Name: Britney John-Gopaul

Class: 6:2Science
Student number:
School: Pleasantville Secondary School
Subject: Environmental Science
Teacher: Mr.Snagg
Title: A study of sustainable agricultural practices and its effect on soil fertility
at four farms in the Couva North district.
 Name: Britney John-Gopaul
Class: 6:2Science
Student number:
School: Pleasantville Secondary School
Subject: Environmental Science
Teacher: Mr.Snagg
Title: A study of sustainable agricultural practices and its effect on soil fertility
at four farms in the Couva North district.
 Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Site Visits
Laboratories Entries
Title
Problem
Scope
Purpose
Objectives
Methodology
Literature Review
Presentation and Data Analysis
Discussion of Findings
Conclusion
Recommendations
Bibliography
Appendix
 Acknowledgements
Completing this IA gave me a sense of relief as it was a long and tedious process. Firstly, I would
like to thank God for giving me knowledge, serenity and patience to go through this. Secondly, I’d
like to pay gratitude to my Environmental Science teacher, Mr. Snagg for helping me with vital
information and going through this IA step by step.
 Introduction
Crops need nutrients just like humans need to in order for their survival. Fertile soil will contain all
the major nutrients for basic plant growth for e.g., nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium inclusive of
other nutrients needed in very small amounts (zinc, calcium, magnesium, iron, sulphur, copper,
boron)
Fertile soil would also have some organic matter which helps improve the soil structure and soil
moisture retention, and a pH between 6 and 7. Most soils do not have adequate levels of the
required plant nutrients, or conditions in the soil which turn out unfavourable for plant uptake of
certain nutrients.
The desirable pH range for the optimum plant growth varies according to the crops. While some
may grow best in 6.0 to 7.0 range, others grow well under slightly acidic conditions. Soil properties
that influence the need for and response to lime vary by region. Soils formed under low rainfall
conditions tend to be basic with soil pH readings around 7.0. Intensive farming over a number of
years with nitrogen fertilizers or manures can result in soil acidification.
 Site Visits
Site 1

Map of Site

Site location: Site 1 is located in Couva just off Waterloo Road.

Objectives:
1) To study farming production methods

2) To study productivity of farm

3) Assess sustainable agricultural practices used on farms

4) To determine soil type and soil fertility of farmers holding

Activities:
1) Conducted an interview with farmer. Questions were related to production level and
productivity of his farm

2) For observational purposes, a tour was taken throughout the farm

3) Two samples of soil were taken from the fields and placed into zip lock bags

4) Photos were taken.

Observation:
 There was no occurrence of soil erosion and the surface of the soil was cracked.

 Mixed cropping was the type of method used. The soil’s preparation was a mixture of flat
and cambered beds. The cambered beds were to support runoff. Additionally, crops were also grown
in green houses and tunnels.

 On the farm, there were several types of crops grown such as, mango, pommcythere,
pawpaw, sweet potato, vegetables, ochro, sweet peppers and tomatoes.

 Found on the site were heavy equipment : farm tractor with implements (disc plough, ridger,
disc harrow, spray boom, brush cutter, rotavator and seed planter.)

 The farm size was 75 acres, land under cultivation was 50 acres. Different percentages of the
land were allocated to various crops.

 The topography of land at PCS Nitrogen Model Farm was flat.

 The pesticides used to control insects were inorganic. The inorganic pesticides are simpler
compounds which are environmentally stable and dissolve readily in water.

 Fertilizers which were used were of an NPK blend. NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Potassium) are macro nutrients.

 For proper pest control, plants were carefully monitored for any detection of pests and
diseases. If such was detected, the plant would be carefully disposed off in order to prevent
infection onto the others.

 For weed control, there was a combination of mechanical and chemical control along with
mulching of the soil.

 Drip irrigation was mainly used to distribute the fertilizer solution

Comments:
This was a model farm which was modeled after a commercial enterprise. It carries out Intensive
farming due to a high level of capital input for building, green houses, equipment, fertilizers and
irrigation. The produce from farm is then sold to supermarkets and to food processors that purchase
goods in bulk. The farm was also used for the training of small farmers.
Site 2

Map of Site

Site location: Exchange estate plot 62

Objectives:
1) To study farming production methods

2) To study productivity of farm

3) Assess sustainable agricultural practices used on farms

4) To determine soil type and soil fertility of farmers holding

Activities:
1) Conducted an interview with farmer. Questions were related to production level and
productivity of his farm

2) For observational purposes, a tour was taken throughout the farm

3) Two samples of soil were taken from the fields and placed into zip lock bags

4) Photos were taken.

