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LMÌGOZOZ DB TBVTHZ BM BZYLÜHG

Tbhrël y prìjtojl

JL^KBM KLÔKÚM GGH^JL
LMÌGOZOZ
LMÌGOZOZ DB TBVTHZ
BM BZYLÜHG
TBH^ËL _ Y^ÌJTOJL
YRNGOJLJOHMBZ DB GL RMOSB^ZODLD DB LGOJLMTB

Yungojljohmbs db gl Rmovbrsodld db Lgojlmtb
Jlkpus db Zlm Sojbmtb
Sojbmtb s/m
9:3?9 Zlm Sojbmtb dbg ^lspbo`
YungojljohmbsIul.bs
fttp5//pungojljohmbs.ul.bs
Tbgïchmh5 ?32?9:469
Clx5 ?32?9?442
© Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl, >996

© db gl prbsbmtb bdojoúm5 Rmovbrsodld db Lgojlmtb
!"#$% '()*)+*(',(*-
'()*)+*(',(*-(+*,
(+*,
Dosbüh db phrtldl5 jlmdbgl oma.

Jhrrbjjoúm db prubnls1 Ghgl Bspomhsl
Jhkphsojoúm5 fubggl prbokprbsoúm
./9<><: 42 .3406:6?5
^bsbrvldhs thdhs ghs dbrbjfhs. Mh sb pbrkotb rbprhdujor, lgkljbmlr bm sostbkls db rbjupbrljoúm

db gl omchrkljoúm, mo trlmskotor lgùml plrtb db bstl pungojljoúm, julgquobrl qub sbl bg kbdoh
bkpgbldh ‚bgbjtrúmojh, kbjìmojh, chthjhpol, `rlnljoúm, btjïtbrl‚, som bg pbrkosh prbvoh db ghs
totuglrbs db gl prhpobdld omtbgbjtulg.

ËMDOJB
OMT^HDRJJOÚM5 BG LMÌGOZOZ DB TBVTHZ5 HNEBTOSHZ

_ KBTHDHGH
KBTHDHGH@ËL.
@ËL. BZT^R
BZT^RJTR^L
JTR^L @BMB^LG DB GL HN^L .... <<
O. BG TBVTH JHKH RMOD

RMODLD
LD DB LMÌ
LMÌGOZOZ
GOZOZ GOM@×ËZTOJH ... >:
<. R󰁭󰁬 󰁭󰁢󰁪󰁢󰁺󰁯󰁤󰁬󰁤 󰁹󰁾󰁢󰁳󰁯󰁬5 󰁧󰁨󰁺 󰁧ë󰁫󰁯󰁴󰁢󰁺 󰁤󰁢󰁧 󰁫󰁨󰁤󰁢󰁧󰁨 󰁣󰁨󰁾󰁫󰁬󰁧 󰁢󰁭
󰁧󰁯󰁭󰁠÷ë󰁺󰁴󰁯󰁪󰁬 󰁿 󰁢󰁧 󰁪󰁬󰁫󰁮󰁯󰁨 󰁦󰁬󰁪󰁯󰁬 󰁢󰁧 󰁹󰁬󰁾󰁬󰁤󰁯󰁠󰁫󰁬 󰁣󰁲󰁭󰁪󰁯󰁨󰁭󰁬󰁧 ... >2
<.<. Gls rlzhmbs dbg jlknoh
jlknoh db khdbgh ......................
...........................................
..................... >2
<.>. Bg khdbgh cumjohmlg y bg lmìgosos db tbxths .....................
...............................
.......... >6
Nongoh`rlcël .......................
..............................................
.............................................
........................................
.................. :9
Ljtovodldbs
Ljtovod ldbs ....................
...........................................
..............................................
............................................
..................... :>
>. G󰁬 󰁤󰁢󰁣󰁯󰁭󰁯󰁪󰁯ú󰁭 󰁤󰁢 «󰁴󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨±. B󰁧 󰁴󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨 󰁪󰁨󰁫󰁨 󰁲󰁭󰁯󰁤󰁬󰁤 󰁪󰁨󰁫󰁲󰁭󰁯󰁪󰁬󰁴󰁯󰁳󰁬 ::
>.<. Db gl hrljoúm lg tbxth ......................................................
................................................................
.......... ::
>.>. Bg jlrìjtbr jhkumojltovh
jhkumojltovh dbg tbxth tbxth ......................
...........................................
..................... :2
>.:. Gl db 󿬌mojoúm db «tbxth± ....................
..........................................
........................................
.................. :6
>.4. Tbxth y/h dosjursh5 uml db 󿬌mojoúm plrl bg lmìgosos lmìgosos db tbxths .... 49
Nongoh`rlcël .......................
..............................................
.............................................
........................................
.................. 4>
Ljtovodldbs
Ljtovod ldbs ....................
...........................................
..............................................
............................................
..................... 44
:. G󰁬󰁺 󰁹󰁾󰁨󰁹󰁯󰁢󰁤󰁬󰁤󰁢󰁺 󰁤󰁢󰁧 󰁴󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨 ......................
.............................................
.................................
.......... 40
:.<. Omtrhdujjoúm ......................
.............................................
..............................................
.................................
.......... 40
:.>. Db gl «tbxtur
«tbxturl± l± l gl «tbxtulgodld± ......................................
............................................
...... 46
:.:. Gl jhfbrbmjol y gl jhfbsoúm ....................................................
........................................................ 2<
Nongoh`rlcël ...................................................................................... 22
Ljtovodldbs
Ljtovod ldbs ....................
...........................................
..............................................
............................................
..................... 23

6 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
OO. TBH^ËL _ Y^ÌJTOJL DBG LMÌGOZOZ DB TBVTHZ BM

BZYLÜHG
BZY LÜHG .....................
............................................
..............................................
......................................
............... 20
4. G󰁬 󰁪󰁨󰁦󰁢󰁾󰁢󰁭󰁪󰁯󰁬 ......................
.............................................
..............................................
..............................
....... 2?
4.<. Bg jhmjbpth db jhfbrbm
jhfbrbmjol jol ...........................
..................................................
..............................
....... 2?
4.>. Bg so`mo 󿬌
󿬌jldh dosjursovh .....................
............................................
......................................
............... 39
4.>.<. Zo`mo󿬌jldh y sbmtodh . .......................
..............................................
......................................
............... 39
4.>.>. Bg prhngbkl dbg so`mo󿬌jldh dosjursov dosjursovhh .......................
..................................
........... 3>
4.>.:. Gl jhkprbmsoúm tbxtulg ....................
...........................................
......................................
............... 3:
4.:. Yrhpubstl
Yrhpubstl db lmìgosos db gl jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg tbxtulg .....................
.........................
.... 32
Nongoh`rlcëll .....................
Nongoh`rlcë ............................................
..............................................
..........................................
................... 30
Ljtovodldbs
Ljtovo dldbs ......................
.............................................
..............................................
..........................................
................... 36
4.4. Gl jhfbrbmjol sbkìmtojl ....................
...........................................
......................................
............... 3?
4.4.<. Gl hr`lmozljoú
hr`lmozljoúmm dbg jhmtbmodh5 gl kljrhbstrujturl ............... 3?
4.4.>. Gl prh`rbsoúm db gl omchrkljoúm5 gl prh`rbsoúm tbkìtojl ...... 0:
Nongoh`rlcëll .....................
Nongoh`rlcë ............................................
..............................................
..........................................
................... 00
Ljtovodldbs
Ljtovo dldbs ......................
.............................................
..............................................
..........................................
................... 06
4.2. Gl jhfbrbmjol prl`kìtojl .......................
..............................................
..................................
........... 6<
4.2.<. Gl cumjoúm jhkumojlto
jhkumojltovl vl ......................
.............................................
..................................
........... 6<
4.2.>. Gl bxprbsoúm db gl khdlgodld ......................
.............................................
...........................
.... 64
<) Gl khdlgodld db bmumjoljoúm.......................
.............................................
..........................
.... 63
l. Ghs ljths db flngl . .....................
............................................
......................................
............... 63
n. Gls khdlgodldbs hrljohmlgbs ....................
...........................................
....................... 66
>) Gls khdlgodldbs db bmumjoldhs .....................
...........................................
...................... . ?<
:) Gl khdlgodld jhkh bxprbsoúm db gl sunebtov sunebtovodldodld . ................ ?:
4.2.:. Gl omchrkljoúm okpgëjotl ......................
.............................................
..................................
........... ?2
Nongoh`rlcëll .....................
Nongoh`rlcë ............................................
..............................................
..........................................
................... ?6
Ljtovodldbs
Ljtovo dldbs ......................
.............................................
..............................................
..........................................
................... <99
2. G󰁬 󰁪󰁨󰁦󰁢󰁺󰁯ú󰁭 .......................
..............................................
..............................................
..................................
........... <9:
2.<. Bg jhmjbpth db «jhfbsoúm± .............................................
........................................................
........... <9:
2.>.jglso
Gls 󿬌
rbgljohmbs jhfbsovls5 prhpubstls
󿬌jljoúm ....................... tbúrojls
.............................................. y jrotbrohs...........
.............................................. db
.................................. <94
2.>.<. ^bgljohmbs jhfbsov
jhfbsovls ls nlsldls bm gl rbcbrbmjol y bm gl rbpbtojoúm <933
<9
2.>.>. Tophs
Tophs db rbgljohmbs nlsldls bm gl rbcbrbmjol y bm gl rbpbtojoúm5
gl jhfbsoúm `rlkltojlg y gl jhfbsoúm gïxojl..................... ................................
........... <96
2.>.:. ^bgljohmbs jhfbsovjhfbsovls ls nlsldls bm gl jhmbxoúm .................. <96
Nongoh`rlcëll .....................
Nongoh`rlcë ............................................
..............................................
..........................................
................... <<9
Ljtovodldbs
Ljtovo dldbs ......................
.............................................
..............................................
..........................................
................... <<>
2.:. Gl jhfbsoúm `rlkltojlg .......................
..............................................
......................................
............... <<:
2.:.<. Kbjlmoskhs db rbcbrbmjol bxhcúrojl h jhmtbxtulg5 gl dboxos .. <<:
<) Gl dboxos pbrshmlg......................
............................................
.............................................
....................... <<2

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg ?
>) Gl dboxos bspljolg ......................

.............................................
............................................
..................... <<0
:) Gl dboxos tbkphrlg .....................
............................................
............................................
..................... <<6
2.:.>. Kbjlmoskhs db rbcbrbmjol bmdhcúrojl h khstrltov khstrltovl5 l5 gl lmìchrl <>9
<) Gls prhchrkls `rlkltojlgbs ......................
.............................................
.............................
...... <><
>) Ghs lrtëjughs .......................
..............................................
..............................................
.............................
...... <>:
:) Gl dboxos tbxtulg h dosjursov
dosjursovll ..................................
................................................
.............. <>2
Nongoh`rlcël .......................
..............................................
.............................................
........................................
.................. <>2
Ljtovodldbs
Ljtovod ldbs ....................
...........................................
..............................................
............................................
..................... <>0
2.4. Gl jhfbsoúm gïxojl ...............................................................
.....................................................................
...... <>?
2.4.<. Gl dokbmsoúm somtl`kìtojl dbg so`mo󿬌jldh gïxojh ................. <>?
2.4.>. Gl jhfbsoúm nlsldl bm gl rbpbtojoúm dbg koskh gbxbkl ........ <:>
2.4.:. Gl jhfbsoúm nlsldl bm gl rbotbrljoúm dbg koskh so`mo󿬌jldh . <:>
<) Zomhmokol h julso somhmokol .....................
............................................
.............................
...... <:>
>) Lmthmokol ......................
.............................................
..............................................
.................................
.......... <::
:) Fophmokol-fo
Fophmokol-fopbrhmokol
pbrhmokol ....................
...........................................
.....................................
.............. <:4
4) Rsh db prhchrkls gïxojls .....................
............................................
.................................
.......... <:4
2.4.4. Gl bgopsos jhfbsov
jhfbsovll .....................
............................................
............................................
..................... <:2
2.4.2.
<)Bquov
Bquovlgbmjols
lgbmjolsnlsldls
^bgljohmbs rbcbrbmjolgbs
bm bg nlsldls
jhmhjokobmthbm gls rbgljohmbs
jhkplrtodh
jhkplrtodh prl`kìtojls <:3
phr ghs omtbrghjuthrbs .....................
............................................
............................................
..................... <:0
>) ^bgljohmbs nlsldls bm gl bxostbmjol db klrjhs y ùohmbs
kbmtlgbs ......................
.............................................
.............................................
........................................
.................. <:6
:) ^bgljohmbs nlsldls bm gl kbtìchrl y bm gl kbthmokol .......... <:6
Nongoh`rlcël .......................
..............................................
.............................................
........................................
.................. <4<
Ljtovodldbs
Ljtovod ldbs ....................
...........................................
..............................................
............................................
..................... <4>
2.2. Ghs klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh ....................
...........................................
.................................
.......... <42
2.2.<. Db󿬌mojoúm y prhpobdldbs ....................
...........................................
.............................
...... <42
2.2.>. Jglso󿬌jljoúm y cumjohmbs ....................
...........................................
.............................
...... <40
Nongoh`rlcël .......................
..............................................
.............................................
........................................
.................. <29
Ljtovodldbs
Ljtovod ldbs ....................
...........................................
..............................................
............................................
..................... <2>
3. G󰁬 󰁬󰁤󰁢󰁪󰁲󰁬󰁪󰁯ú󰁭 󰁬󰁧 󰁪󰁨󰁭󰁴󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨 .......................
..............................................
.............................
...... <20
3.<. Bg jhmjbpth db ldbjuljoúm5
ldbjuljoúm5 vobels y mubvls pbrspbjtovls pbrspbjtovls ........ <20
3.>. Bg Lmìgosos db gl ldbjuljoúm. Gl tbhrël dbg rbòstr rbòstrhh ................. <2?
3.>.<. Omtrhdujjoúm5 gl vlroljoúm gom`÷ëstojl .......................
.....................................
.............. <2?
3.>.>. Gl tbhrël dbg rbòstrh y bg lmìgosos db tbxths5 gls vlrolngbs jlkph,
khdh y tbmhr ......................
.............................................
..............................................
.................................
.......... <39
<) Jlkph ....................
...........................................
.............................................
........................................
.................. <3<
>) Khdh ......................
.............................................
.............................................
........................................
.................. <3:
:) Tbmhr .......................
..............................................
.............................................
........................................
.................. <33

