1.

Properties of Fluids
1.1. FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS
Fluid mechanics and hydraulics represent that branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest and in
motion. In the development of the principles of fluid mechanics, some fluid properties play principal roles, others only minor
roles or no roles at all. In fluid statics, specific weight (or unit weight) is the important property, whereas in fluid flow, density
and viscosity are predominant properties. Where appreciable compressibility occurs, principles of thermodynamics must be
considered. Vapor pressure becomes important when negative pressures (gage) are involved, and surface tension affects
static and flow conditions in small passages.

1.2. DEFINITION OF A FLUID

Fluids are substances that are capable of flowing and conform to the shape of containing vessels. When in equilibrium, fluids
cannot sustain tangential or shear forces. All fluids have some degree of compressibility and offer little resistance to change of
form.

Fluids can be classified as liquids or gases. The chief differences between liquids and gases are (a) liquids are practically
incompressible whereas gases are compressible and usually must be so treated and (b) liquids occupy definite volumes and
have free surfaces whereas a given mass of gas expands until it occupies all portions of any containing vessel.

1.3. BRITISH ENGINEERING (OR FPS) SYSTEM OF UNITS

In this system the fundamental mechanical dimensions are length, force, and time. The corresponding fundamental units are
the foot (ft) of length, pound (lb) of force (or pound weight), and second (sec) of time. All other units can be derived from these.
Thus unit volume is the ft 3 , unit acceleration is the ft/sec2 , unit work is the ft-lb, and unit pressure is the lb/ft2 .

The unit for mass in this system, the slug, is derived from the fundamental units as follows. For a freely falling body in vacuum,
the acceleration is that of gravity (g = 32.2 ft/sec2 at sea level), and the only force acting is its weight. From Newton's second
law,

force in pounds = mass in slugs × acceleration in ft/sec2

Then

weight in pounds = mass in slugs × g (32.2 ft/sec2)

or

weight W in pounds
mass M in slugs =
g (32.2 ft/sec2)

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
(1)

By equation (1), slug = lb-sec2 /ft.

The temperature unit of the British system is the degree Fahrenheit (°F) or, on the absolute scale, the degree Rankine (°R).

1.4. INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI)

In the SI, the fundamental mechanical dimensions are length, mass (unlike the British system), and time. The corresponding
fundamental units are meter (m), kilogram (kg), and second (s). In terms of these, unit volume is the m3 , unit acceleration the
m/s2 , and unit (mass) density the kg/m 3 .

The SI unit of force, the newton (N), is derived via Newton's second law:

force in N = (mass in kg) × (acceleration in m/s2)

(2)

Thus, 1 N = 1 kg · m/s2 . Along with the newton are derived the joule (J) of work, where 1 J = 1 N · m, and the pascal (Pa) of
pressure or stress, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 .

In the SI, temperatures are usually reported in degrees Celsius (°C); the unit of absolute temperature is the kelvin (K).

1.5. SPECIFIC OR UNIT WEIGHT

The specific (or unit) weight γ of a substance is the weight of a unit volume of the substance. For liquids,γ may be taken as
constant for practical changes of pressure. The specific weight of water for ordinary temperature variations is 62.4 lb/ft3 , or
9.79 kN/m3 . See Appendix, Table 1, for additional values.

The specific weight of a gas can be calculated using itsequation of state,

pv
=R
T

(3)

where pressure p is absolute pressure, v is the volume per unit weight, temperature T is the absolute temperature, and R is the
gas constant of that particular species:

R0 universal gas constant

R= =
Mg molar weight

(4)

Since γ = 1/υ, equation (3) can be written

p
γ=
RT

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
(5)

1.6. MASS DENSITY OF A BODY

ρ (rho) = mass per unit volume = γ/g.

In the British Engineering system of units, the mass density of water is 62.4/32.2 = 1.94 slugs/ft3 . In the International system,
the density of water is 1000 kg/m3 at 4°C. See Appendix, Table 1.

1.7. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF A BODY

The specific gravity of a body is the dimensionless ratio of the weight of the body to the weight of an equal volume of a
substance taken as a standard. Solids and liquids are referred to water (at 68°F = 20°C) as standard, while gases are often
referred to air free of carbon dioxide or hydrogen (at 32°F = 0°C and 1 atmosphere = 14.7 lb/in2 = 101.3 kPa pressure) as
standard. For example,

weight of substance
specific gravity of a substance =
weight of equal volume of water
specific weight of substance
=
specific weight of water
density of substance
=
density of water

(6)

Thus if the specific gravity of a given oil is 0.750, its specific weight is (0.750)(62.4 lb/ft3 ) = 46.8 lb/ft3 , or (0.750)(9.79 kN/m 3 )
= 7.34 kN/m3 . Specific gravities are tabulated in theAppendix, Table 2.

