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Treatment of Bacterial Urinary Tract Inf20160406 20379 J6wa49 With Cover Page v2
Treatment of Bacterial Urinary Tract Inf20160406 20379 J6wa49 With Cover Page v2
Treatment of Bacterial Urinary Tract Inf20160406 20379 J6wa49 With Cover Page v2
European Urology
Emergence of ant ibiot ic resist ance amongst hospit al-acquired urinary t ract infect ions and p…
Kurt Naber
available at www.sciencedirect.com
journal homepage: www.europeanurology.com
Review - Infections
Article history: Bacterial urinary tract infections (UTIs) are frequent infections in the
Accepted December 12, 2005 outpatient as well as in the nosocomial setting. The stratification into
Published online ahead of uncomplicated and complicated UTIs has proven to be clinically useful.
print on January 4, 2006 Bacterial virulence factors on the one side and the integrity of the host
defense mechanisms on the other side determine the course of the
Keywords: infection. In uncomplicated UTIs Escherichia coli is the leading organism,
Urinary tract infections (UTI) whereas in complicated UTIs the bacterial spectrum is much broader
Uncomplicated and including Gram-negative and Gram-positive and often multiresistant
complicated UTI organisms. The therapy of uncomplicated UTIs is almost exclusively
Antibiotic resistance of antibacterial, whereas in complicated UTIs the complicating factors
uropathogens have to be treated as well. There are two predominant aims in the
Antibiotic treatment antimicrobial treatment of both uncomplicated and complicated UTIs:
New antiinfectives for (i) rapid and effective response to therapy and prevention of recurrence
treatment of UTI of the individual patient treated; (ii) prevention of emergence of resis-
tance to antimicrobial chemotherapy in the microbial environment. The
main drawback of current antibiotic therapies is the emergence and
rapid increase of antibiotic resistance. To combat this development
several strategies can be followed. Decrease the amount of antibiotics
administered, optimal dosing, prevention of infection and development
of new antibiotic substances. The aim of this review is to highlight the
current and to describe future treatment options for UTIs.
# 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
* Corresponding author. Urologic Clinic, Hospital St. Elisabeth, St. Elisabeth Str. 23, D-94315
Straubing, Germany. Tel. +49 9421 710 6702; Fax: +49 9421 710 1717.
E-mail address: Wagenlehner@AOL.com (Florian M.E. Wagenlehner).
UTI, at an estimated annual cost of over $1 billion [3]. (ii) prevention of emergence of resistance to che-
Furthermore, the direct and indirect costs associated motherapy in the microbial environment or at
with community-acquired UTIs in the United States least prevention of further increase of resis-
alone exceed an estimated $1.6 billion [2]. tance.
UTIs account for more than 100,000 hospital
admissions annually, most often for pyelonephritis 2.1. Current treatment and prophylaxis of UTI
[1,2], and they also account for at least 40% of all
hospital-acquired infections and are in the majority Two major strategies currently exist in the pharma-
of cases catheter-associated [4–6]. Nosocomial bac- cological treatment and prophylaxis of UTIs:
teriuria develops in up to 25% of patients requiring a
urinary catheter for 7 days, with a daily risk of 5% (i) Antimicrobial chemotherapy and
[6]. It has been estimated that an episode of (ii) Vaccines.
nosocomial bacteriuria adds $500 to $1,000 [7,8] to
the direct cost of acute-care hospitalization. In 2.1.1. Chemotherapy
addition the pathogens are fully exposed to the The currently recommended chemotherapeutic
nosocomial environment, including selective pres- classes and dosages of antiinfectives for the treat-
sure by antibiotic or antiseptic substances. There- ment of bacterial UTI are listed in Table 1. The target
fore nosocomial UTIs comprise perhaps the largest and mechanism of actions of chemotherapeutic
institutional reservoir of nosocomial antibiotic- drugs is shown in Fig. 1.