Observation:
 Size of land was only 2 acres with only ½ being used under cultivation

 There was no sight of soil erosion

 It was a crop farm where experimental work was being carried out

 Along the boundary line, there were coconuts planted. There were also paw paw planted
which was used for personal consumption

 There were no equipment found at this site which meant there was a reduced use of
mechanical tillage

 Topography of this land was flat

 Various types of NPK blends were used on the cassava. Limestone was incorporated in the
soil to enhance soil pH by neutralizing acidity

 There was no irrigation of crops as the crops were rain fed

Comments:
Subsistence farming is practiced here. Only a small area was planted as an experiment and a few
other crops were used for personal consumption. In this holding there was little capital input and
its productivity was low.
Site 3

Map of Site

Site location: Exchange estate plot 818

Objectives:
1) To study farming production methods

2) To study productivity of farm

3) Assess sustainable agricultural practices used on farms

4) To determine soil type and soil fertility of farmers holding

Activities:
1) Conducted an interview with farmer. Questions were related to production level and
productivity of his farm

2) For observational purposes, a tour was taken throughout the farm

3) Two samples of soil were taken from the fields and placed into zip lock bags

4) Photos were taken.

Observation:
 Size of the plot was 3 ½ acres with only ½ being used for cultivation of peppers

 This was a mixed farm with crop rotation being practiced

 Limestone was incorporated into soil in order raise the pH. To improve soil fertility a NPK
fertilizer was used in addition to small amounts of pen manure.

 The plot of land is of a topography which is quite consistent in the Couva district. The area
is ploughed with a tractor. Pepper was planted on raised beds with drains in between for proper
water runoff. Crops were irrigated using a fountain irrigation system. The water is obtained from a
nearby stream.

 Pest and disease was controlled with chemical methods and crop rotation. Weeds were
controlled by chemical and mechanical means. Labor input was small as there were only one farmer
and two casual workers

Comments:
The farm was small and its productivity level was low. Produce is sold in local markets by
vegetable retailers.
Site 4

Map of Site

Site location: Couva exchange estate plot 101 and 102

Objectives:
1) To study farming production method

2) To study productivity of farm

3) Assess sustainable agricultural practices used on farms

4) To determine soil type and soil fertility of farmers holding

Activities:
1) Conducted an interview with farmer. Questions were related to production level and
productivity of his farm

2) For observational purposes, a tour was taken throughout the farm

3) Two samples of soil were taken from the fields and placed into zip lock bags

4) Photos were taken.

 Observation:

 The size of holding was 4 acres with a combination of 2 plots.

 There was no sight of soil erosion

 The land topography was low however, raised beds were used for crops

 Mixed cropping was practiced on this land. Crops planted were various short crops such as
tomato, bodi, celery, melongene. There was also growth of dasheen in the drains

 Soil amendment used were NPK blend fertilizers as well as hydrated limestone to reduce
soil acidity

 The crops were irrigated using Fountain Irrigation System. Their water source was a small
stream and a nearby pond

 In order to control pest disease, the farmers used chemicals. A selective weedicide called
Fusillade was used for weed control along with mechanical methods.
 Laboratory Entries
Lab #1

Title: Soil fertility in four farms in Couva North district

Aim: To Determine pH of soil from four farms in Couva North District.

Apparatus & Material

(1) Westminster soil testing kit
(2) Four composite soil samples

Procedure:
(1) Full a test tube with dried soil upto 1ml mark.
(2) Add a spoon of barium sulphate in the same test tube.
(3) Add pH test solution to 2.5ml mark.
(4) Cap test tube, shake and put it to stand for ten minutes.
(5) Observe solution and compare to colour chart

Observation:
(1) pH5 solution changed from opaque to light brown
(2) pH6 solution changed from opaque to green

Results:

Site Soil pH

1 5

2 6

3 6

4 6
A line graph illustrating pH of soil samples at four sites in Couva

SOIL pH
6.2

6 6 6 6

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2
pH

5 5

4.8

4.6

4.4
1 2 3 4
SITES

Discussion:
The optimal pH of soil is 6.5-7.2 for crop development. Acidic soil is <pH6. Acidity in soil allows
nutrient solubility to increase and cause leaching of nutrients. The use of nitrogenous and sulphate
fertilizers may also cause an increase in the soil pH. There is a reduction in microbial activities as
there is less activity of the nitrogen fixing bacteria. The level of soil acidity is due to a high water
table. In order for a reduction in soil acidity, liming is required. Loam soil requires liming for an
increase in pH5-6. 6.5 tons/ha is required for pH 5-6 and 2tons/ha for pH 6-6.5. it can be noticed
there is a great use of organic manure. This organic use acts as a buffer for pH changes in the soil.
The soil type in the area is basically acidic to cultivation of sugar cane due to cultivation over many
years.
Lab# 2