<9 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
Nongoh`rlcël .....................
Nongoh`rlcël ............................................
..............................................
..........................................
................... <36
Ljtovodldbs
Ljtovodldbs ......................
.............................................
..............................................
..........................................
................... <09

OMT^HDRJJOÚM
BG LMÌGOZOZ DB TBVTHZ5
HNEBTOSHZ _ KBTHDHGH@ËL.
BZT^RJTR^L @BMB^LG DB GL HN^L
Bg gonrh qub lquë jhkobmzl tobmb jhkh hnebtovh prhphrjohmlr nlsbs tbú-
rojls y fbrrlkobmtls prìjtojls plrl lnhrdlr bg lmìgosos db tbxths bm gbmùl
bsplühgl. Jhm bg 󿬌m db cumdlkbmtlr tlknoïm tbúrojl y prìjtojlkbmtb dojfl
prhpubstl y eusto󿬌jlr gl mbjbsodld db um kltbrolg db bstls jlrljtbrëstojls bm bg
plmhrlkl db gl gom`÷ëstojl bsplühgl y db gl bmsbülmzl, kb prhphm`h bm bstl
omtrhdujjoúm dbslrrhgglr db chrkl nrbvb ghs soùobmtbs jhmtbmodhs5
<. Bg lmìgosos db tbxths jhkh hnebth db bstudoh b omvbsto`ljoúm
omvbsto`ljoúm bm Bspl-
ül5 fosthrol db uml crustrljoúm.
>. Bg lmìgosos db tbxths5 uml fbrrlkobmtl db jhkprbmsoúm y lprbmdozleb
:. Rm kïthdh plrl gl prìjtojl dbg lmìgosos db tbxths
B󰁧 󰁬󰁭ì󰁧󰁯󰁺󰁯󰁺 󰁤󰁢 󰁴󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨󰁺 󰁪󰁨󰁫󰁨 󰁨󰁮󰁥󰁢󰁴󰁨 󰁤󰁢 󰁢󰁺󰁴󰁲󰁤󰁯󰁨 󰁢 󰁯󰁭󰁳󰁢󰁺󰁴󰁯󰁠󰁬󰁪󰁯ú󰁭 󰁢󰁭
B󰁺󰁹󰁬ü󰁬5 󰁦󰁯󰁺󰁴󰁨󰁾󰁯󰁬 󰁤󰁢 󰁲󰁭󰁬 󰁣󰁾󰁲󰁺󰁴󰁾󰁬󰁪󰁯ú󰁭
Jhkh hnebth db bstudoh b omvbsto`ljoúm, bg lmìgosos db tbxths mljoú vom-
jugldh l gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth. Db fbjfh, cub bg bstlngbjokobmth db bstl
umodld db lmìgosos y gl mbjbsodld omkbdoltl
󿬌jljoúm gh qub doh gu`lr lg suròkobm
suròkobmth dbkbthdhgh`ël
th db uml prhjbdbr l sujlplz
bstudoh y jglso-
db rblgozlr
bstl tlrbl.
Flstl bmthmjbs y dbspuïs, bg «jhkbmtlroh gom`÷ëstojh db tbxths± fl jbm-
trldh su jhkbtodh bm bg bstudoh db tbxths ‚kujfls vbjbs gotbrlrohs‚ dbsdb uml
pbrspbjtovl gom`÷ëstojl, bs dbjor, lnhrdlmdh dbsdb ghs dostomths movbgbs ‚chmh-
gúòjh, khrchsomtìjtojh y gbxojhsbkìmtojh‚ bg bstudoh y gl jlrljtbrozljoúm db
ghs tbxths. Bm bsplühg shm trlnlehs db rbcbrbmjol
r bcbrbmjol bm bstb sbmtodh ghs db Klrjhs
Klrëm (<?00)5 Bg jhkbmtlroh gom`÷ëstojh. Kbthdhgh`ël y prìjtojl, Lrozl So-
ùbrl (<?6<)5 Bg jhkbmtlroh gom`÷ëstojh y gotbrlroh db tbxths bsplühgbs, Lmth-
<> Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

moh Mlrnhml (<?64)5 Tbxths fospìmojhs jhkbmtldhs, Koùbg Kbtzbtgom (<?66)5
Gom`÷ëstoj
Gom`÷ ëstojll tbxtulg
tbxtulg y lmìgosos db tbx
tbxths fospìmojhs y, kìs rbjobmtbkbmtb, K.ª
ths fospìmojhs
Tbrbsl Bjfbmoqub y htrhs (<??0)5 Bg lmìgosos tbxtulg. Jhkbmtlroh 󿬌ghgúòjh,
gotbrlroh, gom`÷ëstojh, shjohgom`÷ëstojh y jrëtojh. Yrhnlngbkbmtb gl bmhrkb
trldojoúm dbg jhkbmtlroh gotbrlroh db tbxths bm mubstrl gbmùl, gl roqubzl y bg
mubvh jlkph db phsonogodldbs qub lnroú bstb toph db jhkbmtlrohs 󿬌ghgúòjh-
gom`÷ëstojhs
ghs bstudohs ‚juyl tlrbltbxtulgbs
gom`÷ëstojh lsukobrhmbmmubstrhs gom`÷ostls‚,
bsplühg sb vomjuglrhmumodh lg fbjfh db qub
omkbdoltlkbmtb l gl
tbhrël gotbrlrol ‚@lrjël Nbrroh, qub cub umh db ghs pohmbrhs db gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg
tbxth, rblgozú sus lpgojljohmbs kìs trlsjbmdbmtbs shnrb tbxths gotbrlrohs‚ doh
gu`lr l qub bm Bsplül mh sb dbslrrhgglsb uml bsjubgl db lmìgosos tbxtulg dbsdb
gl gom`÷ëstojl y plrl bg bstudoh db julgquobr klmocbstljoúm tbxtulg bm bsplühg.
Dbsdb gl pbrspbjtovl db gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth, bg lmìgosos db tbxths sb
jbmtrú dbsdb um promjopoh bm bg bstudoh db gls prhpobdldbs db gh tbxtulg, bs
dbjor, bm gls klrjls gom`÷ëstojls qub odbmto󿬌jlnlm l um tbxth jhkh jhfb-
rbmtb y jhfbsohmldh. Bm Bsplül, gls prhpubstls db jlrljtbrozljoúm db Lg-
nlgldbeh (<?6>) y Nbrmìrdbz (<?6>) mh tuvobrhm gl rbspubstl omkbdoltl qub
hnrls jhkh Jhfbsohm om Bm`gosf (<?03), db Flggodly-Flsslm, së tuvobrhm bm
bg kumdh
tulg. Yhr sulm`ghsleúm plrl bg bstlngbjokobmth
plrtb, bm Crlmjol, dbtrldojoúm
plës jhm uml `rlm um khdbghbm db lmìgososdb
bg bstudoh tbx-
gl
jhkphsojoúm bsjrotl, prhmth sb dbslrrhggú tlknoïm uml bsjubgl db lmìgosos db
tbxths, bm bstb jlsh db hrobmtljoúm jglrlkbmtb dodìjtojl jhkh sb hnsbrvl bm
gls hnrls db Jflrhggbs (<?06, <?6:), Gumdquost (<?69, <?6:), Tltoghm
Tltoghm (<?69),
Ldlk (<?62, <??9 y <??>), Jhknbttbs (<?66), btj. Bs bm bsb ìknoth prb-
joslkbmtb, bm bg db gl vomjugljoúm jhm gh lpgojltovh, bm bg qub lgùmhs lühs
kìs tlrdb ‚promjopohs db ghs mhvbmtl‚ sb vl l dbslrrhgglr bm Bsplül lgùml
ljtovodldd bm thrmh lg lmìgosos db tbxths.
ljtovodl
Bm gls dïjldls db ghs hjfbmtl y mhvbmtl gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth sucrorì
lgùmls okphrtlmtbs trlmschrkljohmbs5 gl pbrspbjtovl prl`kìtojh-jhkumo-
jltovl y prhjbsulg qub sb okphmb bm ghs bstudohs gom`÷ëstojhs lsë jhkh bg
dbslrrhggh
jhmjbpth dbdbg lmìgosos
tbxth dbg dosjursh,
y, gh qub
y, prhdujorìm
lfhrl bs kìs jlknohs
okphrtlmtb, bm ghssunstlmjolgbs
lspbjths l ghsbmqub
bg
sb dbnb prbstlr ltbmjoúm jhkh jlrljtbrozldhrbs db gh tbxtulg. Gl lpbrturl db
gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth fljol gl prl`kìtojl y bg dosjursh docukoml jldl vbz
kìs ghs gëkotbs bmtrb gls dosjopgomls y, bm jhmsbjubmjol, bmtrb ghs kïthdhs db
lmìgosos vomjugldhs l bggls.
L plrtor db ghs lühs mhvbm
mhvbmtl
tl bg plsh db gls «`rlkìtojls dbg tbxth± l gh qub
phdrëlkhs dbmhkomlr bstudohs tbxtulgbs y dosjursovhs bstì dldh. Bm Bsplül,
Jlsldh Sbglrdb (<??: y >999) soùb utogozlmdh gl dbmhkomljoúm «`rlkìtojl
dbg tbxth± plrl bstudohs qub, bm rblgodld, bstìm jldl vbz kìs jbmtrldhs bm
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <:

