape due to temperature. If
temperature is known, the shortening or lengthening effects on a
steel tape can be determined precisely.

2. Random errors ( Accidental Errors ): Those errors associated

with the skill and vigilance of the surveyor.
 Errors
Systematic Tapping Errors

Slope
Erroneous length

Temperature

Tension and sag

 Systematic Slope Corrections
Taping is usually performed by keeping the tape horizontal

Some times, distances are measured on a slope and then converted to the Equivalent
horizontal distance

(H)

(V)

H
 cos  OR H  S cos
S
α is called as the slope angle
 Systematic Slope Corrections

(H)

(V)
Zenith Angle

Zenith angle = 90 -α

H
 Sin (90   ) OR H  S . sin( 90   )
S
OR H  S . cos( )

Also, H 2  S 2 V 2 OR H  S 2 V 2
 Systematic Slope Corrections
Exercises

1. The slope measurement between two points is 41.33 m, and the slope angle
is 1o 50’. Compute the horizontal distance .

2. A distance of 206.97 m was measured along a 3 percent slope. Compute the

horizontal distance

3. The slope distance between two points is 21.484 m, and the difference in elevation
between the points is 3.658m. Compute the horizontal distance.
 Erroneous Tape Length Corrections
Through extensive use, tapes become kinked or stretched

The distance measured by erroneous tape must be corrected.

If the length of the tape is reduced, the measured length also shall be reduced.

If the length of the tape is increased, the measured length also shall be
increased.

The corrected length = measured length x Actual length of the tape

Graduated length of the tape
 Erroneous Tape Length Corrections
Exercises

1. A 100 ft steel tape known to be only 99.98 ft long under standard conditions was
used to record a measurement of 398.36 ft. What is the distance corrected for the
erroneous tape.

2. A 30m steel tape known to be 30.004 m under standard conditions was used to
record a measurement of 271.118 m. What is the distance corrected for the
erroneous tape length ?

3. A rectangular commercial building must be laid out 200.00 ft wide and 300.00 ft
long. If the steel tape used is 100.02 ft long under standard conditions, what
distances will be laid out ?
 Temperature Corrections
The length of the steel tape changes due to change in temperature

Temperature increase Tape length increase

Ct  k (T  Ts )L
Ct = Correction due to temperature
T = Temperature at the time of measurement
Ts = Temperature at which the tape is standardized
= 20 o C or 68 o F
K = Coefficient of thermal expansion of the material of the tape
L = Measured length
 Temperature Corrections
Exercises

1. A survey distance of 338.12 ft was recorded when the temperature was 96 o F.

What is the distance corrected for temperature ? Coefficient of thermal expansion
= 0.00000645 per unit length per degree Fahrenheit

2. A station 3 + 54.67 must be marked in the field. If the steel tape to be used is only
99.98 ft under standard conditions and if the temperature is 87 o F at the time of
the measurement, how far away from the existing station mark at 0 + 79.23 will the
surveyor have to measure to locate the new station ?
 Temperature Corrections
Exercises (Do Your Self)

3. Compute the corrected horizontal distance for each of the following data

Sl. Temp Tape Length Slope Data Slope Measurement

No.

a. -14oF 99.98 ft Difference in Elevation = 6.35 ft 252.45 ft

b. 46oF 100.00 ft Slope angle 3018’ 138.27 ft

c. 26 0C 29.993 m Slope angle – 3042’ 222.222m

d. 0 0C 30.002 m Slope at 1.5 % 400.000m

e. 100 0F 100.03 ft Slope at -0.80 % 298.70 ft

 Tension Corrections
The pull applied on a tape will cause the extension of the tape

The error due to this elongation is

( P  Ps) L
Cp 
Where,
AE
Cp = Correction due to tension per tape length
P =Applied tension
Ps = Standard Tension
L = Length of tape under consideration
A = Cross sectional area of the tape
E = Modulus of elasticity of the material of the tape

Typical standard tension is 5 kgf or 50 N

 Tension Corrections

Exercises (Do Your Self)

1. A 50 m tape is used to measure between two points. If the measured distance is

48.888 m, with the tape supported at the ends only and with a tension of 100 N,
What is the correction to be applied to the measured length due to the pull. Area of
cross section of the tape is 0.02 cm2. Youngs modulus of elasticity of the material of
the tape is 20 x 1010 N/m2 .
 Sag Corrections
If the tape is unsupported over a length, the tape will sag and hence
there need a correction for this error.

 w 2 L3
Cs 
24P 2
Cs : Correction due to sag w: Weight of tape per unit length
L : Length of tape between supports
P : Applied tension
 Sag Corrections
Exercises

1. A 30 m tape has a mass of 544 g and is supported only at the ends with a force of
80 N. What is the sag correction ?

2. A 50 m tape is used to measure between two points. The average weight of the tape
per meter is 0.320 N. If the measured distance is 48.888 m, with the tape supported
at the ends only and with a tension of 100 N, What is the correction to be applied to
the measured length due to the sag.