Title: Soil fertility in four farms in Couva North district

Aim: To obtain Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium content of soil

on four farms in Couva North district

Apparatus:
(1) Westminster soil testing kit
(2) Four composite soil samples

Nitrate Test;
(1) Prepare filter device, remove its plunger and place a filter in it.
(2) Fill barrel of filter device with the dried soil sample up to 1ml mark.
(3) Add 2.5ml of N1 solution.
(4) Gently shake the filter device for 30 seconds
(5) Press the plunger slowly and filter solution thoroughly
(6) Pour the filtered solution 1ml into a test tube.
(7) Add a spoon of N2 into the solution and shake for 5seconds
(8) Allow the solution to stand for 5 minutes and compare its result to the colour chart

Phosphorous test;
(1) Prepare the filter device, remove its plunger and place a filter in it.
(2) Fill the filter device barrel with some dried soil sample .5ml.
(3) Add P1 test solution up to 2ml mark.
(4) Insert plunger and shake the device for 30 seconds.
(5) Press the plunger slowly and filter the solution.
(6) Add filtered solution up to 1ml mark of test tube.
(7) Add 1/2 P2 powder
(8) Cap the test tube and shake for 5 seconds.
(9) Compare the solution to color chart.
Potassium:
(1) Prepare the filter device by removing its plunger and placing filter in it.
(2) Fill barrel of filter device with dry soil sample up to .5ml mark.
(3) Add 2ml of K1 test solution.
(4) Insert plunger back into the device and shake it for 30 seconds.
(5) Press plunger slowly and filter the solution.
(6) Add 1ml of filtered solution.
(7) Add 1.5ml of k2 solution and let it stand for 5 minutes.
(8) Compare the shaken solution to colour chart

Observations:
(1) The solution of the nitrogen test changed from opaque to dark grey
(2) The phosphorous test had a change from opaque to dark brown
(3) In the potassium test, there were no colour seen.

Results:

Site Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium

1 Medium Medium Trace

2 Medium Medium Trace

3 Medium Medium Trace

4 Medium Medium Trace

 Nutrient Content of Soil
25

20

15

10
mg/l

0
1 2 3 4
Sites

Nitrogen phosphorous potassium

Discussion:
The three nutrients found are very essential in their own ways for the plants. Nitrogen is a major
component of chlorophyll, the compound by which plant uses sunlight energy to produce sugars
from water and carbon dioxide (i.e., photosynthesis) Phosphorous is essential for root development
and energy transfer in the plant’s biochemistry. Phosphorus plays a role in photosynthesis,
respiration, energy storage and transfer, cell division, cell enlargement and several other processes
in plants. In Photosynthesis, potassium regulates the opening and closing of stomata, and therefore
regulates CO2 uptake. Potassium triggers activation of enzymes and is essential for production of
Adenosine Tryphosphate (ATP).
Soil test is important for various reasons: to optimize crop production, to protect the environment
from leaching of excess fertilizers, to assist in the diagnosis of plant culture problems, to improve
the nutritional balance of the growing media and to save money and conserve energy by applying
only the amount of fertilizer needed.
The overall content of nutrient at the four sites were not optimal. The value of of nitrogen and
phosphorous was 20mg/l respectively whilst the potassium had a trace of 5mg/l. These content are
not sufficient therefore it requires for the farmer to add fertilizers in order to increase its nutrients
content.
Conclusion:
All four sites had similar nutrient content with medium-low amounts of the required nutrients. The
soil types were in close proximity and similar hence the reason why environmental conditions
would cause similar nutrient content within the soil types.
Lab# 3

Title: Soil fertility in four farms in Couva North district

Aim: To obtain soil texture and composition of four farms in Couva North district

Apparatus:
(1) Measuring cylinder
(2) Soil sample
(3) Water
(4) Watch

Ribbon test
(1) Take a soil sample and moisten it with water and rub between fingers.
(2) Roll sample into a ball.
(3) Flatten sample
(4) Roll sample into a ribbon
(5) Take ribbon and bend into a letter U
(6) Take the U and bend into a donut.