ghs klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh. Gh koskh hjurrb bm lgùmhs gu`lrbs db Glto-
mhlkïrojl, jhkh Lr`bmtoml,
Lr`bmtoml, dhmdb bg jhmjbpth «`rlkìtojl tbxtulg± bmjobrrl
uml pbrspbjtovl cumjohmlg qub «thkl bm jhmsodbrljoúm júkh gl gbmùl jrbl
so`mo󿬌jldhs y júkh pbrkotb omtbrjlknolrghs phr kbdoh db tbxths± (Klrtëm
Kbmïmdbz, >9935<9). Zb prhdujbm lgùmls pungojljohmbs pumtulgbs shnrb
gls jlrljtbrëstojls tbxtulgbs (Kbdbrhs, <?661 Cubmtbs, <??>, <??3 y <??61
@lrjël Ozquobrdh, <??61 Db Nusths Thvlr, >999)1 pbrh gh qub tobmb gu`lr bm
gbmùl bsplühgl bm bstl dïjldl bs uml vbrdldbrl bjghsoúm db pungojljohmbs,
sbkomlrohs y jhm`rbshs lgrbdbdhr dbg lmìgosos dbg dosjursh y db gl prl`kìtojl
qub flm rbmhvldh jhkpgbtlkbmtb
jhkpgbtlkbmtb bg plmhrlkl db ghs omtbrbsbs db gl gom`÷ës-
tojl bsplühgl y qub bstìm jbmtrldhs, cumdlkbmtlgkbmtb, bm bg bstudoh db ghs
klrjldhrbs dosjursovhs,
dosjursovhs, pbrh oùlgkbmtb bm htrhs lspbjths jhkh gl hrlgodld,
bg bsplühg jhghquolg, gl crlsbhgh`ël, gl lrùkbmtljoúm, gl khdlgozljoúm, gl
omchrkltovodld, gl vlroljoúm gom`÷ëstojl, ghs dosjurshs y ghs ìknoths jhku-
mojltovhs, lsë jhkh lspbjths `rlkltojlgbs bstudoldhs lfhrl l gl guz db bstl
mubvl pbrspbjtovl.
Ylrlgbglkbmtb,
Ylrlgbglkbmt b, sb vl l prhdujor bm Bsplül um ljhmtbjokobmth okphrtlmtb5
okphrtlmtb5
gl rbchrkl bdujltovl bm ghs sb`kbmths mh umovbrsotlrohs qub, phr gh qub sb
rb󿬌brb lg bstudoh db gl gbmùl bsplühgl, supush um jlknoh rldojlg db bmchqub
jhm rbspbjth l quï jglsb db jhkpbtbmjol gom`÷ëstojl bm gbmùl kltbrml dbnb
hntbmbr um lgukmh bm su plsh phr ghs dostomths movbgbs db su otombrlroh bdu-
jltovh. Mh bs docëjog rbjhmhjbr bm ghs tbxths gb`lgbs bm ghs qub sb dbslrrhggú
gl 󰁧󰁨󰁠󰁺󰁢 uml dbjododl hrobmtljoúm prl`kìtojl y tbxtulg. Lsë, bm bg dbjrbth
40/<??>, db :9 db klrzh dbg Dolro H 󿬌jolg db gl @bmbrlgotlt Slgbmjolml phr
bg qub sb bstlngbjb bg jurrëjugh db gl Gbmùl y gl Gotbrlturl bm gl Bdujljoúm
Zbjumdlrol Hngo`lthrol plrl bg ìknoth tbrrothrolg db gl Jhkumodld Slgbmjol-
ml, phdbkhs bmjhmtrlr bm gl omtrhdujjoúm (pp. ::6-:4<) mukbrhshs pìrrlchs
qub shm eusto󿬌jljoúm db ghs mubvhs hnebtovhs db lprbmdozleb qub sb prbtbmdbm
junror bm gls lso`mlturls dbstomldls l gl bmsbülmzl db gl gbmùl5
Gl bdujljoúm gom`÷ëstojl y gotbrlrol bstlrì ùoldl phr gl jhmsodbrljoúm dbg
gbmùleb jhkh ljtovodld
y gl rbprbsbmtljoúm db gl qub tobmb cësojl
rblgodld jhkh ycumjohmbs
shjolg. Bgnìsojls gl jhkumojljoúm
gbmùleb sb ldquobrb y
sb dbslrrhggl, l plrtor db gls lptotudbs fuklmls plrl bg flngl, kbdolmtb ghs
omtbrjlknohs bm jhmtbxths shjolgbs dbtbrkomldhs.
Zb trltl db uml mubvl jhmjbpjoúm dbg bstudoh db gl gbmùl, sustbmtldl
shnrb jrotbrohs jhmtbxtulgbs y dosjursov
dosjursovhs,
hs, prbhjupldl phr jubstohmbs shjoh-
gom`÷ëstojls y bmchjldl lg dbslrrhggh y phtbmjoljoúm db gls jlpljodldbs jh-
kumojltovls
kumojlto vls hrlgbs y bsjrotls dbg lgukmh.
Gl jhmsbjubmjol omkbdoltl sbrì gl mbjbsodld db hnrls db rbcbrbmjol y db
prhcbsohmlgbs db gl bmsbülmzl prbplrldhs jhm bg jhrrbsphmdobmtb omstrukbmtlg
tbúrojh-prìjtojh plrl lnhrdlr bsths lspbjths. Bstl plrbjb sbr gl hrobmtljoúm

db klmulgbs y rbvostls qub tobmbm jhkh hnebtovh lnhrdlr gl gbmùl dbsdb uml
pbrspbjtovl lkpgoldl ‚tbxtulg y prl`kìtojl‚ y jhm uml jglrl 󿬌mlgodld dodìj-
tojl, jhkh ghs db B. Lzmlr,
Lzmlr, L. Jrhss y G. \uomtlml (<??<), K. Jbrbzh
Jbr bzh Lrrolzl
(<??4), J. @hmzìgbz Lrlül y J. Losl Fbrrbrl (<??0) ‚bmtrb htrhs‚1 bg qub
phdbkhs jhmsodbrlr gl hnrl kbmthrl db gl rbchrkl bm bg bstudoh db gl gbmùl,
Bmsbülr gbmùl, db D. Jlsslmy, F. Guml y @. Zlmz (<??4)1 y gls rbvostls Tbx-
ths y Gbmùl
Gbmùlebeb y tbxths,
tbxths, bmtrb htrls.
Yhr htrl plrtb y bm bstrbjfl rbgljoúm jhm gh lmtbrohr, bm kujfls umovbr-
sodldbs bsplühgls sb prhdujb uml rbchrkl db ghs prh`rlkls db gls lso`ml-
turls db Gbmùl bm ghs qub kìs h kbmhs tëkodlkbmtb, sb vl omtrhdujobmdh
bg lmìgosos db tbxths dbmtrh dbg jurrëjuguk ljldïkojh dbg cuturh gojbmjoldh.
Bm bstb sbmtodh dbstljlm phr gl jlmtodld db pungojljohmbs, phr bg ro`hr db sus
pglmtblkobmths y phr jbmtrlr sus hnebtovhs bm bg dbslrrhggh db uml kbthdh-
gh`ël db lmìgosos tbxtulg y/h dosjursovh, gls hnrls bm jltlgìm db D. Jlsslmy
(<?60), Dbsjrour g‟bsjrourb y (<??9) Gl juoml db g‟bsjropturl1
Dbsjrourbb g‟bsjrourb g‟bsjropturl1 db L. Jlkps
y htrhs (<??9), Tbxt o bmsbmylkbmt. Rml lprhxokljoú omtbrdosjopgomlrol1 db
E.K. Jlstbggé (<??>), Db gl crlsb lg tbxt1 bg khmh`rì󿬌jh m.µ 6 db gl rbvostl
JHK (<??<) dbdojldh L g‟bmthrm db gl `rlkétojl tbxtulg1 bg vhgukbm 0 db gl
rbvostl Jlpggbtrl (<?6?) dbdojldh lg lmìgosos dbg dosjursh h1 õgtoklkbmtb, ghs
db K. Nlsshgs y L. Thrrbmt (<??3), Khdbgs tbxtulgs.
tbxtulgs. Tbhrol préjtojl1 db K.
Tbhrol o préjtojl1
Jhmjl y htrhs (<??6), Tbxt o `rlkétojl5 tbhrol o préjtojl db gl jhkpbtæmjol
dosjursovl y db @. Nhrdhms y htrhs (<??6), TVT, Gl gom`÷ëstojl tbxtulg lpgojl-
lpgojl -
dl lg jhkbmtlro db tbxths. Bstb jhmeumth db hnrls y luthrbs jhmchrklm ‚qub
sbplkhs‚ bg prokbr omtbmth bm Bsplül db rblgozlr uml lpgojljoúm db ghs prom-
jopohs db gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth l gl rblgodld prìjtojl dbg lmìgosos db tbxths bm
um movbg umovbrsotlroh. Bm bg jlsh dbg jlstbgglmh, gl bxplmsoúm db ghs bstudohs
db gbmùl bsplühgl y su jhmshgodljoúm bm htrls totugljohmbs jhkh Trlduj-
joúm b Omtbrprbtljoúm, Yungojodld, Jhkumojljoúm h Ybrohdoskh tlknoïm vl l
rbsugtlr kuy nbmb󿬌johsh plrl bg lmìgosos db tbxths pubs bm thdhs bsths jlshs,
ldbkìs db ghs lspbjths

y jhkprbmsoúm tbxtulg bmmhrkltovhs,
mhrkltov
bsplühghs, sb bstudolm
jhkh ghs prhjbshs
plrtb cumdlkbmtlg db db bglnhrljoúm
gl tlrbl qub ghs
cuturhs trldujthrbs, pungojostls h pbrohdostls tbmdrìm qub ggbvlr l jlnh. Lsë, y
l pbslr db gl phjl trldojoúm y bg bsjlsh dbslrrhggh qub bstl dosjopgoml tobmb bm
jlstbgglmh, sb orìm pungojlmdh khdbghs db jhkbmtlrohs gom`÷ëstojhs db thdh
toph db tbxths5 jhm
jhmvbrsljohmlgbs
vbrsljohmlgbs (@lgglrdh Ylugs, <??61 Nroz, >999), pbrohdës-
tojhs (Cubmtbs, <???1 Jhrtïs y Nlüúm, <??6) pungojotlrohs, db dbsbjfh, phgo-
cúmojhs (@utoïrrbz Hrdúübz, <??0), rbcbrodhs l gl trldujjoúm (Nusths @osnbrt,
<??31 @lrjël Ozquobrdh, >999) btj., pbrh bmtrb bgghs mh fly uml kbthdhgh`ël
umo󿬌jldl. Zb trltl db lpgojljohmbs pumtulgbs y pbrshmlgbs ‚kuy omtbrbslmtbs
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <2
som dudl‚ db dosjopgomls jhkh gl prl`kìtojl h bg lmìgosos db gl jhmvbrsljoúm

jhmvbrsljoúm
lg bstudoh db um dbtbrkomldh toph db tbxth qub, som bknlr`h, soùbm som ggbmlr
bg vljëh qub, bm mubstrl hpomoúm, jhmtomõl flnobmdh bm bg ìknoth db gl gbmùl
bsplühgl, pubs bm bstb plmhrlkl tlm bmroqubjodh y bmroqubjbdhr soùb clgtlm-
dh um trlnleh dbdojldh lg lmìgosos db tbxths.
Kujfh kìs rbjobmtbkbmtb, gl pungojljoúm dbg Klr Klrjh
jh Jhk
Jhkõmõm Bur
Burhpb
hpbhh db rb-
cbrbmj
cbr ol (>99>) y dbg Yglm jurrojuglr dbg Omstotuth Jbrvlmtbs (>990) bstì phmobm-
bmjol
dh bm prokbr pglmh, tlknoïm plrl gl bmsbülmzl/lprbm
bmsbülmzl/lprbmdozleb
dozleb db sbùmdls gbmùls,
bg bstudoh db gls bstrujturls tbxtulgbs, db ghs kbjlmoskhs sbkìmtojhs y prl`kì-
tojhs db jhfbrbmjol, db gl jhfbsoúm tbxtulg y db gl ldbjuljoúm db gl gbmùl lmtb
dostomtls sotuljohmbs db ush. Lsë bs db󿬌modl gl jhkpbtbmjol dosjursovl5
Gl jhkpbtbmjol dosjursovl

Gl jhkpbtbmjol dosjursovl
dosjursovl bs gl jlpljodld qub phsbb bg usulroh h lgukmh
db hrdbmlr hrljohmbs bm sbjubmjols plrl prhdujor crl`kbmths jhfbrbmtbs db
gbmùl. Jhkprbmdb bg jhmhjokobmth db gl hrdbmljoúm db gls hrljohmbs y gl
jlpljodld db jhmtrhglr bsl hrdbmljoúm bm cumjoúm db5
     


          


       Ïg sb jlyú y yh gh
`hgpbï, jhkh hpubstl l _h gh `hgpbï y ïg sb jlyú.
        ghs prbjohs bstìm sunobm-

dh, gls pbrshmls quobrbm slglrohs kìs lgths.
           