1.8. VISCOSITY OF A FLUID

The viscosity of a fluid is that property which determines the amount of its resistance to a shearing force. Viscosity is due
primarily to interaction between fluid molecules.

Referring to Fig. 1-1, consider two large, parallel plates a small distancey apart, the space between the plates being filled with a
fluid. To keep the upper plate moving at constant velocity U, it is found that a constant force F must be applied. Thus there
must exist a viscous interaction between plate and fluid, manifested as a drag on the former and a shear force on the latter. The
fluid in contact with the upper plate will adhere to it and will move at velocity U, and the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will
have velocity zero. If distance y and velocity U are not too great, the velocity profile will be a straight line. Experiments have
shown that shear force F varies with the area of the plate A, with velocity U, and inversely with distance y. Since by similar
triangles, U/y = dV/dy, we have

F ∝( ) (
AU dV F dV
=A or = τ) ∝
y dy A dy

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 Figure 1-1

where τ = F/A = shear stress. If a proportionality constant μ (mu), called the absolute (dynamic) viscosity, is introduced,

dV τ shear stress
τ =μ or μ= =
dy dV /dy rate of shear strain

(7)

It follows that the units of μ are Pa · s or

lb-sec
. Fluids for which the proportionality of equation (7) holds are called Newtonian fluids (see Problem 1.10).
ft2
Another viscosity coefficient, the coefficient of kinematic viscosity, is defined as

absolute viscosity μ
kinematic viscosity v (nu) =
mass density ρ

μ μ μg
v= = =
ρ γ/g γ

(8)

or

The unit of v are

m2 ft2
or .
s sec
Viscosities are reported in older handbooks in poises or stokeses (cgs units) and on occasion in Saybolt seconds, from
viscosimeter measurements. Conversions to the fps system are illustrated in Problems 1.7 through 1.9. A few values of
viscosities are given in Tables 1 and 2 of the Appendix.

Viscosities of liquids decrease with temperature increases but are not affected appreciably by pressure changes. The absolute
viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature but is not appreciably changed by changes in pressure. Since the
specific weight of gases changes with pressure changes (temperature constant), the kinematic viscosity varies inversely as the
pressure.

1.9. VAPOR PRESSURE

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
When evaporation takes place within an enclosed space, the partial pressure created by the vapor molecules is called vapor
pressure. Vapor pressures depend upon temperature and increase with it. See Table 1 in the Appendix for values for water.

1.10. SURFACE TENSION

A molecule in the interior of a liquid is under attractive forces in all directions, and the vector sum of these forces is zero. But a
molecule at the surface of a liquid is acted on by a net inward cohesive force that is perpendicular to the surface. Hence it
requires work to move molecules to the surface against this opposing force, and surface molecules have more energy than
interior ones.

The surface tension σ (sigma) of a liquid is the work that must be done to bring enough molecules from inside the liquid to the
surface to form one new unit area of that surface (J/m 2 or ft-lb/ft2 ). Equivalently, the energized surface molecules act as
though they compose a stretched sheet, and

σ = ΔF/ΔL

(9)

where ΔF is the elastic force transverse to any length element ΔL in the surface. Definition (9) gives the units N/m or lb/ft. The
value of surface tension of water with air is 0.0756 N/m at 0°C, or 0.00518 lb/ft at 32°F. Table 1C gives values of surface
tension for other temperatures.

1.11. CAPILLARITY
Rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube (or in porous media) is caused by surface tension and depends on the relative
magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes
they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillarity is important when using
tubes smaller than about
3
8
inch (10 mm) in diameter. For tube diameters larger than
1
2
in (12 mm), capillary effects are negligible.

Figure 1-2 illustrates capillary rise (or depression) in a tube, which is given approximately by

2σ cos θ
h=
γr

(10)

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 Figure 1-2

where

h = height of capillary rise (or depression)

σ = surface tension

θ = wetting angle (see Fig. 1-2)

γ = specific weight of liquid

r = radius of tube

If the tube is clean, θ is 0° for water and about 140° for mercury.