resistant pathogens [6]. Antimicrobial susceptibility levels are often
Whereas community acquired UTIs are often gauged relative to what antibiotic concentration is
uncomplicated, almost all nosocomial UTIs are achievable in the blood. However tissue levels in
complicated infections. Complicated UTI is a very renal parenchyma, the deeper layer of the urinary
heterogenous entity, with a common pattern of the bladder wall or in the prostate may be more relevant
following complicating factors: in the treatment of UTI. Because these concentra-
tions are difficult to assess in humans, urinary
- anatomical, structural or functional alterations of concentrations or antimicrobial activity levels in the
the urinary tract (e.g. stents, urine transport urine are frequently consulted to evaluate the
disturbances, instrumentation of the urinary tract, activity of an antibiotic substance in the treatment
stones, tumors, neurological disorders) of UTI [9]. The urinary excretion and the determina-
- impaired renal function, by parenchymal dis- tion of the activity of a substance in urine is
eases, or pre,-intra,-or post renal nephropathies therefore important to assess if a substance is
(e.g. acute, chronic renal insufficiencies, heart suitable for treatment of UTI. The urinary excretion
insufficiency) of fluoroquinolones for example differs widely
- accompanying diseases, that impair the patients between substances. A high urinary excretion
immune status (e.g. diabetes mellitus, liver insuf-
ficiency, immunosuppression, cancer, AIDS,
hypothermia).
Table 1 – Groups and dosages of current chemotherapeutics for the treatment of UTI in adults
oral i.v./i.m.
b-lactams
Mecillinam Pivmecillinam 2 200*–400* mg –
Aminopenicillin + BLI Ampicillin/Sulbactam 2 750 mg 3 0.75–3 g
Amoxicillin/Clavulanic acid 3 625–1000 mg 3 1.2–2.2 g
Acylureidopenicillin + BLI Piperacillin/Tazobactam – 3 2.5–4.5 g
Cephalosporin Gr. 1 Cephalexin for prophylaxis only –
Cephalosporin Gr. 2 Cefuroxime axetil 2 250*–500 mg –
Cefuroxime – 3 0.75–1.5 g
Cefotiam – 2–3 1–2 g
Cephalosporin Gr. 3 Cefpodoxim proxetile 2 200 mg –
Cefixime 1 400 mg –
Ceftibuten 1 200*–400 mg –
Cephalosporin Gr. 3a Cefotaxime – 2–3 1–2 g
Cetriaxone – 1 1–2 g
Cephalosporin Gr. 3b Ceftazidime – 2–3 1–2 g
Cephalosporin Gr. 4 Cefepime – 22g
Carbapenem Gr. 1 Ertapenem – 11g
Carbapenem Gr. 2 Imipenem – 3–4 0.5–1 g
Meropenem – 3 0.5–1 g
Fluoroquinolones
Fluoroquinolone Gr. 1 Norfloxacin 2 400* mg –
Fluoroquinolone Gr. 2 Ciprofloxacin 2 500–750 mg 2–3 400 mg
Fluoroquinolone Gr. 3 Levofloxacin 1–2 500 mg 1–2 500 mg
Fluoroquinolone Gr. 4 Gatifloxacin 1 400 mg 1 400 mg
Pyrimethamines
Trimethoprim 2 200 mg
Trimethoprim + Sulfamethoxazole 2 160 mg + 2 800 mg
Fosfomycines
Fosfomycine Fosfomycin-trometamol 1 3* g
Nitrofuranes
Nitrofurane Nitrofurantoin 3 100* mg
Aminoglycosides
Aminoglycoside Gentamicin – 1 5–7 mg/BW
Tobramycin – 1 5–7 mg/BW
Amikacin – 1 15 mg/BW
Oxazolidinones
Oxazolidinone Linezolid 2 600 mg 2 600 mg
Glycopeptides
Glycopeptide Vancomycin – 2 1000 mg
Teicoplanin – 1 400 mg
BLI – beta-lactamase inhibitor; Gr. – group according to PEG [31]; BW – body weight (kg); *recommended for uncomplicated UTI.
(75%) can be observed with gatifloxacin (80%), substances at these days. The newer fluoroquinolone
levofloxacin (84%), lomefloxacin (75%) and ofloxacin substances gemifloxacin and moxifloxacin both have
(81%). An intermediate excretion rate (40–74%) is seen passed phase III UTI studies with the comparator
with ciprofloxacin (43%), enoxacin (53%), fleroxacin agents ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin or levofloxacin with
(67%), and a low excretion rate (<40%) is seen with generally unsatisfying results (data on file Bayer
gemifloxacin (28%), moxifloxacin (20%), norfloxacin Healthcare, SmithKline Beecham). As a result of these
(20%), pefloxacin (14%) and sparfloxacin (10%) [9]. studies the indication for the treatment of UTI in both
Whereas most of the drugs with high or intermediate substances was not achieved up to date. Therefore
excretion achieved the clinical indication for the both pharmacokinetic parameters, serum concen-
treatment of UTI, of the drugs with low excretion only tration and urinary excretion are currently used to
the older substance norfloxacin achieved this indica- evaluate if an antibiotic substance might be suitable
tion, possibly because of the lack of comparator for the treatment of UTI.