Soil composition:
(1) Take dry soil sample and pound into dust.
(2) Use sieve to remove any particles larger than 2mm
(3) Add sample to a measuring cylinder.
(4) Fill measuring cylinder ¾ with water.
(5) Allow to settle for 10 minutes and then take a level reading of the soil that settled to
represent sand
(6) Allow to settle for a further 2hrs and take another level reading of soil settled to represent
silt.
(7) Allow to settle for 24hrs and take a final level reading to represent clay.
Observations:
Moisture Content
(1) Soil samples were dark brown in colour
(2) Samples were moist and sticky
(3) Samples were in clumps of aggregation
(4) Samples were light brown in colour after drying
(5) Samples were hard and had dry lumps after baking
Textural Analysis
(1) Samples were dark brown in colour
(2) Dried samples were light brown in colour
(3) Soil samples had a powdery look and feel after refining using a soil seive
(4) Suspended soil samples were light brown in colour
(5) Layer 1 was grainy looking
(6) Silt layer had a smooth look with very light brown colour
(7) Clay layer was smooth looking with light grey colour
Results:
Ribbon Test:

Site Feel Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample

between made to flattened made into made into made a
fingers ball ribbon U doughnut

1 Smooth Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Sticky

2 Slightly Yes Yes Yes Cracked No

coarse

3 Smooth Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Sticky

4 Smooth Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Sticky
Composition:

Site % Sand %Silt %Clay

1 50% 42% 8%

2 60% 38% 2%

3 40% 54% 6%

4 38% 59% 3%

Soil Texture

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Clay Silt Sand

Discussion:
The textural analysis of the soil sample is used to determine the proportions of minerals in each soil
sample. The minerals that make up soil are sand, silt and clay. This was done using the ribbon test
and sediment test using a measuring cylinder. These tests allows you to determine the type of soil
you have. The different types of soil you have are sandy, clay, loam and different variants of soils.
The ribbon test is done by moisten soil sample until they are sticky enough to be rolled. First, soil
samples are rubbed between fingers to obtain a feel for the particles such as grainy, smooth or
sticky. All samples has a smooth and sticky feel when wet. The soil samples were further
manipulated to obtain various shapes.
First they were rolled into a ball and the ends flattened. All four soil samples were able to make a
ball and then flatten. The samples were then rolled into a ribbon 2cm thick. All four samples were
able to make a ribbon. The sample ribbon were bent to make a U. Sample made the U but it
cracked.
The ribbon for each sample was bent into a complete doughnut. None of the sample were to make a
complete doughnut without breaking. Samples not forming a complete doughnut indicates samples
were low in clay. They were able to make a ribbon and U shape due to a high amount of silt.
For the sediment test, four 200ml measuring cylinders were used. The soil samples were sun-dried
and powdered using a hammer. The powdered samples were then refined using a 2mml soil sieve to
remove large crumbs of dirt or soil present. The soil samples were added to a measuring cylinder,
each cylinder were shaken thoroughly in order to suspend the particles to settle. It was difficult to
get a reading due to the clouding of water. The samples were allowed to settle for 24 hours. After
the 24 hours, each sample formed 3 distinct layers. The sand being the layer particles settle first.
The silt being second and clay, the third layer at the bottom. The water above the three layers of soil
was slightly cloudy indicating a small amount of soil particles were still suspended. The levels of
the sand, silt and clay were taken for each sample. This was then used to calculate the percentage of
sand, silt and clay of each sample. Sample 1 had a composition of 50% sand, 42% silt and 8% clay
making a sandy loam. Sample 2 had a composition of 60% sand, 38% silt and 2% clay making it a
sandy loam. Sample 3 had a composition of 54% silt, 6% clay and 40% sand making it a silty loam.
Sample 4 had a composition of 38% sand, 3% clay and 59% silt making it a silty loam.
Conclusion:
Textural analysis using the ribbon test indicated all soil sample were loam due to their ability to
make a ribbon but not a doughnut. The soil were low in clay but high in silt due to their smooth and
sticky feel. These results were supported by the sediment test. All soil samples were shown to have
a clay content of under 5%. The silt content varied between 38-59%, showing high levels of silt.
The amount of fine sand present was high varying from 38-60% of sand. These data proved that
soils were all loam silts. It should be noted that all loam silts are very good for crop cultivation
beacuse of its high nutrient holding capacity and good physical properties. The physical properties
include free draining, good water holding capacity and easy tillage with good aggregate formation.
Lab #4
Title: Soil fertility in four farms in Couva North district