1.12. BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E)

The bulk modulus of elasticity (E) expresses the compressibility of a fluid. It is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the
corresponding volume change per unit of volume.

dp
E=
−dv/v

(11)

Because a pressure increase, dp, results in a decrease in fractional volume, dv/v, the minus is inserted to render E positive.
Clearly, the units of E are those of pressure—Pa or lb/in2 .

1.13. ISOTHERMAL CONDITIONS

For a fixed temperature, the ideal gas law, equation (3) or (5), becomes

γ1 p
p1v1 = p2v2 and = 1 = constant
γ2 p2

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
(12)

Also,

bulk modulus E = p

(13)

1.14. ADIABATIC OR ISENTROPIC CONDITIONS

If no heat is exchanged between the gas and its container, equations (12) and (13) are replaced by

γ1 k p1
p1vk1 = p2vk2 or ( ) = = constant
γ2 p2

(14)

Also,

p (k− 1)/k
= ( 2)
T2
T1 p1

(15)

and

bulk modulus E = kp

(16)

Here k is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume.

1.15. PRESSURE DISTURBANCES

Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves, at speed

c = √E/ρ

(17)

For gases, the acoustic velocity is

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 c = √kp/ρ = √kgRT

(18)

1.15.1. Solved Problems

1.1.  Calculate the specific weight γ, specific volumevs and density ρ of methane at 100°F and 120 psi absolute.

Solution:

From Table 1A in the Appendix, R = 96.3 ft/°R.

p 120 × 144
specific weight γ = = = 0.320 lb/ft3
RT (96.3) (460 + 100)
γ 0.320
density ρ = = = 0.00994 slug/ft3
g 32.2
1 1
specific volume vs = = = 101 ft3/slug
ρ 0.00994

1.2.  If 6 m3 of oil weighs 47 kN, calculate its specific weightγ, density ρ, and specific gravity.

Solution:

47 kN
specific weight γ = = 7.833 kN/m3
6 m3
γ 7833 N/m3
density ρ = = = 798 kg/m3
g 9.81 m/s2

γoil 7.833 kN/m3

specific gravity = = = 0.800
γwater 9.79 kN/m3

1.3.  At 90°F and 30.0 psi absolute the volume per unit weight of a certain gas was 11.4 ft3 /lb. Determine its gas

constant R and the density ρ.

Solution:

Since
p
γ= ,
RT

p pv (30.0 × 144) (11.4)

R = = = = 89.5 ft/°R
γT T 460 + 90
γ 1/v 1 1
density ρ = = = = = 0.00272 slug/ft3
g g vg 11.4 × 32.2

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 1.4.

a. Find the change in volume of 1.00 ft3 of water at 80°F when subjected to a pressure increase of 300 psi.

b. From the following test data determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of water: at 500 psi the volume was 1.000 ft3, and
at 3500 psi the volume was 0.990 ft3 .

Solution:

a. From Table 1C in the Appendix, E at 80°F is 325,000 psi. Using formula (11),

v dp 1.00 × 300
dv = − =− = −0.00092 ft3
E 325,000

b.

dp 3500 − 500
E=− =− = 3 × 105 psi
dv/v (0.990 − 1.000) /1.000

1.5. At a great depth in the ocean, the pressure is 80 MPa. Assume that specific weight at the surface is 10 kN/m3 and the
average bulk modulus of elasticity is 2.340 GPa. Find: (a) the change in specific volume between the surface and that great
depth, (b) the specific volume at that depth, and (c) the specific weight at that depth.

Solution:

a.

1 g 9.81
(vs)1 = = = 3
= 9.81 × 10− 4 m−3/kg
ρ1 γ1 10 × 10
dp
E =
−dvs/vs
(80 × 106) − 0
2.340 × 109 =
dvs/ (9.81 × 10− 4)
dvs = −0.335 × 10− 4 m3/kg

b.

(vs)2 = (vs)1 + dvs = (9.81 − 0.335) × 10− 4 = 9.475 × 10− 4 m3/kg

c.

γ2 = g/(vs)2 = 9.81/ (9.475 × 10− 4) = 10.35 kN/m3

1.6.  A cylinder contains 12.5 ft3 of air at 120°F and 40 psi absolute. The air is compressed to 2.50 ft3 , (a) Assuming

isothermal conditions, what is the pressure at the new volume, and what is the bulk modulus of elasticity? (b) Assuming

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 adiabatic conditions, what is the final pressure and temperature, and what is the bulk modulus of elasticity?