238 european urology 49 (2006) 235–244
Table 2 – Emerging compounds are discussed regarding substance-name, antibiotic class and characteristics (mode of
action, bacterial spectrum, pharmacokinetics with emphasis on urinary excretion, opinion about success)
Daptomycin (intravenous) Lipopetide-antibiotic Exerts its antibacterial activity by disrupting multiple aspects of the
bacterial membrane function.
Specific activity against Gram-positive pathogens including MRSA
and VRE, not active against Gram-negative bacteria.
Urinary excretion is 78%.
Clinically relevant toxicities are limited to skeletal muscle effects, at
higher dose levels, peripheral nerve effects.
The high urinary excretion promises activity in UTI, however the large
molecule might hinder distribution into urinary tract tissues. The
specific Gram-positive activity restricts the substance to treatment
of a relative small proportion of UTIs [32–37].
Tigecycline (intravenous) Glycylcyline Exerts its antibacterial activity by inhibiting protein synthesis.
Good activity against Gram-positive pathogens including MRSA and
VRE, and against E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Enterobacter spp. and C. freundii,
including ESBL producing organisms. Less active against P. aeruginosa,
Proteus spp., M. morganii and S. marcsecens because of efflux-mechanisms.
Urinary excretion is approximately 14%.
Side effects observed in general were mild.
The substance covers an interesting bacterial spectrum for the treatment
of UTI, although difficult to treat organisms, such a P. aeruginosa or
Proteus spp. are more resistant because of efflux pump activity.
The relatively low urinary excretion might be a potential drawback
in the treatment of UTI [38].
Cefozopran (intravenous) Cephalosporin Strong activity against P. aeruginosa. Because of the specific activity
against P. aeruginosa this compound is of potential interest for
the treatment of complicated UTI [39].
Doripenem (intravenous) Carbapenem Exerts activity against Gram-positive bacteria except MRSA and
enterococci and Gram-negative bacteria including imipenem
resistant P. aeruginosa.
Urinary excretion is 75%.
Doripenem is highly excreted in urine and shows excellent activity
against P. aeruginosa. Therefore it is of potential interest for treatment
of complicated UTI [41].
Not indicated b-lactamase inhibitors Novel b-lactamase inhibitors are under development for the potential
treatment of UTI. Because of the increasing prevalence of
ESBL-producing enterobacteria in UTIs, novel b-lactamase inhibitors
might be promising.
Balofloxacin (oral) Fluoroquinolone Exerts good antibacterial activity against Gram-positive pathogens,
but in comparison to other fluoroquinolones decreased activity against
Gram-negative pathogens.
Urinary excretion is 86%.
Balofloxacin is in the treatment of UTI probably not superior to
other fluoroquinolones [45].
european urology 49 (2006) 235–244 241
Table 2 (Continued )
Antibiotic substance Antibiotic class Characteristics
Garenoxacin Des-F(6)-quinolone Exerts good antibacterial activity against Gram positive pathogens.
(oral and intravenous) Activity against Gram-negative pathogens is comparable to fluoroquinolones,
such as ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin, activity against P. aeruginosa is poor.
It seems that garenoxacin exerts also activity against fluoroquinolone
resistant strains. The ability to induce resistance in vitro is apparently
less than with fluoroquinolones such as levofloxacin.
Urinary excretion is 30 to 40%.
In view of the increasing quinolone resistance, substances of this class
with decreased cross resistance and less susceptibility to resistance
emergence are needed. Des-F(6)-quinolone derivatives like garenoxacin
are promising substances for the treatment of UTI [46].
Not indicated Dihydrofolate Novel dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors are under discovery. The novel
reductase inhibitors compounds are more active against Gram-positive pathogens.
Because of the long lasting activity of trimethoprim, novel dihydrofolate
reductase inhibitors are generally of interest in the treatment of UTI.
Not indicated MurA inhibitors Exert activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms to a
variable degree. They target the bacterial enzyme MurA and thus inhibit
cell wall synthesis.
In view of the increasing antimicrobial resistance novel acting antibiotics
are of interest for all kinds of bacterial infections [47].