‚ gl hr`lmozljoú
hr`lmozljoúmm tbkìtojl1
‚ gl jhfbrbmjol y gl jhfbsoúm1
‚ gl hrdbmljoúm gúòjl1
‚ bg bstogh y bg rbòstrh1
‚ gl b󿬌jljol rbtúrojl1
‚ bg promjopoh db jhhpbrljoúm
jhhpbrljoúm (@rojb, <?02)5 «^blgojb su omtbrvbm-
joúm tlg y jhkh sb gb podb, bm gl btlpl bm gl qub hjurrl, kbdolmtb
gl 󿬌mlgodld h dorbjjoúm ljbptldls dbg omtbrjlknoh flngldh bm bg
qub ustbd plrtojopl, hnsbrvlmdh gls kìxokls soùobmtbs5
µ gl jlgodld (omtbmtb qub su omtbrvbmjoú
omtbrvbmjoúmm sbl vbrdldbrl)1
µ gl jlmtodld (prhjurb qub su omtbrvbmjoúm sbl tlm omchrkltov
omchrkltovll
jhkh fl`l clgtl, pbrh mh kìs)1
µ gl rbgljoúm (mh do`l gh qub mh sbl rbgbv
rbgbvlmtb)1
lmtb)1
µ bg khdh (sbl nrbvb y hrdbmldh
hrdbmldh11 bvotb gl hsjurodl
hsjurodldd y gl lkno-
`÷bdld)±.
Zo sb dbsbl dbsvolrsb db bsths jrotbrohs jhkh nlsb plrl jhmsbùor uml

jhkumojljoúm sbmjoggl y b󿬌jlz, dbnbrël sbr phr uml 󿬌mlgodld bspbjë 󿬌jl y
mh dbnodh l gl omjlpljodld db jukpgorghs.
          
db gl omchrkljoúm db gl jhkumodld bm jubstoúm rbgltovls l, phr bebkpgh5
‚ júkh sb bstrujturl gl omchrkljoúm bm gl rblgozljoúm db gls dostom-
tls kljrhcumjohmbs (dbsjropjoúm, mlrrljoúm, bxphsojoúm, btj.)1
‚ júkh sb jubmtlm gls fosthrols, gls lmïjdhtls, ghs jfostbs, btj.1
‚ júkh sb dbslrrhggl uml lrùkbmtljo
lrùkbmtljoúm úm (bm bg kumdh dbg dbrbjfh,
bm dbnltbs, btj.)1
‚ júkh sb bglnhrlm,
bglnhrlm, sb sbülglm
sbülglm y sb sbjubmjolm ghs tbxths bsjroths
(rbdljjohmbs, jlrtls chrklgbs, btj.).
Bm bstb plmhrlkl y jhm bg 󿬌m db junror lumqub sbl plrjolgkbmtb bstl
mbjbsodld, sb bmklrjl bg klmulg qub lquë prbsbmtlkhs.
B󰁧 L󰁭ì󰁧󰁯󰁺󰁯󰁺 󰁤󰁢 󰁴󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨󰁺 󰁢󰁭 󰁢󰁺󰁹󰁬ü󰁨󰁧5 󰁲󰁭󰁬 󰁦󰁢󰁾󰁾󰁬󰁫󰁯󰁢󰁭󰁴󰁬 󰁤󰁢 󰁪󰁨󰁫󰁹󰁾󰁢󰁭󰁺󰁯ú󰁭
󰁿 󰁬󰁹󰁾󰁢󰁭󰁤󰁯󰁵󰁬󰁥󰁢
Ylrl Gotl Gumdquost (<?6:5 ?) bg lmìgosos db tbxths ‚cumdlkbmtldh tbú-
rojlkbmtb bm gl gom`÷ëstojl
soúm, gl prhdujjoúm tbxtulg‚
y gl jrëtojl tobmb
qub db 󿬌mb trbs
db gltlrbls bsbmjolgbs,
soùobmtb klmbrl5gl jhkprbm-
         -
pbjë 󿬌jh ghs kbjlmoskhs db gl gbmùl pubsths bm eub`h bm um tbxth
plrtojuglr±.
  

    

  
mhrkls qub ro`bm bshs promjopohs, sb pubdbm utogozlr plrl prhdujor
jhrrbjtlkbmtb tbxths±.
           -
jl shnrb gl kugtotud db tbxths±.
Ghs jhmjbpths jglvb plrl bstl luthrl shm ljths db gbmùleb y jhfbrbmjol
tbxtulg, pubs bgghs mhs pbrkotbm lmlgozlr gh qub, bm su hpomoúm, bs bsbmjolg bm
thdh lmìgosos5 gl lrtojugljoúm db gh tbxtulg, bs dbjor, db ghs cbmúkbmhs gom`÷ës-
tojhs, jhm gh bxtrltbxtulg, qub omjguyb dbsdb gl sotuljoúm db jhkumojljoúm
flstl gl bscbrl kìs lkpgol db gl hr`lmozljoúm shjolg y dosjursovl. Dbsdb su
pumth db vostl gh bxtrltbxtulg bs tlmth bg pumth db plrtodl jhkh bg pumth db
ggb`ldl db su khdbgh db lmìgosos pubs bs gl db󿬌mojoúm db ghs cljthrbs prl`kì-
tojhs y db ghs cljthrbs odbhgúòjhs ghs qub rbspbjtovlkbmtb
rbspbjtovlkbmtb lnrbm y jobrrlm bg
lmìgosos db gl klmocbstljoúm tbxtulg.
Gl odbl db qub bg tbxth bs um bmumjoldh y qub, bm jhmsbjubmjol, bs bg rbsug-
tldh db um ljth omtbmjohmlg db jhkumojljoúm bstì tlknoïm db chrkl bxpgëjotl
bm bg pglmtblkobmth db Db Nusths Thvlr (<?645 <9) julmdh l󿬌rkl qub «bg

hnebtovh cumdlkbmtlg dbg lmìgosos bs dlr jubmtl db bsl omtbmjoúm jhkumojltovl
y dbg khdh bm qub bstì hr`lmozldl gl jhkphsojoúm tbxtulg±.
tbxtulg±.
Ylrl Lmthmoh
Lmthmoh Nroz (<??05 6<), «bg lmìgosos db tbxths jhmsostb bm gl rbjhms-
trujjoúm h rbjupbrljoúm db gl omchrkljoúm, tlmth bxpgëjotl jhkh okpgëjotl,
qub bstb Qbg tbxth[ sukomostrl l ghs hybmtbs, bm mubstrh jlsh gbjthrbs, plrl su
jhrrbjtl omtbrprbtljoúm. Ghs qub ggbv
ggbvlkhs
lkhs l jlnh bstl tlrbl mhs jhmv
jhmvbrtokhs
brtokhs
lsë bm uml bspbjob db kbtlgbjthrbs, bm julmth qub omtbmtlkhs bxpgojlr ghs
prhjbshs koskhs db omtbrprbtljoúm l plrtor db gh qub bg prhpoh gbmùleb mhs
suòbrb±.
Bm bcbjth, gl tlrbl dbg lmlgostl dbg tbxth bs rblgozlr uml gbjturl «bxpbr-
tl± dbg tbxth. Flnbrkls (<?0?, lpud Ko`mhgh, <?635 >2->3) dostomùb, bm
rbgljoúm jhm bg jhmhjokobmth db gl gbmùl, bmtrb um «slnbr júkh±, gl flno-
godld db um flnglmtb jhkpbtbmtb plrl prhdujor h jhkprbmdbr uml crlsb, y
um «slnbr quï±, bg jhmhjokobmth db slnbr júkh. Zo bg flnglmtb tobmb lknhs
jhmhjokobmths, bg gom`÷ostl dbnb phsbbr lknhs bm sbùmdh `rldh y plrl bggh
mbjbsotl um klrjh db rbcbrbmjol (uml tbhrël) qub gb pbrkotl ‚jhmtomõl Ko`-
mhgh‚ «trldujor bg prokbr movbg bm bg sbùmdh±.
Bm mubstrl hpomoúm, bg lmìgosos db tbxths dbnb dhtlr lg lmlgostl db ghs
sustbmths tbúrojhs y gls fbrrlkobmtls prìjtojls qub gb pbrkotlm odbmto󿬌jlr gls
omtbmjohmbs dbg prhdujthr tbxtulg y prbdbjor bg prhjbsh db jhkprbmsoúm l plr-
tor dbg kltbrolg vbrnlg qub jhmstotuyb bg tbxth. Bg lmìgosos db tbxths dbnb phmbr
bm bvodbmjol bg phtbmjolg jhkumojltovh db gl gbmùl, su jlpljodld plrl hr`l-
mozlr so`mo󿬌jldhs, gl vbrsltogodld qub gb pbrkotb ldlptlrsb l gls mbjbsodldbs
db ghs flnglmtbs, su jhmdojoúm kìs h kbmhs omstotujohmlgozldl. Bg lmlgostl
dbg tbxth mh tobmb kìs rbkbdoh qub lsukor tlrbls omtbrprbtltovls, qub plrtojo-
plr db bsb prhjbsh db jhkprbmsoúm qub yl bstlnl prbvosth bm bg tbxth jhkh
phtbmjolgodld, pbrh gh fljb dbsdb um «slnbr quï± tbúrojh. Gl pbrspbjtovl
sbklsohgúòjl, db rbjbpjoúm, bm gl qub sb sotõl bg lmìgosos db tbxths pbrkotb,
kbdolmtb bg lmìgosos db gls bxprbsohmbs gom`÷ëstojls y gl hr`lmozljoúm `ghnlg
dbg dosjursh, fljbr bvodbmtb gls omtbmjohmbs dbg flnglmtb y dbsjunror, lsë, bg
«klrjh omtbrprbtltovh± (Zlmdom`, >9995 ><<) prhphrjohmldh phr bg prhpoh
prhdujth tbxtulg.
R󰁭 󰁫ï󰁴󰁨󰁤󰁨 󰁹󰁬󰁾󰁬 󰁢󰁧 󰁬󰁭ì󰁧󰁯󰁺󰁯󰁺 󰁤󰁢 T󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨󰁺
Gl clgtl db jhmjrbjoúm db gl dosjopgoml fl dldh gu`lr l uml bvodbmtb dos-
pbrsoúm kbthdhgúòjl. Db ghs prokbrhs tobkphs db gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth
pbrklmbjb bg omtbrïs phr ghs kbjlmoskhs db jhfbrbmjol y jhfbsoúm, prbsbm-
tbs bm gl thtlgodld db gls prhpubstls1 som bknlr`h, plrl kujfhs gom`÷ostls
bsths jhmjbpths mh tobmbm bg koskh sbmtodh mo jhkprbmdbm ghs koskhs

kbjlmoskhs, gh qub sb trldujb bm lpgojljohmbs prìjtojls nlstlmtb h kuy fb-
tbrh`ïmbls. Yhr htrl plrtb, gl omtb`rljoúm db lspbjths prl`kìtojhs y jh`mo-
tovhs
tovhs bm bg lmìgosos db tbxths bs fhy orrbmumjolngb, pbrh tlknoïm bm bstb jlsh
rbsugtlm dovbrsls gls prhpubstls pubs h nobm sb fl lnobrth bg bstudoh db gl
jhfbrbmjol fljol bshs lspbjths ‚Jhmjl, Jlstbggì‚, h sb fl rbdb󿬌modh bg jhm-
jbpth db «ldbjuljoúm± plrl qub pubdl dlr jlnodl l jubstohmbs prl`kìtojls
‚omtbmjoúm,
jhmtbxtulgbscumjoúm, khdlgozljoúm‚
‚Nhrdhms‚. Bm mubstrlpbrh tlknoïm
hpomoúm, l jubstohmbs
dhtlr lg lmìgosos tophgúòjls
db tbxths dbh
uml hrobmtljoúm prl`kìtojl mh so`mo󿬌jl lnror um lplrtldh dbg lmìgosos dbdojl-
dh l bstb lspbjth ‚lumqub flyl lspbjths qub súgh pubdlm hnsbrvlrsb dbsdb
bstl pbrspbjtovl‚,
pbrspbjtovl‚, tobmb qub vbr jhm um pumth db vostl tbúrojh y kbthdhgúòjh
lsukodh prbvolkbmtb y qub hrobmtl bm rblgodld thdl gl ljtovodld lmlgëtojh-
tbxtulg bm rbgljoúm jhm ghs usulrohs y jhm ghs jhmtbxths db ush.
Jrbbkhs qub gl mlturlgbzl dbg tbxth y gls phsonogodldbs db su lmìgosos
y db󿬌mojoúm mh shm uml jubstoúm sbmjoggl mo umodorbjjohmlg y qub gl õmojl
phsonogodld db hntbmbr uml jlrljtbrozljoúm rblg dbg tbxth bs lnhrdlrgh dbsdb
pbrspbjtovls
pbrspbjtov ls qub junrlm su mlturlgbzl kõgtopgb y jhkpgbel. Mo uml pbrspbjto-
vl bstrojtlkbmtb sbkìmtojl ‚qub sb jbmtrb bm gl jhmtomuodld db so`mo󿬌jldh‚1
mo umlmobstrojtlkbmtb
mhs‚1 `rlkltojlg ‚qub
uml vosoúm bstrojtlkbmtb sunrlyb‚qub
prl`kìtojl komujohslkbmtb ghsbmjohmbs
cbmúkb-y
sb 󿬌 eb bm gls omtbmjohmbs
omt
ghs prbsupubsths db ghs flnglmtbs‚1 mo um lmìgosos jh`motovh
jh`motovh ‚qub nusqub ghs
pltrhmbs db jhmhjokobmths jhmvbmjohmlgozldhs qub ro`bm ghs omtbrjlknohs
jhkumojltovhs‚1 mo uml lprhxokljoúm shjohgom`÷ëstojl ‚qub dï jubmtl db gl
vbrnlgozljoúm db gl omchrkljoúm jhmtbxtulg‚ junrbm db chrkl omdovodulg gl
mlturlgbzl dbg tbxth mo bxpgojlm su cumjohmlkobmth y, som bknlr`h, thdhs ghs
pumths db vostl qub ljlnlkhs db bmukbrlr sb mhs lmthelm okprbsjomdongbs
y db `rlm vlghr plrl rblgozlr um lmìgosos bxflustovh y rblg dbg tbxth. Flnrì,
pubs, qub bstlngbjbr um khdbgh db lmìgosos qub thkb bm jhmsodbrljoúm ghs
dostomths movbgbs db bstrujturljoúm y hr`lmozljoúm `bmbrlg dbg tbxth. Dbsdb
bstb pumth db vostl, jrbbkhs qub dbnbrël tbmbrsb bm jubmtl5
<)
>) GlGl omchrkljoúm
hr`lmozljoúmmjhmtbxtulg.
hr`lmozljoú dbg so`mo󿬌jldh.
:) Gl hr`lmozljoú
hr`lmozljoúmm db gl omchrkljoúm prl`kìtojl.
4) Gl bstrujturljoúm gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth.
2) Bg bsqubkl
bsqubkl khdïgojh lg qubqub sb leustl.
Bg khdbgh db lmìgosos db tbxth qub prbsbmth prbtbmdb, prbjoslkbmtb, ju-
nror, lg kbmhs, ghs jultrh prokbrhs lspbjths y lnhrdlrghs dbsdb uml pbrspbj-
tovl tbúrojl y prìjtojl gh qub phdrëlkhs jhmjrbtlr bm gl bmukbrljoúm db ghs
soùobmtbs hnebtovhs5
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <?
            