Aim: To determine moisture and organic content of soil from four farms in Couva North district
Apparatus:
(1) Electronic scale
(2) Crucible
(3) Soil samples
(4) Oven
(5) Watch
Procedure:
(1) Weighing of crucible
(2) Addition of 20 grams of soil to crucible
(3) Crucible with 20g of soil left for 2 hours in oven to remove moisture and weight
(4) recorded.
(5) Dried samples placed in oven for 30 mins to remove humus and weight recorded
Results:

Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4

Weight A B A B A B A B
grams
Crucible 23.87 24.16 24.45 24.49 21.06 23.37 23.69 23.79
Moist 42 49.75 49.36 46.88 42 50.79 53.72 54.38
soil
Dry Soil 37.86 43.73 43.12 41.58 37.69 44.93 46.96 47.8
Burnt 37.7 43.46 42.82 41.26 37.55 44.67 46.68 47.38
Soil
M.C 4.14 6.02 6.24 5.3 4.31 5.86 6.76 6.58
grams
O.M 0.16 0.27 0.3 0.32 0.14 0.26 0.28 0.42
grams
% M.C. 29.59 31.19 33.42 31.01 25.92 27.18 29.05 27.41
% % % % % % % %
% O.M 1.16% 1.40% 1.63% 1.91% 0.85% 1.22% 1.22% 1.78%
Avg% 30.39% 32.22% 26.55% 28.23%
M.C
Avg% 1.28% 1.77% 1.03% 1.50%
O.M.
 Site % moisture content % humus content

1 30%

2 32%

3 27.4%

4 27.4%

moisture content
35.00%
0.3222
30.00% 0.3039
0.2823
0.2655
25.00%

20.00%

15.00%
percentage

10.00%

5.00%

0.00%
site 1 site 2 site 3 site 4
Site

Discussion:
Organic matter exists as humus which is plants and animal waste that has been decomposed by
bacteria. It is an important part of the soil matrix that plants need because:
1) It adds essential nutrients to the soil that plants need. It hold positively charged ions K+ and Ca
2+ in the soil.
2) Humus has the ability to hold loose soil particles together to form soil aggregates. Aggregates are
important for soil structure allowing water and air to enter the soil and ease root penetration.
3) It acts as a buffer to soil pH changes.
4) It encourages micro-activity.
Moisture content is seen as qater available to crops for use.
Types of water found in soil are:
1) Capillary water: water held by the surface tension in soil pores and is readily available to plants
2) Hydroscopic water: this water is bonded to soil minerals and not available to plants
3)Field capacity: water remaining in soil after excess water has drained off. Water is available to
plants
4) Gravitational water: water that is pulled lower down into the soil out of range of plant roots.
Water is important because it
1) is used in photosynthesis
2) maintains cell turgidity and forms part of the cell protoplasm
3) also allows nutrients to dissolve into a solution that can be absorbed by plants
Soil moisture content varies from 10.25%. This is a low percentage. It is possible low organic
matter content is due to oxidation of humus. The constant crop cultivation and soil tillage poses
organic matter to air allowing it to be used up. In order to improve organic matter content, the
farmers need to practice fallowing for 10yrs. They should also do green manuring.
Moisture content of the samples were high with all sites. Moisture content can be due to the fact
that the samples were taken in November during the rainy season. Also the soil type may hold alot
of water. The area is known for being flat and having a high water table.
Three of the 4 sites had irrigation system site1, had a drip irrigation system and and moisture
content of 30%. Site 2 had a moisture content of 32% and no irrigation system due to poor field
drainage. Site 3 and 4 both had a moisture content of 27.4% respectively and had a fountain
irrigation system.
Title: A study of sustainable agricultural practices and its effect on soil fertility at four farms in the
Couva North district.
Problem statement:
The importance of agriculture and its role in development of Trinidad and Tobago has been
disregarded for many years. Farmers are struggling to meet food demands of the population at
reasonable price while being faced with competition from imported food stuff. The reduction of
yields, increased pest and disease occurrence and increasing cost of inputs and climate change
continues to put a downward strain on agricultural production. Farmers must now adopted new
sustainable agricultural practices in order in increase productivity and profits while preserving
natural resources and preserving the environment.

Scope of Project:
To assess sustainable agricultural practices used on four type’s of farms located in the Couva
north district by keen observation of activities, environment and interviews to obtain information
and data. The comparison of farm productivity along with soil fertility by analyzing soil physical
and chemical characteristics. Soil characteristics tested were pH, NPK levels, soil texture, soil water
and humus content.
 Objectives:
• To compare soil type and fertility on different farms

• Determine productivity of different farms

• Assess sustainable agricultural practices and their effect on soil fertility

• Observe surroundings and take photos.