Not indicated Bacterial efflux Exert activity in combination with other antimicrobials against bacterial
pump inhibitors species that overexpress efflux pumps, such as P. aeruginosa. Efflux
pump inhibitor agents have provided proof-of-principle of potentiation
of other animicrobials both in vitro and in vivo. The initial practical
application of improving activity against P. aeruginosa confirms that
existing antibiotics can be potentiated by inhibition of efflux pumps, and
suggests that efflux pump inhibitors may be a possible future treatment
option that would address an unmet medical need. In addition efflux
pumps contribute to a large extent to the emergence of resistance
against different antibiotic classes. Efflux pump inhibitors can narrow
the mutant selection window and thus slow down emergence of
antibiotic resistance [48].
Not indicated Siderophore-b-lactam Novel strategy for the potential treatment of Gram-negative bacterial
conjugates infections, including P. aeruginosa. Siderophore substances are covalently
bound to aminopenicillins. Because of the bacterial spectrum covered,
siderophore-b-lactam conjugation is a novel strategy of interest for the
treatment of UTIs [49].
bacteriuria must not be treated in general (there are concentrations that require bacterial cells to obtain
some exceptions), (ii) short-term therapy of uncom- two concurrent resistance mutations for growth.
plicated UTI by suitable antimicrobial agents, and iii) That concentration has been called mutant preven-
low dose prophylaxis in uncomplicated recurrent tion concentration (MPC) because no resistant bac-
UTI, respectively development of effective vaccines. terial colony is recovered even when high numbers of
bacterial cells are plated. Resistant mutants are
4.2. Antibiotic cycling selected exclusively within a vulnerable concentra-
tion range (mutant selection window) that extends
For antibiotic cycling there are practically no reliable from the point where growth inhibition begins,
studies available concerning treatment of UTI. There approximately by the minimal inhibitory concentra-
is, however, a more or less general agreement that the tion, up to the mutant prevention concentration [28].
overuse of one group of antibiotics selecting for If the antibiotic dose given is high enough also to kill
similar resistance genes should be avoided especially the mutant population, the selection of clinically
in a hospital of institutional setting. Therefore good resistant mutants could be restricted [29]. A further
guidelines recommend in general alternative sub- idea in this respect is to narrow the mutant selection
stances as well, to allow antibiotic cycling. window by developing appropriate substances,
for example those which lower the MPC, or those
4.3. Antibiotic dosing that lower these concentrations of other drugs (e.g.
efflux pump inhibitors). Therefore drugs with the
The key idea of the third strategy, however yet most favourable pharmacokinetic/pharmacody-
clinically untested, is based on the use of antibiotic namic characteristics should be used as first-line
242 european urology 49 (2006) 235–244
agents in order to preserve the potential of a specific - The low dose antibiotic prophylaxis in recurrent
drug class and, most importantly, to provide the UTIs is effective, however the emergence of
patient with an optimally effective regimen. On the antibiotic resistant pathogens might be under-
other hand the dosing of an antibiotic should be estimated, although the idea of antibiotic prophy-
aimed high enough to reach the MPC. laxis is to use low dosages that do not fall within
the mutant selection window and thus theoreti-
4.4. Combination of two classes of antibiotics cally should not cause emergence of resistance.
- Vaccination will be an important issue in the
For some organisms or in some infections it is future. The most experience has been made with
difficult to find antibiotics that can be dosed high vaccines in recurrent uncomplicated cystitis,
enough to prevent emergence of antibiotic resis- because a single species E. coli causes more than
tance. A typical example is antibiotic treatment of M. 90% of episodes. Desirable would be more
tuberculosis where combination therapy with two or attempts for vaccination in complicated UTIs,
more antibiotic substances of different classes is especially with difficult to treat organisms like P.
recommended. In order to become resistant against aeruginosa.
two antibiotic substances, two concurrent muta-
tions are required for bacterial growth, which has a The ongoing process in the treatment of infec-
very low probability to occur [28]. Clinical studies in tious diseases is highly dynamic. The substantial
UTIs however are very scarce. In one study combi- difference to non-infectious diseases is that the
nation therapy with a macrolide and ciprofloxacin management of an infection in a single patient al-
showed higher efficacy in eliminating uropathogens lways has an effect on the environment. Consider-
than the single therapy with ciprofloxacin [30]. The ing this, the management of infectious diseases
success of the macrolide in this study however was must be highly responsible.
more attributed to the specific biofilm inhibiting
effect of the macrolide [30].
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