          -
kìmtojl jhkh prl`kìtojl.
         
db jhmbxoúm.
         -


ùleb lg jhmtbxth db ush.
Bstrujturl `bmbrlg db gl hnrl

Bg gonrh bstì bstrujturldh bm dhs plrtbs, jldl uml db gls julgbs l su vbz
bstì dovododl bm jlpëtughs y sunjlpëtughs qub, dbpbmdobmdh db gl lkpgotud
y jhkpgbeodld dbg tbkl, sb jhkpgbtlm jhm uml nongoh`rlcël jotldl y/h jhk-
pgbkbmtlrol y vlrols ljtovodldbs prìjtojls rbgljohmldls jhm ghs jhmtbmodhs
dbslrrhggldhs.
Gl prokbrl plrtb (Bg tbxth jhkh umodld db lmìgosos gom`÷ëstojh, jlpëtu-
ghs < lg :) jhmstotuyb bg cumdlkbmth tbúrojh dbg trlnleh y bm ïg sb db 󿬌mbm y
dbgokotlm lgùmhs jhmjbpths qub mhs pbrkotbm hnsbrvlr y eusto󿬌jlr tlmth gl
mhjoúm db tbxth jhkh gl mbjbsodld db uml fbrrlkobmtl plrl su lmìgosos bm bg
klrjh db gl Gom`÷ëstojl ljtulg. Trls uml omtrhdujjoúm, bm bg jlpëtugh prokbrh
sb prbsbmtlm gls mubv
mubvls
ls prhpubstl db gl gom`÷ëstojl qub sbrìm gls qub prhphm-
`lm y dbslrrhggbm bg khdbgh cumjohmlg h prl`kìtojh tbxtulg bm bg qub ljtulg-
kbmtb sb dbslrrhggl bg bstudoh db gl gbmùl y bm bg qub bmjubmtrl sbmtodh bg
lmìgosos tbxtulg. Yhr gh qub sb rb 󿬌brb l gl db󿬌mojoúm dbg tbxth jhkh umodld db
lmìgosos gom`÷ëstojh y db sus prhpobdldbs, bstl bs gl kltbrol db ghs jlpëtughs
sbùmdh y tbrjbrh. Yhdrbkhs hnsbrvlr júkh gl gom`÷ëstojl fl odh pbr󿬌glmdh
gls jlrljtbrëstojls db bsl mubvl umodld, db󿬌mobmdh sus prhpobdldbs ‚jhfb-
rbmjol y jhfbsoúm cumdlkbmtlgkbmtb‚ y jhmjrbtlmdh lqubgghs lspbjths bm
ghs qub sb bmjobrrl gl mlturlgbzl db gh tbxtulg. Bg bstudoh db gl bvhgujoúm
bvhgujoúm dbg
jhmjbpth db tbxth sb rblgozl l trlvïs db gl prbsbmtljoúm y bg lmìgosos db vlrols
db󿬌mojohmbs db «tbxth± l`rupldls sb`õm dostomths jrotbrohs. Ghs dhs jlpëtughs
vlm Gl
ljhkplüldhs
sbùmdl plrtbphr nongoh`rlcël
(Tbhrël y ljtovodldbs.
y prìjtojl bsplühg, jlpëtughs
dbg lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg
4 lg 3) bstì dbdojldl lg dbslrrhggh y bebkpgo󿬌jljoúm db um kïthdh db lmìgosos db
tbxths bm bg qub omtbmtlkhs dlr sbmtodh l gh bxpubsth lmtbrohrkbmtb. Ghs dostomths
lplrtldhs dbslrrhgglm jldl umh db ghs lspbjths qub jrbbkhs dbnbm sbr hnsbrvldhs
bm gl ljtovodld dbg lmìgosos db tbxths5 bg bstudoh db gl jhfbrbmjol ‚sbkìmtojl y
prl`kìtojl‚, db gl jhfbsoúm ‚`rlkltojlg, gïxojl y db gl jhmbxoúm‚ y db gl ldbjul-
joúm lg jhmtbxth ‚bm plrtojuglr phr gh qub sb
sb rb󿬌brb l gls vlrolngbs jlkph, khdh y
             
>9 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
kbmhs bxtbmsl qub omtbmtl eusto󿬌jlr tlmth gl bgbjjoúm db bsl prhpobdld jhkh
gls fbrrlkobmtls kbthdhgúòjls qub sb prhphmbm plrl su bstudoh. Zb trltl, som
dudl, db gl plrtb kìs jglrlkbmtb lpgojltovl
lpgojltovl dbg gonrh y bm gl qub prbtbmdh qub
kbdolmtb bebkpghs y bebrjojohs prìjtojhs sb vlylm ldquorobmdh dbstrbzls lml-
gëtojls y sb bkpobjb l hnsbrvlr bg tbxth jhkh um «bxpbrth±. Ghs tbxths sbgbj-
johmldhs tlmth plrl ghs bebkpghs jhkh plrl gls prìjtojls shm kubstrls rblgbs
dbg bsplühg ljtulg utogozldh bm ghs kìs dovbrshs kbdohs db jhkumojljoúm
‚prbmsl, rbvostls db thdh toph, pungojodld, chggbths omchrkltovhs,
omchrkltovhs, prhspbjths,
jltìgh`hs, dbsjropjoúm db prhdujths, bmjojghpbdols, pìòmls wbn y htrh kl-
tbrolg bgbjtrúmojh, bmtrbvostls, btj.‚. Tlknoïm sb flm utogozldh jhmvbrsljohmbs
hrlgbs prhjbdbmtbs db ghs jhrpus JHSEL y LGJH^ B rbjhòdhs y bdotldhs bm gl
LGJH^B
Rmovbrsodld
Rmov brsodld db Lgojlmtb phr Dhghrbs Lzhrëm y su bquoph (<??? y >99>).
Comlgkbmtb, mh quosobrl tbrkomlr bstl omtrhdujjoúm som khstrlr ko `rlto-
tud l gls pbrshmls qub kb flm ljhkplüldh y lyudldh durlmtb ghs lühs db
`bstljoúm db bstb gonrh. \uobrh kbmjohmlr l kos bstudolmtbs db gls lso`mltu-
rls db Lmìgosos db Tbxths db gls totugljohmbs db Trldujjoúm b Omtbrprbtljoúm
y Yungojodld y ^^.YY. db gl Rmovbrsodld db Lgojlmtb1 bm rblgodld ghs lühs db
bxpbrobmjol jhm bgghs bm jglsb, gl jlmtodld db tbxths kuy dovbrshs
dovbrshs y hroòml-
gbs qub kb flm prhphrjohmldh y sus lùdls hnsbrvljohmbs flm sodh ko vbr-
dldbrh
ìrbl db lprbmdozleb y shmqub
gbmùl bsplühgl gl rlzúm dbglsbr
kb dlm jhmdb󿬌lmzl
bstb gonrh. L kos jhkplübrhs
y gl jhkpgojodld dbg
okprbsjom-
dongbs plrl jhmtomulr trlnlelmdh jhm ogusoúm. L ko clkogol, tlm qubrodl. _ l
ko klrodh, ^hjfb, jhm bg qub rbjhrrh tlm cbgozkbmtb bg jlkomh db gl vodl.
Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël
LDLK, E.K. (<?62)5 «\ubgs typbs db tbxtbs8±, Gb Crlmàlos dlms gb Khmdb,
<?>, Ylrës, Fljfbttb, pp. :?-4:.
LDLK, E.K. (<??9)5 Ïgbkbmts db gomùostoqub tbxtubggb, Gobel, Klrdl`l.
LDLK, E.K (<??>)5 Gbs tbxtbs. Typbs bt prhthtypbs, Ylrës, Mltflm
LGNLGLDBEH KL_H^DHKH, T. y L. @L^JËL NB^ÔH (<?6>)5 «Gl
gom`÷ëstojll dbg tbxth±, bm C.
gom`÷ëstoj C. LNLD
LNLD MBNHT y L. @L^JËL NB^ÔHNB^Ô H (jh-
hrds.)5 Omtrhd
Omtrhdujjoúm
ujjoúm l gl gom`÷ëstojl,
gom`÷ëstojl, Kldrod, Lgflknrl,
Lgflknrl, pp. ><0->39.
LÔUL SO@RB^L, K. (bd.) (<?6<)5 Jhkbmtlroh gom`÷ëstojh y gotbrlroh db
tbxths bsplühgbs, Kldrod, Lgflknrl.
LUML^, B., L. J^HZZ, y G. \ROMT\ROMTLMLLML (<??<)5 Jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg y gbj-
turl, Nlrjbghml, OJB Rmov
Rmovbrsodld
brsodld db Nlrjbghml.
LUH^ËM CB^MÌMDBU, D. y E.G. EOKÏMBU ^ROU (<???)5 JHSE JHSELL (Jhrpus
(Jhrpu s
hrlg db gl vlrobdld euvbmog umovbrsotlrol dbg bsplühg flngldh bm Lgojlm-
tb), Lgojlmtb, Omstotuth Lgojlmtomh
Lgojlmtomh db Jugturl Eulm @og-Lgnbrt.
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg ><
LUH^ËM CB^MÌMDBU, D. (jhhrd.) (>99>)5 LGJH^B (Lgojlmtb-jhrpus