Solution:

a. For isothermal conditions, p1v1 = p2v2

Then

(40 × 144) (12.5) = (p2 × 144) (2.50) and p2 = 200 psi absolute

The bulk modulus E = p = 200 psi.

b. For adiabatic conditions,

p1vk1 = p2vk2 , and Table 1A in the Appendix gives k = 1.40.

Then

(40 × 144) (12.5)1.40 = (p2 × 144) (2.50)1.40 and p2 = 381 psi absolute

The final temperature is obtained by using equation (15):

p2 (k− 1)/k 381 0.40/1.40

=( ) =( )
T2 T2
, , T2 = 1104°R = 644°F
T1 p1 460 + 120 40

The bulk modulus E = kp = 1.40 x 381 = 533 psi.

1.7. From the International Critical Tables, the viscosity of water at 20°C (68°F) is 1.008 cp (cen-tipoises). (a) Compute the
absolute viscosity in lb-sec/ft2, (b) If the specific gravity at 20°C is 0.998, compute the kinematic viscosity in ft2 /sec.

Solution:

Using 1 poise = 1 dyne-sec/cm2 , 1 lb = 444,800 dynes, and 1 ft = 30.48 cm, we obtain

lb-sec 444,800 dyne-sec

1 = = 478.8 poises
ft2 (30.48 cm)2

1.008 × 10− 2 poise lb-sec

a. μ= = 2.11 × 10−5
(478.8 poise) / (lb-sec/ft2) ft2

b.

μ μ
v= =
ρ (sp gr) ρwater
2.11 × 10−5 lb-sec/ft2 ft-lb-sec
= = 1.090 × 10−5 = 1.090 × 10−5 ft2/ sec
(0.998) (1.94 slugs/ft3) slug

1.8. Convert 15.14 poises to ft2/sec if the liquid has specific gravity 0.964.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 Solution:

From Problem 1.7, the overall conversion factor is

1
= 0.001077 (ft2/ sec) /poise
(478.8) (1.94)

Thus, ν = (15.14/0.964)(0.001077) = 0.0169 ft2 /sec.

1.9. Convert a kinematic viscosity of 510 Saybolt seconds at 60°F to ft2 /sec.

Solution:

Absolute and kinematic viscosities are converted according to

For t ≤ 100, μ in poises = (0.00226t − 1.95/t) × sp gr

a.
For t > 100, μ in poises = (0.00220t − 1.32/t) × sp gr
For t ≤ 100, v in stokeses = (0.00226t − 1.95/t)
b.
For t > 100, v in stokeses = (0.00220t − 1.35/t)

where t = Saybolt seconds. To convert stokeses (cm2 /sec) to ft2 /sec units, divide by (30.48)2 or 929.

Using group (b), and since

1.35 1
t > 100, v = (0.00220 × 510 − )( ) = 0.001205 ft2/ sec.
510 929
1.10. Discuss the shear characteristics of the fluids for which the curves have been drawn inFig. 1-3.

Figure 1-3

Solution:

a. The Newtonian fluids behave according to the law τ = μ(dV/dy), or the shear stress is proportional to the velocity
gradient or rate of shearing strain. Thus for these fluids the plot of shear stress against velocity gradient is a straight line
passing through the origin. The slope of the line determines the viscosity.

b. For the "ideal" fluid, the resistance to shearing deformation is zero, and hence the plot coincides with thex axis. Although
no ideal fluids exist, in certain analyses the assumption of an ideal fluid is useful and justified.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 c. For the "ideal" or elastic solid, no deformation will occur under any loading condition, and the plot coincides with they
axis. Real solids have some deformation, and within the proportional limit (Hooke's law) the plot is a straight line that is
almost vertical.

d. Non-Newtonian fluids deform in such a way that shear stress is not proportional to rate of shearing deformation, except
perhaps at very low shear stresses. The deformation of these fluids might be classified as plastic.

e. The "ideal" plastic material could sustain a certain amount of shear stress without deformation, and thereafter it would
deform in proportion to the shear stress.

1.11. Refer to Fig. 1-4. A fluid has absolute viscosity 0.0010 lb-sec/ft2 and specific gravity 0.913. Calculate the velocity
gradient and the intensity of shear stress at the boundary and at points 1 in, 2 in, and 3 in from the boundary, assuming (a) a
straight-line velocity distribution and (b) a parabolic velocity distribution. The parabola in the sketch has its vertex at A.
Origin is at B.