Variables:
Constant:
• All sites were visited on the same day.

• All samples were taken on the same day.

• Same soil test kit was used for testing soil samples for pH, NPK

• All samples were taken at the same depth using the same tool.

Manipulated:
• Sample Taken from four different sites.

• Sample taken at different times of the day.

Responding:
• Results from soil test kit

• Soil texture class

 Methodology and Data Collection

Four sites were chosen by the teacher using a map of the Couva North District for
tests to be conducted. The first site Pcs Nitrogen model farm was chosen because it is
modelled after a large commercial farm system with modern agricultural techniques used.
The second, third and fourth sites were chosen due to their close proximity to the model
farm and would have similar environmental factors affecting crop production allowing for a
good comparison of farming techniques and productivity levels.
In order collect samples of soil from each site the same method and tools were used.
A hand spade was used to collect samples. Samples of soil were taken from center of two
different crop beds on each farm. The procedure for taking of soil samples were plants were
removed along with the top three inches of the soil, indicated by a ruler. A full hand spade of
soil was collected and placed in a zip lock bag. The two soil samples collected on each farm
was mixed to give one composite sample. A zip lock bag was used in order to retain
moisture content of soil and prevent moisture loss while soil was stored over the weekend. A
total of four composite soil samples were taken, one from each farm. The samples were then
conveyed to the agricultural science lab to be analysed.
During the four site visit four interviews were carried out at each farm site. The
interviews were done in order to make observations of production methods used on the
farm, the level of productivity and different crops planted.
 Literature Review
Sustainable agriculture is the production of food and raw materials by agriculture while preserving
and repairing damage to the natural environment that was caused by commercial farming. Within a
farm which practices sustainable agriculture, there are several activities which take place such as
crop rotation, integrated pest management and organic farming. These activities can be quite
effective in promoting sustainable agriculture.
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of crops in the same space in sequential seasons for
various benefits such as to avoid the build up of pathogens and pests that often occurs when one
species is continuously cropped. It also seeks to balance fertility demands of various crops to avoid
excessive soil nutrients depletion. Crop rotation is effective because different types of crops remove
different nutrients from the soil. The vegetation that grows on a fallow field is ploughed under, to
add to soil fertility. Leguminous plants are often used as cover crops as their roots fix nitrogen from
the atmosphere. This reduces the need to use expensive nitrogenous fertilizer.
Organic farming is a non conventional farming method that excludes the use of any agro chemicals.
Organic farming promotes the use of crop rotation and cover crop and encourages balanced
host/predator relationships. This allows for good produce with high nutritional value and less
environmental effects.
Thirdly, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) aim is to contain pests through the minimum use of
artificial chemicals and with the minimum disruption of natural ecological processes. IPM uses
biological control to augment artificial pesticides. IPM uses a combination of methods in order to
have control of pests. These methods are grouped as follows:
• Biological control- the use of predators, parasites, pathogens and competitors to control
pests and the damages it makes.
• Cultural control- practices which reduces pest establishment, reproduction, dispersal and
survival. Eg, changing irrigation practices can reduce pest problems, as too much water can increase
weed and diseases.
• Chemical control- use of pesticides. Pesticides are used only when needed and in
combination with other approaches for more effective, long-term control. Pesticides are selected
and applied in ways that minimizes possible harm to people, nontarget organisms, and the
environment.
• Mechanical and physical control: kills pest directly, block pests out, or make the
environment unsuitable for it. Traps for rodents are examples of mechanical control. Physical
controls include mulching for weed management, steam sterilization of soil for disease
management, or barriers such as screens to keep birds or insects out.
This method is less costly than using agrochemicals and this minimises environmental impacts
associated with misuse of agrochemicals.

The goal of sustainable agriculture is to meet society’s needs in the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Practitioners of sustainable agriculture seek to integrate three main objectives into their work: a
healthy environment, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. Every person
involved in the food system—growers, food processors, distributors, retailers, consumers, and waste
managers—can play a role in ensuring a sustainable agricultural system. The Caribbean can benefit
from sustainable agriculture because:
• It is very adaptable and encourages innovative farming methods
• Produces economically viable farming either through self sufficiency or income and
encourages methods which conserve resources thus reducing costs and adverse impacts
• Promotes ecological integrity, through soil management methods which minimise pollution,
loss of nutrients, erosion and proper maintenance of crop health
 Presentation and Analysis of Data