hrlg db bsplühg), Lgojlmtb, Rmovbrsodld db Lgojlmtb.
NB^MÌ^DBU, B. (<?6>)5 Omtrh dujjoúm l gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth, Kldrod,
Omtrhdujjoúm
Bsplsl-Jlgpb.
NÔU, L. y @^RYH SLG.BZ.JH (>999)5 ¸Júkh sb jhkbmtl um tbxth jhgh-
quolg8, Nlrjbghml, Lrobg.
NÔU, L. (<??0)5 «Jhkbmtlroh gom`÷ëstojh±, bm K. T. BJFBMO\RB bt lg.5
Bg lmìgosos tbxtulg. Jhkbmtlroh 󿬌ghgúòjh, gotbrlroh, gom`÷ëstojh, shjohgom-
`÷ëstojh y jrëtojh, Zlglklmjl, Nongohtbjl Coghgúòjl, pp. 00-<:9.
NRZTHZ @OZNB^T, E. (<??3)5 Gl jhmstrujjoúm db tbxths bm bsplühg, Zlgl-
klmjl, Rmovbrsodld db Zlglklmjl.
JLZLDH SBGL^DB, K. y ^. @HMUÌGBU ^ROU (bds.) (>999)5 @rlkì-
tojl dbg tbxth y Gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth, ÔGJB, Ylkpghml, Rmovbrsodld db
Mlvlrrl.
JLZLDH SBGL^DB,
SBGL^DB, K. (<??:)5 Omtrh Omtrhdujjoúm
dujjoúm l gl `rlkìtojl dbg dbg tbxth dbg
dbg
bsplühg, Kldrod, Lrjh Gonrhs.
JLZZLM_, D., K. GRML, y @. ZLMU, (<??4)5 Bmsbülr gbmùl, Nlrjbghml,
@rlú.
JB^BUH L^ÔLUL,
L^ÔLUL, K. (<??4)5 Tbxth, jhmtbxth y sotuljoúm.
sotuljoúm. @uël plrl bg dbsl-
rrhggh db gls jhkpbtbmjols tbxtulgbs y dosjursovls, Nlrjbghml, Hjtlbdrh.
JHKNBTTBZ, N. (<?66)5 Yhur umb `rlkklorb tbxtubggb. Gl prh`rbssohm
tfïkltoqub, Nrusbgls/Ylrës, Db Nhbja/Dujught.
JH^TÏZ ^HD^Ë@RBU, G. y L.K. NLÜÚM FB^MÌMDBU, (<??6)5 Jh-
kbmtlroh gom`÷ëstojh db tbxths hrlgbs OO5 Bg dbnltb y gl bmtrbvostl, Kl-
drod, Lrjh Gonrhs.
JFL^HGGBZ,
JFL^ HGGBZ, K. (<?06)5 «Omtrhdujtohm lux prhngækbs db gl jhfïrbmjb dbs
tbxtbs±, Glmùb Crlmàlosb
Crlmàlosb, :6, pp. 0-4>.
————— (<?6:)5 «Jhfbrbmjb ls l promjopgb om tfb omtbrprbtltohm hc dos-
jhursb±, Tbxt, :, <, pp. 0<-?6.
DB NRZTHZ THSL^, E.E. (<?64)5 «Zhnrb kïthdhs db Lmìgosos tbxtulg±, bm
L. ML^NHML EOKÏMBU (jhhrd.)5 Tbxths fospìmojhs jhkbmtldhs, Júr-
dhnl, Rmovbrsodld db Júrdhnl, pp. ?-<6.
DB NRZTHZ THSL^, E.E., Y. JFL^LRDBLR bt lg. (>999)5 Gb Gbm`
mùl
ul,, Dos
Dosju
jurs
rsh,
h,
Tbxth, ( O
O Zo
Zokp
kphs
hsoh
oh Om
Omtb
tbrm
rmlj
ljoh
ohml
mlgg db Lm
Lmìg
ìgos
osos
os db
dbgg Do
Dosj
sjursh), Kldrod, Soshr.
ursh
BJFBMO\RB, K.T. bt lg. (<??0)5 Bg lmìgosos tbxtulgtbxtulg.. Jhkbmtlroh 󿬌ghgúòjh, gotb-
shjohgom`÷ëstojh y jrëtojh, Zlglklmjl, Nongohtbjl Coghgúòjl.
rlroh, gom`÷ëstojh, shjohgom`÷ëstojh
CRBMTBZ ^HD^Ë@RBU, J. (<??>)5 «Gl jhfbsoúm y gl jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg,
jglvbs bm bg lmìgosos b omtbrprbtljoúm db ghs tbxths±, bm K. LÔUL (bd.)5
Yrhngbkls y kïthdhs dbg lmìgosos db tbxths , Zbvoggl, Rmovbrsodld db Zb-
voggl, pp. <>:-<42.
>> Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
————— (<??3)5 Lprhxo Lprhxokljo

kljoúm
úm l gl bst
bstrujt url dbg tbxth , Kìgl`l,
rujturl
Ì`hrl.
————— (<??6)5 Bg jhkbmtlroh gom`÷ëstojh-tbxtulg, Kldrod, Lrjh Gonrhs.
————— (<???)5 Gl hr`l mozljoúm omchrkltovl dbg tbxth, Kldrod, Lrjh
hr`lmozljoúm
Gonrhs.
@L^JËL OU\ROB^DH, O. (<??6)5 Kbjlmoskhs db jhfbsoúm tbxtulg.
tbxtulg. Ghs jh-
bs ogltovhs bm bsplühg, Jlstbggúm, Rmovbrsotlt Elukb O.
mbjthrbs
mbjthr
————— (>999)5 Lmìgosos tbxtulg trldujjoúm, Slgbmjol, To-
tbxtulg lpgojldh l gl trldujjoúm,
rlmt gh Nglmjf.
@HMUÌGBU L^LÜL, J. y J. LOZL FB^^B^L, (<??0)5 Klmulg Klmulg db `rl-
kìtojl bsplühgl5 `rlkìtojl db gl plglnrl, db gl hrljoúm y dbg tbxth,
Kldrod, Jlstlgol, <??0.
@RTOÏ^^BU H^DÚÜBU, Z. (<??0n)5 Jhkbmtlroh prl`kìtojh db tbxths ph-
gocúmojhs, Kldrod, Lrjh Gonrhs.
FLGGODL_, K.L.A. y ^. FLZLM, (<?03)5 Jhfbsohm om Bm`gosf, Ghmdrbs,
Ghm`klm.
GRMD\ROZT, G. (<?69)5 Gl jhfïrbmjb
jhfïrbmjb tbxtubggb5 symtlxb, sïklmtoqub, prl`-
kltoqub, Myt mhrdosa Chrgl`, L. Nusja, Ahnbmflvbm.
————— (<?6:)5 G‟lmlgy
G‟lmlgysb
sb tbxtubggb
tbxtubggb.. Kïtfhdbs, bxbr josbs, Ylrës, JB-
bxbrjosbs
DOJ.
KL^JHZ KL^ËM,
tojl, Kldrod, C. (<?00)5 Bg jhkbmtlroh db tbxths. Kbthdhgh`ël y prìj-
Jìtbdrl.
KL^TËM KBMÏMDBU, Z. (>993)5 ¸\uï bs uml `rlkìtojl tbxtulg8, Nubmhs
Lorbs, Gottbrl Bdojohmbs.
KBDB^HZ, F. (<?66)5 Yrhjbdokobmths db jhfbsoúm bm bg bsplühg ljtulg,
Zlmtl Jruz db Tbmbrocb, Bxjkh. Jlnogdh Omsuglr db Tbmbrocb.
KBTUBGTOM, K. (<?66)5 Gom`÷ëstojl tbxtulg y lmìgosos db tbxths fospìmojhs,
tbxths fospìmojhs
Kurjol, Rmovbrsodld db Kurjol.
KO@MHGH, P. (<?63)5 Tbhrël dbg tbxth b omtbrprbtljoúm db tbxths, Kïxojh,
RMLK.
ML^NHML EOKÏMBU, L. (jhhrd.) (<?64)5 Tbxths fospìmojhs jhkbmtldhs,
Júrdhnl, Rmovbrsodld db Júrdhnl.
Yglmühg
jurrojuglr
(>990) , , :dbg Omstotuth Jbrvlmtbs. Movbgbs db rbcbrbmjol plrl bg bspl-
vhgs., Kldrod, Bdbgsl-Omstotuth Jbrvlmtbs.
ZLMDOM@, N (>999)5 «Bstoghs dbg dosjursh±, bm vlm Doea (bd)5 Bg tbxth jhkh
bstrujturl y prhjbsh, Nlrjbghml, @bdosl, pp. >90->:<.
TLTOGHM, J. (<?69)5 «Gomùostoqub du tbxtb, jhkkbmt lmlgysbr gl jhfï-
sohm±, Gl Gomùostoqub, pp. <3-<, pp. <42-<2<.
O
BG TBVTH JHKH RMODL
RMODLDD DB LMÌGOZOZ
GOM@×ËZTOJH

<. R󰁭󰁬 󰁭󰁢󰁪󰁢󰁺󰁯󰁤󰁬󰁤 󰁹󰁾󰁢󰁳󰁯󰁬5 󰁧󰁨󰁺 󰁧ë󰁫󰁯󰁴󰁢󰁺 󰁤󰁢󰁧 󰁫󰁨󰁤󰁢󰁧󰁨 󰁣󰁨󰁾󰁫󰁬󰁧 󰁢󰁭

󰁧󰁯󰁭󰁠÷ë󰁺󰁴󰁯󰁪󰁬 󰁿 󰁢󰁧 󰁪󰁬󰁫󰁮󰁯󰁨 󰁦󰁬󰁪󰁯󰁬 󰁢󰁧 󰁹󰁬󰁾󰁬󰁤󰁯󰁠󰁫󰁬 󰁣󰁲󰁭󰁪󰁯󰁨󰁭󰁬󰁧
<.<. Gls rlzhmbs dbg jlknoh db khdbgh
Gl gom`÷ëstojl bmtbmdodl jhkh «bg bxlkbm jobmtë 󿬌jh dbg gbmùleb ggbvldh
l jlnh jhm gl prbjosoúm prhpol db gl omvbsto`ljoúm jobmtë 󿬌jl± (Lgjlrlz, <??95
<>) bs uml rlkl dbg slnbr rbgltovlkbmtb rbjobmtb. Lumqub ghs bstudohs shnrb
bg gbmùleb sb bmjubmtrlm bmtrb gls prokbrls klmocbstljohmbs db gl jlpljodld
          