Figure 1-4

Solution:

a. For the straight-line assumption, the relation between velocity and distance y is V = 15y. Then dV = 15dy or the velocity
gradient is dV/dy = 15.

For y = 0, V = 0, dV/dy = 15 sec-1 and

τ = μ (dV /dy) = 0.0010 × 15 = 0.015 lb/ft2

Similarly, for other values of y we also obtain τ = 0.015 lb/ft2 .

b. The equation of the parabola must satisfy the condition that the velocity is zero at the boundaryB. The equation of the
parabola is V = 45 - 5(3 - y) 2 . Then dV/dy = 10(3 - y), and tabulation of results yields the following:

y V dV/dy τ = 0.0010(dV/dy)

0 0 30 0.030 lb/ft 2

1 25 20 0.020 lb/ft 2

2 40 10 0.010 lb/ft 2

3 45 0 0

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 It will be observed that where the velocity gradient is zero (which occurs at the centerline of a pipe flowing under
pressure, as will be seen later) the shear stress is also zero.

Note that the units of velocity gradient are sec-1 , and therefore the product μ(dV/dy) = (lb-sec/ft2 ) (sec -1 ) = lb/ft 2 , the
correct dimensions of shear stress τ.

1.12.  A cylinder of 0.122-m radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of 0.128-m radius. Both cylinders are

0.305 m long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid that fills the space between the cylinders if a torque of 0.881 N . m is
required to maintain an angular velocity of 60 revolutions per minute.

Solution:

a. The torque is transmitted through the fluid layers to the outer cylinder. Since the gap between the cylinders is small, the
calculation can be made without integration.

tangential velocity of the inner cylinder = rω = (0.122 m) (2π rad/s) = 0.767 m/s

For the small space between cylinders, the velocity gradient can be assumed to be a straight line, and the mean radius
can be used. Then dV/dy = (0.767 m)/(0.128 — 0.122) = 127.8 s-1 .

torque applied = torque resisting

0.881 = τ (area) (arm) = τ (2π × 0.125 × 0.305) (0.125) and τ = 29.4 Pa
τ 29.4
Then μ = = = 0.230 Pa ⋅ s.
dV /dy 127.8

b. The more exact mathematical approach uses calculus, as follows.

As before, 0.881 = τ(2πr × 0.305)r, from which τ = 0.4597/r2 .

Now
dV τ 0.4597
= = , where the variables are velocity V and radius r. The velocity is 0.767 m/s at the inner radius and
dy μ μr2
zero at the outer radius.

Rearranging the above expression and substituting −dr for dy (the minus sign indicates that r decreases as V increases),
we obtain

0.4597 0.122 −dr

Vinner
0.4597 1 0.122
∫ ∫
dV = and Vinner − Vouter = [ ]
Vouter μ 0.128 r2 μ r 0.128
0.4597 1 1
Then (0.767 − 0) = ( )( − ) , from which μ = 0.230 Pa ⋅ s.
μ 0.122 0.128

1.13.  Develop the expression for the relation between the gage pressurep inside a droplet of liquid and the surface

tension σ.

Solution:

The surface tension in the surface of a small drop of liquid causes the pressure inside the drop to be greater than the

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 pressure outside.

Figure 1-5 shows the forces that cause equilibrium in the X direction of half of a small drop of diameterd. The forces σ dL
are due to surface tension around the perimeter, and the forces dPx are the X components of the pdA forces (see Chapter
2). Then, from ΣX = 0,

sum of forces to the right = sum of forces to the left

σ ∫ dL = ∫ dPx
surface tension × perimeter = pressure × projected area
σ (πd) = p (πd2/4)

or p = 4σ/d.

Figure 1-5

It should be observed that the smaller the droplet, the greater the pressure.

1.14.  A small drop of water at 80°F is in contact with the air and has diameter 0.0200 in. If the pressure within the

droplet is 0.082 psi greater than the atmosphere, what is the value of the surface tension?

Solution:

By Problem 1.13,
σ = 14 pd = 14 [(0.082 × 144) lb/ft2] × [(0.0200/12) ft] = 0.00492 lb/ft.

1.15. A needle 35 mm long rests on a water surface at 20°C. What force over and above the needle's weight is required to
lift the needle from contact with the water surface?