Graph#1
A line graph illustrating pH of soil samples at four sites in Couva

SOIL pH
6.2

6 6 6 6

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2
pH

5 5

4.8

4.6

4.4
1 2 3 4
SITES

Mean =5.75
Mode= 6
Standard deviation =.78

Comments:
Site 1 was most acidic having a pH of 5 while site 2,3 and 4 had a high pH of 6 respectively. All
four sites had soils which were very acid either having a pH of equal to or less than 6. Soil in the
Couva area were very acidic and required amendment.
Graph#2
The graph below shows the nutrient content of the soil at the four sites

Nutrient Content of Soil

2
Sites

0 5 10 15 20 25
mg/l

potassium phosphorous Nitrogen

Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium

Mean 20 20 5

Median 20 20 5

Standard 0 0 0
Deviation

All four sites showed medium level of macro nutrient; Nitrogen and Phosphorous. The sites had
very low levels of potassium. The soil at the four sites were not high in nutrients to obtain high
yields. Therefore required fertilizer to increase the nutrient content of the soil.
Graph#3
The bar graph below shows results of the soil texture taken from the four site

Soil Texture
70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4

Sand Silt Clay

Each site had a low level of clay and was more of sandy and silt texture. Site 2 texture was more
sandy. Site 4 had more silt which indicated it had a bigger water holding capacity.
Graph #4
The diagram below displays results of the moisture content at each site

moisture content
35.00%
0.3222
30.00% 0.3039
0.2823
0.2655
25.00%

20.00%

15.00%
percentage

10.00%

5.00%

0.00%
site 1 site 2 site 3 site 4
Site

Moisture Content Organic matter content

mean 29.34 1.396
median 29.32 1.31
Standard deviation 2.32 .33

The moisture content at the four site were high above 25%. Site 2 had the highest moisture content
while site three had the lowest. In general, all sites had adequate moisture for crop growth. The soil
showed high water holding capacity which may be due to soil type. The soils at all four sites had a
low level of organic matter below two percent. Site 2 had the highest organic matter content the site
4. Site 3 had the lowest organic matter content.
 Discussion of Findings
Sustainable agricultural practices were seen at all four sites however, sites 2, 3 and 4 were
low. At these sites, soil liming along with the use of NPK blend fertilizers were added in order for
the soil to fertile. At site 4, there was crop rotation being carried out while pen manure was used at
site 3.
At the first site PCS nitrogen model farm, sustainable agriculture was practised to a greater
extent. Green houses were in production along with container culture and grow box. This causes an
increase in productivity without having to use up soil resources. There was mixed cropping with
tree crops (mango & pommecythere) and vegetables as compared to only short crops seen at sites
2,3&4. PCS Nitrogen model farm also engaged in usage of drip irrigation system with fertigation
capability. Fertigation is the injection of fertilizers, used for soil amendments, water amendments
and other water-soluble products into an irrigation system This allows plants to be irrigated in the
dry season without excess run-off when compared to fountain irrigation at the other three farm sites.
Fertigation also allows exact amount of fertilizer to be applied to crops without causing leaching
which pollutes waterways. Pcs Nitrogen also used equipment such as spray booms, seedling
planters which reduces labour cost and decreases time to complete work. These methods increases
profitability of the model farm.
Pcs Nitrogen model farm had the highest productivity per acre with tomatoes yield of 16
tons per hectare compared to a 10 tons per hectare on regular farms. This allowed for supplies to be
made to super markets and food processors. Site 2 at had the lowest productivity with less than half
acre planted with cassava for demonstration and a few tree crop (Paw paw and coconut) for
personal consumption. Site 3 had a low productivity because on 1 acre there was pepper planted wat
the time and the remainder of the land was ploughed and left empty. Site four had a high level of
productivity since all four acres were planted with short crops. These crops were used as a to supply
vendors at the local market.
Soil fertility was compared at all four sites. The fertility of the soil was determined by its
analysis of the physical and chemical characteristics. The physical characteristics looked at soil
type. The soils were analysed to determine mineral composition.
The sites were high in silt and fine sand and low in clay. The soil were identified to be loam
soils. Loam soil have a good nutrient and water holding capacity. This type of soil is considered
light and easy to cultivate crops. The water content analysis was very high site one was 30.39%, site
two was 32.22% site three was 26.55% and site four was 28.23%.These results indicated that
drainage was somewhat prevented in these loam soils at site one and two. The area was also known
to have a high water table and it was the rainy season. The optimal water content for soil was 25%.
 The soil samples taken were also pH tested. Site 1 at PCS nitrogen model farm had a very
acidic pH of 5 whereas site 2,3 and 4 had a pH of 6 respectively. Soils with a low pH have a macro
nutrient deficiency along with reduced microbial activity. The soil at sites 2,3 and 4 were limed
recently as there was white lime present incorporated in soil. The white lime ,may have contributed
to the soil having a higher pH reading than soil taken at site 1 PCS Nitrogen Model farm.
Organic matter content of the soils were low. Organic matter content at all sites were below
2%. Site one had an organic matter content of 1.28%, site two 1.77%, site 3 1.03% and site four
1.5%. The optimal organic matter content of soil is generally 5%. The low organic matter content
may have been as a result of continuous cultivation of soil over several years. The ploughing of soil
for planting of annual crop exposes organic matter to oxidation and breakdown. Additionally, the
high acidity of soil causes disintegration of humus within the soil resulting in a reduced organic
matter content. High level of organic matter is also important because it releases nutrient into the
soil which helps to improve soil structure, separating clays and binding sand to from aggregates.
The nutrient content of the soil was analysed. Nutrient looked at were macro nutrients of
Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium. The Kit indicated that potassium was present with trace
levels at all four site less than 5mg/l. Potassium is a macro nutrient needed in high quantity for
flowering and translocation however, trace level is insufficient for crop growth. Nitrogen and
Phosphorus were seen at medium levels of 20mg/l respectively at all four sites. This meant that no
macro nutrients were present with high levels to support high quality of yields. This lack of
nutrients present can be because of nutrient depletion as a result of constant cultivation of soil
without resting or due to acidic condition of soil which has made nutrients unavailable to crops.
Due to the low level of nutrients, the use of NPK blend fertilizers would be necessary in order for
crops to be productive. Without the use of enough fertilizers, crops will suffer from nutrient
deficiency and there would be a decrease in yields which would make crop cultivation unfeasible .
 Conclusion
In conclusion, sustainable agricultural practices are followed at the sites visted. Pcs nitrogen
model farm follows the most sustainable agricultural practices because of innovation and newly
introduced technologies. At site 2, there was only basic practices such as crop rotation, liming and
fertilizing with NPK fertilizer. Integrated farming practices where crops and animal can be used to
complement each other was not implemented because of the land use policy restrictions on
livestock farming. Soil conservation in terms of soil fertility was the main focus within that area
because soil erosion was not an issue because of a flat topography of land.
It can also be determined that the soils at sites 1 PCS Nitrogen Model farm and sites 2,3 & 4
are very poor. The Couva series found in this area are loam with an acidic pH ranging from 4- 5.2
and low levels of Potassium. They fall into a category of low humic gluey soils et al Chenery,1952.
The use of sustainable agricultural practices helps in preserving soil properties. The underlying
chemical properties of the soil series cannot be changed such as high acidity, low nutrient content,
imperfect drainage. The farmer at these sites can therefore take steps such as liming, fertilizing and
crop rotation to improve his yield on these sites.
 Recommendations