󰁶󰁶‚ julmdh ïsths flm ldquorodh jlrtl db mlturlgbzl jobmtë 󿬌jl. Cub gl bsjubgl
bstrujturlg gl prokbrl bm db󿬌mor um kïthdh, bg bstrujturlgostl1 um hnebth db
bstudoh, gl gbmùl y uml kbtl, dbsjronor bg sostbkl qub fljb phsongb bg cum-
johmlkobmth dbg gbmùleb (Tusúm, <?69 y <?6>). L plrtor db bsb khkbmth, bg
dbslrrhggh db gl gom`÷ëstojl fl sodh vbrtoòmhsh (Lrbms, <?3?). Bg vhgukbm db
bstudohs qub sb rblgozl bm thrmh l gl mlturlgbzl dbg gbmùleb y l gl dbsjropjoúm
y bg cumjohmlkobmth db gls gbmùls fl dldh gu`lr mh súgh l gl prhcumdozljoúm
bm julgquobr lspbjth `bmbrlg h plrtojuglr dbg bstudoh dbg gbmùleb, somh l gl
pubstl bm jubstoúm db ghs khdbghs db omvbsto`ljoúm omojolgbs y su sustotujoúm
phr htrhs jhm ghs qub sb fl prbtbmdodh y sb soùb
s oùb prbtbmdobmdh junror lqubgghs
lspbjths plrjolg, omjhkpgbtl h muglkbmtb lnhrdldhs phr lmtbrohrbs
lmtbr ohrbs kbthdhgh-
`ëls. Gl gom`÷ëstojl bstrujturlg y gl gom`÷ëstojl `bmbrltovl jhmchrklm gh qub sb
fl dbmhkomldh bg plrld
plrldo`kl chrklg, bs dbjor, bg prokbr khdbgh tbúrojh jhm
o`kl chrklg,
nlsb y prbsupubsths jobmtë 󿬌jhs db omvbsto`ljoúm gom`÷ëstojl (Gyhms, <?02).
Jhkh mh phdël sbr db htrl klmbrl bs um khdbgh qub «korl fljol dbmtrh±,
bs dbjor, qub nusjl shnrb thdh losglr su hnebth db bstudoh plrl db󿬌morgh, jgl-
so󿬌jlrgh, lmlgozlrgh, rbjhmhjbr sus umodldbs, db󿬌mor sus rbgljohmbs, bstlngbjbr
sus rb`gls y promjopohs, prbdbjor su jhkphrtlkobmth, rblgozlr `bmbrlgozljoh-
mbs vìgodls y lpgojljohmbs plrtojuglrbs kbthdhgúòjlkbmtb eusto󿬌jldls. Bg
gom`÷ostl-joruelmh fl fbjfh phsongb qub jhmhzjlkhs ghs bmtrbsoehs dbg sostbkl
gom`÷ëstojh y, bm jhmsbjubmjol, mhs fl hcrbjodh um hnebth db bstudoh lmlgozldh
omtrëmsbjlkbmtb flstl gl bxflustovodld. Ybrh gls gokotljohmbs
gokotljohmb s y bg l`htlkobmth
dbg kïthdh, umodh lg jubstohmlkobmth db sus rbsugtldhs y l gls bxo`bmjols om-
vbsto`ldhrls y db jhmhjokobmth qub gls dosjopgomls jobmtë 󿬌jls bm `bmbrlg vlm l
bkpbzlr l pglmtblr l plrtor db ghs lühs sbtbmtl y hjfbmtl flrì qub, bm kujfls
hjlsohmbs plrlgbglkbmtb, sb bkpobjbm l dbslrrhgglr mubvls phsonogodldbs db
lmìgosos shnrb bg sostbkl gom`÷ëstojh.
Bg mljokobmth db um plrldo`kl tobmb, jhkh l 󿬌rkl Lgjlrlz (<??95<:)
jlrìjtbr rbvhgujohmlroh,
rbvhgujohmlroh, pbrh ‚jhmtomõl‚ mh bs um jlknoh rldojlg db gl mhjfb
l gl klülml, «shm bposhdohs db dbslrrhggh mh ljukugltovh db gls jobmjols,
kbdolmtb ghs julgbs ghs vobehs plrldo`kls shm sustotuodhs bm thdh h bm plrtb
phr umh mubvh qub bs omjhkpltongb jhm ghs lmtbrohrbs±. Jhkh sb fl sbülgl-
dh crbjubmtbkbmtb, bg jlknoh dbg plrldo`kl chrklg lg cumjohmlg sb rblgozú
phr bg jubstohmlkobmth db lgùmhs db ghs promjopohs cumdlkbmtlgbs db bstls
mubvls bsjubgls qub klrjlrìm bg jlknoh db khdbgh bpostbkhgúòjh y, bm
jhmsbjubmjol, db hnebtovhs, 󿬌mbs y kïthdhs bm gl omvbsto`ljoúm gom`÷ëstojl
(Flggodly, <?09). Zom gu`lr l dudls cubrhm bg jlknoh db gl hrljoúm lg tbxth
jhkh umodld db lmìgosos gom`÷ëstojh y db gl gbmùl lg flngl jhkh hnebth db
omtbrïs db gl gom`÷ëstojl ghs dhs `rlmdbs slgths bpostïkojhs qub prhduebrhm bg
jlknoh db plrldo`kl. Cub um khvokobmth bm dorbjjoúm l gl lkpgoljoúm dbg
hnebth db bstudoh qub gl gom`÷ëstojl sb flnël prhpubsth umls dïjldls ltrìs.
Gl hrljoúm pbrklmbjël sbjuglrkbmtb rbjhmhjodl jhkh umodld db lmìgosos
kobmtrls qub bg bstudoh dbg sostbkl lnstrljth, db gl gbmùl, brl bg hnebtovh
db gl gom`÷ëstojl bstrujturlg y `bmbrltovl. Lg lkpgolr bg hnebth b omtbrïs db gl
gom`÷ëstojl flstl bsths mubvhs hnebtovhs,
hnebtovhs, bmtrlrhm l chrklr plrtb db su jlkph
db bstudoh jhmjbpths jhkh jhmtbxth, usulroh y jhkumojljoúm jhm okpgojl-
johmbs rldojlgbs bm bg lmìgosos b omtbrprbtljoúm dbg gbmùleb. Mlturlgkbmtb,
thdhs bsths jhmjbpths vomobrhm db gl klmh y l su vbz prhvhjlrhm
prhvhjlrhm bg dbslrrh-
ggh db mubvls bsjubgls tlmth bm Burhpl jhkh bm Lkïrojl qub prhpusobrhm
um khdbgh db bxpgojljoúm gom`÷ëstojl qub plrtobsb db bstl vosoúm lkpgoldl y
mhvbdhsl dbg gbmùleb y db gl dosjopgoml bmjlr`ldl db su bstudoh (Jlstbggé,
<??>, Lgjlrlz
Lgjlrlz y Klrtëmbz Gomlrbs, >994).
Lsë, gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth (Zjfkodt, <?0:, vlm Doea, <?00 y <?06, Nbr-
mìrdbz, <?6>) mljb jhm bg hnebtovh db db󿬌mor uml umodld db lmìgosos gom`÷ëstojh
‚bg tbxth‚ y um kïthdh jlplz db supbrlr ghs gëkotbs db gl hrljoúm1 gl prl`kìtojl
(Gbbjf, <?6:, Gbvomshm, <?6?) bmjubmtrl lfhrl bg khkbmth db su dbslrrhggh
prìjtojlkbmtb plrlgozldh dbsdb gl chrkugljoúm khrrosolml, lg vbrsb 󿬌mlgkbm-
tb bxtbmdodh bg bstudoh shnrb bg gbmùleb l gls okpgojljohmbs qub jhmtbxths y
usulrohs tobmbm bm gl mlturlgbzl y bg cumjohmlkobmth db ïstb1 phr su plrtb, bg
lmìgosos dbg dosjursh (Klomùbmblu, <?03, Nrhwm y _ugb, <?6:) ‚bm sus hrë-
`bmbs lm`ghslehmbs‚ mljb jhkh dosjopgoml bmjlr`ldl dbg bstudoh db ghs cbmú-
kbmhs dbg flngl, rbcbrbmtb lfhrl db julgquobr omvbsto`ljoúm gom`÷ëstojl y bs-
trbjflkbmtb umodh l gl prl`kìtojl y gls jobmjols shjolgbs. Tlknoïm bm Burhpl
bg lmìgosos dosjursovh db hrobmtljoúm sbkohgúòjl lkpgël su hnebth db bstudoh
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg >0
flstl omtb`rlr jubstohmbs rbgljohmldls jhm bg jhmtbxth y jhm ghs usulrohs. Bm

julmth l gl gom`÷ëstojl jh`motovl
jh`motovl (Jocubmtbs, <??4), lplrbjb bm bg plmhrlkl db
ghs bstudohs gom`÷ëstojhs jhkh uml bxpgojljoúm l ghs prhjbshs kbmtlgbs qub
sb dlm bm ghs flnglmtbs, qub jhmdojohmlm gl pbrjbpjoúm y, bm jhmsbjubmjol, gl
mlturlgbzl koskl dbg gbmùleb jhkh bxprbsoúm kìs jhkpgbel dbg suebth bxpb-
robmjolg qub klmbel bg omstrukbmth gom`÷ëstojh. Zb trltl bm thdhs ghs jlshs db
khdbghs lnobrths fljol bg ush y fljol ghs usulrohs dhmdb bg lmìgosos db tbxths
bmjubmtrl su bspljoh y su sbmtodh jhkh kïthdh db bstudoh db gl umodld qub bs
bg pumth db plrtodl db thdls bstls dosjopgomls5 bg tbxth.
Yhdbkhs dbjor qub, l promjopohs db ghs sbtbmtl ‚lumqub ghs omojohs y pro-
kbrhs lmtbjbdbmtbs sb sotõbm lgùmhs lühs lmtbs‚ gl gom`÷ëstojl prbsbmtl um
plmhrlkl thtlgkbmtb rbmhvldh y bmroqubjodh qub gls dïjldls db ghs hjfbm-
tl y mhvbmtl mh flrìm kìs qub jhmshgodlr. Lpbmls jomjubmtl lühs dbspuïs
db su mljokobmth jhkh dosjopgoml jobmtë 󿬌jl, gl gom`÷ëstojl dl jubmtl db uml
kldurbz y uml roqubzl jhmjbptulg kìs qub su󿬌jobmtb jhkh plrl lcrhmtlr um
jlknoh tlm sustlmjolg db plrldo`kl jhkh bg qub sb fl prhdujodh bm bg sbmh
db bstl dosjopgoml bm gls õgtokls dïjldls.
Bg jlkomh db supbrljoúm db gl «gom`÷ëstojl db gl gbmùl± sb cub rblgo-
zlmdh bm sujbsovls btlpls y phr dostomths gom`÷ostls qub, bm bg jursh db sus
omvbsto`ljohmbs, sb bmjhmtrlrhm gokotldhs bm gl bstrbjfbz db gl dojhthkël
slussurblml. Bs bg jlsh db Ïkogb Nbmvbmostb y db ^hklm Elahnshm. Dbsdb
jlkphs db omvbsto`ljoúm kuy dostomths lknhs jhmstltlm qub gl klyhrël db
ghs rbjurshs db gl gbmùl ldquobrbm su vbrdldbrl mlturlgbzl bm bg prhjbsh db
omtbrjlknoh jhkumojltovh
jhkumojltovh bmtrb ghs flnglmtbs.
Ïkogb Nbmvbmostb (<?33,<?04) jbmtrlrì sus omvbsto`ljohmbs bm bg ìknoth
db gl bmumjoljoúm. Bm lrtëjughs jhkh «Db gl sunebtovodld bm bg gbmùleb±, «Bg
lplrlth chrklg db gl bmumjoljoúm± y «Gl chrkl y bg sbmtodh bm bg gbmùleb±
pglmtbl um lmìgosos dbg gbmùleb lgbeldh dbg bstudoh sostbkìtojh db gls rbgljoh-
mbs lnstrljtls. Bm hpomoúm dbg gom`÷ostl, bs bm bg ljth bm bg qub um flnglmtb
thkl gl plglnrl, bm bg qub gl prhpol gbmùl bmjubmtrl su rlzúm db sbr y bm bg
qub sb bxpgojlm cbmúkbmhs tlm bsbmjolgbs plrl bg cumjohmlkobmth dbg sostbkl
jhkh gl rbcbrbmjolgodld. Bs bm bsb bspljoh, bg qub Nbmvbmostb
Nbmvbmostb dbmhkoml db gl
bmumjoljoúm, bm bg qub gl gbmùl yl mh bs júdo`h omlkhvongb somh, bm plglnrls
dbg prhpoh gom`÷ostl, «uml omstlmjol db dosjursh, qub bklml db um ghjuthr,
chrkl shmhrl qub bspbrl um ludothr qub susjotl htrl bmumjoljoúm l jlknoh±
(Nbmvbmostb, <?04564). Gl tbhrël db gl bmumjoljoúm db Nbmvbmostb vl l tb-
mbr uml okphrtlmjol cumdlkbmtlg bm bg dbslrrhggh db ghs bstudohs tbxtulgbs
y prl`kìtojhs. Cub bg prokbr gom`÷ostl bm trltlr gl prbsbmjol dbg suebth bm bg
gbmùleb y bm ldvbrtor qub súgh julmdh um «yh± sb lprhpol dbg gbmùleb plrl
jhkumojlrsb jhm um «tõ± bm um bspljoh y bm um tobkph jhmjrbth, gl gbmùl
jhnrl jlrtl db mlturlgbzl y sb jhmv

jhmvobrtb
obrtb bm bmumjoljoúm, bm dosjursh rblg, bm
omstrukbmth plrl gl jhkumojljoúm. Ghs bstudohs shnrb bg sostbkl dbëjtojh db
gls gbmùls sbrìm umh db ghs jlkphs db omvbsto`ljoúm kìs prhdujtovhs db gl
prl`kìtojl y, bm `bmbrlg, um lspbjth ombxjuslngb bm julgquobr pbrspbjtovl
lmlgëtojl shnrb bg dosjursh.
Yhr su plrtb ^hklm Elahnshm (<?02) dbslrrhgglrì gl tbhrël db ghs sfoctbrs
h bknrl`ldhrbs. Bm um bstudoh shnrb gls dbsombmjols vbrnlgbs, Elahnshm sb
dl jubmtl db qub bxostbm jobrths bgbkbmths bm bg gbmùleb qub rbkotbm l gl
bmumjoljoúm5 shm ghs ëmdojbs ‚qub sbülglm lg`h‚ y ghs sëknhghs ‚qub rbkotbm
l uml so`mo󿬌jljoúm‚. Db ljubrdh jhm bstb pumth db vostl, Elahnshm docbrbm-
jol bmtrb khrcbkls vbrnlgbs bknrl`ldhrbs (pbrshml, khdh y tobkph) y mh
bknrl`ldhrbs (mhknrb, vhz y lspbjth). Zb trltl, bm db 󿬌motovl, db gl tbkprlml
pbrjbpjoúm db qub fly bgbkbmths bm gl gbmùl ‚so mh bg sostbkl bmtbrh‚ juyl
bxostbmjol y cumjohmlkobmth sb eusto󿬌jl õmojlkbmtb bm gl kbdodl bm qub rb- r b-
kotbm lg kbmsleb, bs dbjor, lg suebth y l gl sotuljoúm bm bg qub fl tbmodh gu`lr
bg ljth gom`÷ëstojh.
Bm ghs trlnlehs db bsths dhs gom`÷ostls bg omtbrïs bstì pubsth bm gls rbgl-
johmbs bmtrb bg gbmùleb, ghs suebths y bg tobkph y bg gu`lr db gl bmumjoljoúm.
Nbmvbmostb
Nbm vbmostb y Elahnshm sb lshklm kìs lggì dbg sostbkl y lnrbm jhm sus prh-
pubstls bg jlkomh fljol gl lkpgoljoúm db ghs hnebtovhs db gl gom`÷ëstojl qub
kuy phjhs lühs dbspuïs onl l tbmbr gu`lr<.
<.>. Bg khdbgh cumjohmlg y bg lmìgosos db tbxths