Solution:

From Table 1C,

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 σ = 0.0728 N/m
σ = F/L
0.0728 = F/ (2 × 0.035)
F = 0.00510 N

1.16. Derive equation (10) for calculating the height to which a liquid will rise in a capillary tube exposed to the
atmosphere.

Solution:

The rise in the tube can be approximated by considering the mass of liquidABCD in Fig. 1-2(a) as a free body. Since ΣY
must equal 0, we obtain

components of force due to surface tension (up) − weight of volume A B C D (down)

+ pressure force on A B (up) − pressure force on C D (down) = 0

or

+ (σ ∫ d L) cos θ − γ (πr2 × h) + p (area A B) − p (area C D) = 0

It can be seen that the pressure at levels AB and CD are both atmospheric. Thus the last two terms on the left-hand side of
the equation cancel, and, since σ ∫dL = σ(2πr), we obtain

2σ cos θ
h=
γr

1.17.  Calculate the approximate depression of mercury at 20°C in a capillary tube of radius 1.5 mm. Surface tension

(σ) for mercury is 0.514 N/m at 20°, and its specific weight is 133.1 kN/m 3 .

Solution:

2σ cos θ (2) (0.514) (cos 140°)

h= = = −0.00394 m, or − 3.94 mm
γr (133.1 × 103) (1.5 × 10−3)

1.18.  Estimate the height to which water at 70°F will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 0.120 in.

Solution:

From Table 1C. σ = 0.00497 lb/ft.

2σ cos θ (2) (0.00497) (cos 0°)

h= = = 0.0319 ft = 0.382 in
γr (62.4) (0.060/12)

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
1.15.2. Supplementary Problems
1.19. If the density of a liquid is 835 kg/m3 , find its specific weight and specific gravity. Ans. 8.20 kN/m3 , 0.837

1.20. Check the values of the density and specific weight of air at 80°F shown inTable 1B.

1.21. Check the values of the specific weights of carbon dioxide and nitrogen in Table 1A.

1.22. At what pressure will air at 49°C weigh 18.7 N/m3 ? Ans. 176 kPa

1.23. Two cubic feet of air at atmospheric pressure is compressed to 0.50 ft3 . For isothermal conditions, what is the final
pressure? Ans. 58.8 psia

1.24. In the preceding problem, what would be the final pressure if no heat were lost during compression?Ans. 102 psia

1.25. Determine the absolute viscosity of mercury in N · s/m2 if the viscosity in poises is 0.0158. Ans. 1.58 × 10-3 N · s/m2

1.26. If an oil has an absolute viscosity of 510 poises, what is its viscosity in the fps system?Ans. 1.07 lb-sec/ft2

1.27. What are the absolute and kinematic viscosities in fps units of an oil having a Saybolt viscosity of 155 seconds, if the
specific gravity of the oil is 0.932? Ans. 646 × 10-6 , 358 × 10 -6

1.28. Two large plane surfaces are 1 in apart, and the space between them is filled with a liquid of absolute viscosity
0.0200 lb-sec/ft 2 . Assuming the velocity gradient to be a straight line, what force is required to pull a very thin plate of 4.00
ft2 area at a constant speed of 1.00 ft/sec if the plate is 1/3 in from one of the surfaces?Ans. 4.32 lb

Schaum's Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Problem 1-28: Shear Stress, Force,
and Viscosity

This video illustrates the conceptual interpretation of viscosity via the

calculation of shear stress and force.

Thom Adams, Ph.D., Professor, Mechanical Engineering, Rose-Hulman Institute of

Technology
2013

1.29. What force is necessary to lift a thin wire ring 45 mm in diameter from a water surface at 20°C? Neglect the weight
of the wire. Ans. 0.0206 N

Schaum's Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Problem 1-29: Surface Tension

This video demonstrates how to calculate the lift force needed to overcome
surface tension acting on a thin ring.

Thom Adams, Ph.D., Professor, Mechanical Engineering, Rose-Hulman Institute of

Technology
2013

1.30. What is the smallest diameter glass tube that will keep the capillary height-change of water at 20°C less than 0.9
mm? Ans. 33.1 mm

1.31. Find the change in volume of 10.00000 ft3 of water at 80°F when subjected to a pressure increase of 500 psi.
Water's bulk modulus of elasticity at this temperature is approximately 325,000 psi. Ans. -0.0154 ft3

1.32. Approximately what pressure must be applied to water to reduce its volume by 1.25% if the bulk modulus of
elasticity is 2.19 GPa? Ans. 0.0274 GPa

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.