• Site 1 requires liming at a rate of to reduce acidity levels from a pH 5 to a pH 6.5.

• Site 2.3 and 4 require liming at a rate of to reduce acidity from a pH 6 to pH 6.5.

• Fertilizer high in potash should be use to increase trace levels of potash found in soil.

• Increase to use of manures to increase soil organic matter content.

• Fallowing of land to allow build-up of soil nutrients.

 Bibliography

• Ragoonanan Cxc Agriculture

• “Environmental science for the Caribbean unit 1 and 2” by Ramsaroop and Sookram

• E. M. Chenery 1952 The soil of central Trinidad

• Craig Ditzler, Ph.D, 2017, Classification of the Soils of Triidad and Tobago.

• Soil Survey Staff. 2014b. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 12th ed. USDA-Natural Resources
Conservation Service, Washington, DC. On-line at:
https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/class/taxonomy/?
cid=nrcs142p2_053580

• Lands Sanjeev Bhuchar, Andrew Billingsley, Madhav Dhakal, Isabelle Providoli, Samden
Lama Sherpa, Ahmad Shah Siddiqi, 2008 Soil Moisture Retention and Soil Fertility Options for
Agricultural and Degraded

• Brown and Bally, 1970 Soils of Trinidad and Tobago, no.4 Central Trinidad

• Changing the pH of your Soil. Clemson University Cooperative Extension.

• Yaram U.Berklian, Nova Science Publishers,2008

• www.clemenson.edu

• https://www.cropnutrition.com/efu-soil-ph

• www.omafara.gov.on.ca/ca/english/crops/facts/09-077.htm

• www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/What-is-ipm/

• asi.ucdavis.edu/programs/ucsarep/about/what-is-sustainable-agriculture
Appendix