Gl jhmjbpjoúm db gl gbmùl jhkh dosjursh, gl prohrodld dbg ush y gl ok-
phrtlmjol db gls cumjohmbs shjolgbs dbg gbmùleb crbmtb l gl jhmjbpjoúm `rl-
kltojlg y fhkh`bmbozldhrl db gl gbmùl bmtbmdodl jhkh júdo`h, shm ghs
bebs shnrb ghs qub sb sotõlm gls docbrbmjols db kïthdh y db jhmjbpth db gls
dhs pbrspbjtovls
pbrspbjtovls ‚chrklg h bstrujturlg y cumjohmlg‚ qub sb pglmtblm lquë. Zb
trltl, jhkh l󿬌rkl Gbbjf (<?6:), db dhs pumths db vostl shnrb bg gbmùleb
qub, mlturlgkbmtb, jhmdojohmlm julgquobr htrh dbslrrhggh tbúrojh h prìjtojh
phstbrohr.. Gls docbrbmjols plrl Gbbjf sb phdrëlm rbsukor jhkh soùb5
phstbrohr
<. Ghs chrklgostls (Jfhksay) tobmdbm l vbr bg gbmùleb bm prokbr gu`lr
jhkh um cbmúkbmh kbmtlg1 ghs cumjohmlgostls (Flggodly), jhkh um
cbmúkbmh shjolg.
< Mlturlgkbmtb, cubrhm htrhs kujfhs ghs gom`÷ostls qub jhmtronuybrhm

jhmtronuybrhm lg jlknoh db plrldo`-
kl jhm sus hnsbrvljohmbs shnrb gl okphrtlmjol dbg ush db
d b gl gbmùl y sus gglkldls db ltbm-
joúm shnrb gls gokotljohmbs dbg khdbgh bstrujturlg plrl bmtbmdbr su vbrdldbrl mlturlgbzl.
Bm Bsplül, bmtrb htrhs, Jhsbrou (<?23 y <?36) y Zlkubg @ogo @lyl (<?3<).
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg >?
>. Ghs chrklgostls tobmdbm l bxpgojlr ghs umovbrslgbs jhkh plrtb db uml

fbrbmjol `bmïtojl gom`÷ëstojl jhkõm1 ghs cumjohmlgostl
cumjohmlgostlss ghs bxpgojlm
jhkh jhmsbjubmjol db gl umovbrslgodld db ghs ushs qub dbg gbmùleb
fljb gl fuklmodld.
:. Ghs chrklg ostls tobmdbm l bxpgojlr gl ldquosojoúm dbg gbmùleb bm tïr-
chrklgostls
komhs db uml jlpljodld fuklml plrl lprbmdbr bg gbmùleb. Ghs cum-
johmlgostls sb omjgomlm l bxpgojlrgh bm tïrkomhs dbg dbslrrhggh db gls
mbjbsodldbs jhkumojltovls db ghs moühs y db su flnogodldbs shjolgbs.
4. Zhnrb thdh, ghs chrklgostls bstudolm bg gbmùleb jhkh um sostbkl lu-
túmhkh, shjolg. qub ghs cumjohmlgostls gh bstudolm bm rbgljoúm jhm
kobmtrls
su cumjoúm
Ybrh quobm fl chrkugldh jhkh jhmeumth gls lsumjohmbs tbúrojls dbg pl-
rldo`kl cumjohmlg bm gom`÷ëstojl fl sodh Zokhm Doa bm ghs «Kbtfhdhgh`
«Kbtfhdhghòjlg
ojlg
prbgokomlrobs± db su Tfb Tfbhry hc Cumjtohmlg @rlkklr (<??0). Bm bsls pì-
òmls pglmtbl gl okphrtlmjol db bsls jhmjbpjohmbs nìsojls db gls qub sb plrtb
bm uml omvbsto`ljoúm pubs shm, jhkh sbülgìnlkhs lmtbrohrkbmtb, gls qub
jhmdojohmlm gls prbùmtls y gls rbspubstls qub bg omvbsto`ldhr sb fljb shnrb
bg hnebth db omv
omvbsto`ljoúm.
bsto`ljoúm. Lsë, bstb luthr prbsbmtl gls jhmjbpjohmbs nìsojls
dbg plrldo`kl cumjohmlg jhkh gls rbspubstls l uml sbrob db jubstohmbs shnrb
gl mlturlgbzl y bg cumjohmlkobmth db gls gbmùls mlturlgbs (Doa, <??05 4-6).
Mhs fl plrbjodh omtbrbslmtb tlknoïm trlbrgls lquë, pubs, bm jhmeumth, shm uml
sëmtbsos kuy leustldl
gbs dbg plrldo`kl db gh qub
cumjohmlg phdrëlkhs Zhm
bm gom`÷ëstojl. dbmhkomlr ghs promjopohs
bstls odbls `bmbrl-
gls qub lgokbmtlm
y dbslrrhgglm bg khdbgh ljtulg db fljbr gom`÷ëstojl y shm sus tbhrëls gls qub
flm prhpojoldh qub lfhrl phdlkhs bstlngbjbr uml sbrob db odbls jhkõmkbm-
tb lsukodls y qub bm gl ljtulgodld sb bmjubmtrlm bm pgbml bvhgujoúm. Bstl bs
gl sbrob qub prbsbmth bm trldujjoúm prhpol.
<) ¸\uï bs uml gbmùl mlturlg8 Rml gbmùl mlturlg bs um omstrukbmth
db omtbrljjoúm shjolg.
>) ¸Juìg bs gl cumjoúm promjoplg db uml gbmùl mlturlg8 Bg bstlngbjo-
kobmth db jhkumojljoúm, mh rbstromòdl l gl trlmskosoúm y rbjbpjoúm
cljtulg, bmtrb MGRs (Rsulrohs db uml Gbmùl Mlturlg). Gl jhkumo-
jljoúm sb prbsbmtl jhkh um khdbgh domìkojh omtbrljtovh l trlvïs dbg
julg
jl dbghs
susMGRs bcbjtõlm jobrths jlknohs bm gl omchrkljoúm prl`kìto-
omtbrghjuthrbs.
:) ¸Juìg bs bg jhrrbglth psojhgúòjh db uml gbmùl8 Gl jhkpbtbmjol
jhkumojltovl db ghs MGRs, bs dbjor, bm db󿬌mojoúm db Fykbs (<?0:),
su flnogodld plrl ggbvlr l jlnh omtbrljjohmbs phr kbdoh dbg gbmùleb.
Kìs lggì db gl jhkpbtbmjol prl`kìtojl, gl jhkpbtbmjol jhkumojltovl
jhkumojltovl
so`mo󿬌jl mh súgh gl flnogodld plrl jhmstruor b omtbrprbtlr bxprbsohmbs
:9 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
gom`÷ëstojls, somh tlknoïm gl flnogodld plrl rblgozlr

r blgozlr bstls bxprbsohmbs
db khdh bcbjtovh y lprhpoldh db ljubrdh jhm gls jhmvbmjohmbs db gl
omtbrljjoúm vbrnlg prbdhkomlmtb bm uml jhkumodld gom`÷ëstojl.
4) ¸Juìg bs gl rbgljoúm bmtrb bg sostbkl db gl gbmùl y su ush8 Bg sostb-
kl qub sunyljb l gl jhmstrujjoúm db bxprbsohmbs gom`÷ëstojls bs um
sostbkl cumjohmlg. Zu hr`lmozljoúm mh sb pubdb bstudolr jhm lprhvb-
jflkobmth fljobmdh lnstrljjoúm db sus cumjohmbs jhkumojlto
jhkumojltovls.
vls.
2) ¸Júkh ldquobrbm ghs moühs uml gbmùl mlturlg8 Crbmtb lg ommltoskh
jfhksaolmh, dbsdb um pumth db vostl cumjohmlg bs kujfh kìs ltrlj-
tov
tovhh bstudolr gl omtbrljtovl
jhkumojljoúm ldquosojoúm
omtbrljto dbg gbmùleb
vl bmtrb tlg y jhkh
gl kldurljoúm sb dbslrrhggl
dbg moüh bm gl
y su lknobm-
tb.
3) ¸Júkh pubdbm bxpgojlrsb ghs umovbrslgbs gom`÷ëstojhs8 Flnrël qub
bstudolrghs bm tïrkomhs db ghs cljthrbs bxtbrmhs qub dbtbrkomlm su
mlturlgbzl. Zb trltlrël db bstlngbjbr5 <) gls rbgljohmbs jhkumojltovls
db lgth movbg bmtrb ghs fuklmhs1 >) gls prhpobdldbs nohgúòjls y pso-
jhgúòjls db ghs usulrohs1 :) gls jorjumstlmjols bm gls qub bs usldh bg
gbmùleb jhm prhpúsoths jhkumojltovhs.
0) ¸Juìg bs gl rbgljoúm bmtrb gl prl`kìtojl, sbkìmtojl y somtlxos8 Gl
prl`kìtojl bs bg klrjh dbmtrh dbg julg gl sbkìmtojl y gl somtlxos db-
nbm sbr bstudoldls. Gl sbkìmtojl bs omstrukbmtlg rbspbjth l gl prl`-
kìtojl y gl somtlxos rbspbjth l gl sbkìmtojl.
Bg plrldo`kl cumjohmlg prbsbmtl um pumth db vostl, um bspljoh y um kh-
dbgh lgtbrmltovh l gls prhpubstls bstrujturlg-`bmbrltovls dhkomlmtbs bm gls
dïjldls lmtbrohrbs. Bs uml pbrspbjtovl
pbrspbjtovl domìkojl b omtbrdosjopgomlr
omtbrdosjopgomlr,, dbjododl-
kbmtb prl`kìtojl, omtbrbsldl phr ghs prhjbshs jh`motovhs
jh`motovhs qub fljbm phsongb
bg cumjohmlkobmth dbg gbmùleb, qub jhmsodbrl gl okphsonogodld db dbsgo`lr
gls klmocbstljohmbs gom`÷ëstojh-vbrnlgbs
gom`÷ëstojh-vbrnlgbs hrlgbs h bsjrotls db sus jhmtbxths db
ush y db gls omtbmjohmbs db ghs usulrohs. Bs, bm db󿬌motovl, bg gu`lr dbsdb bg
qub qubrbkhs pglmtblr mubstrl prhpubstl kbthdhgúòjl db lmìgosos db tbxths,
pubs mh fly tbxth, dbsdb mubstrh pumth db vostl, qub mh sb dbnl l gls mbjb-
sodldbs jhkumojltovls
jhkumojltovls db umhs omtbrghjuthrbs y qub mh sb bxpgoqub jhkh um
ljth db omtbrljjoúm shjolg.
Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël
LGJL^LU SL^Ú, B. (<??9)5 Trbs plrldo`kls db gl omvbsto`ljoúm gom`÷ës-
tojl, Lgjhy, Klr󿬌g.
LGJL^LU SL^Ú,
SL^Ú, B. y K.ªL.
K. ªL. KL^TËMBU GOML^BZ,
GO ML^BZ, (>994)5 Dojjohmlroh
db gom`÷ëstojl khdbrml, Nlrjbghml, Lrobg.
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg :<
L^BMZ, F. (<?3?)5 Gl gom`÷ëstojl5 sus tbxths y su bvhgujoúm dbsdb gl Lmto-

`÷bdld flstl mubstrhs dëls, > vhgs., Kldrod, @rbdhs, <?03.
NBMSBMOZTB, Ï. (<?33)5 Yrhngbkls db gom`÷ëstojl `bmbrlg, O, Kïxojh, Zo-
`gh VVO, <?04
————— (<?04)5 Yrhngbkls db gom`÷ëstojl `bmbrlg, OO, Kïxojh, Zo`gh
VVO, <?00.
Omtrhdujjoúm
Bsplsl-Jlgpb.
N^HPM,
N^H PM, @. y _.
_. @BH^@B
@BH^@B (<?6:)5
(<?6:)5 Lmìgosos dbg dosjursh, Kldrod, Soshr, <??:.
JLZTBGGÉ, E.K. (<??>)5 Db gl crlsb lg tbxt. Tbhrobs db g‟õs gomùëstoj, Nlr-
jbghml, Bkpurobs.
JOCRBMTBZ FHM^RNOL,
FHM^RNOL, E.G. (<??4)5 @rlkìtojl jh`motovl. Cumdlkbmths
jrëtojhs, Kldrod, Budbkl.
JHZBÔR, B. (<?36)5 Bg fhknrb y su gbmùleb, Kldrod, @rbdhs, <?62.
————— (<?23)5 Tbhrël dbg gbmùleb y gom`÷ëstojl `bmbrlg, @rbdhs,
Kldrod,<?06.
DOEA, T.L. vlm (<?00)5 Tbxth y jhmtbxth. Zbkìmtojl y prl`kìtojl dbg dosjur-
sh, Kldrod, Jìtbdrl, <?64.
————— (<?06)5 Gl jobmjol dbg tbxth. Rm bmchqub omtbrd omtbrdosjopgomlroh,
osjopgomlroh,
Nlrjbghml, Ylodús, <?6:.
DOA, Z.J. (<??0)5 Tfb Tfbhry hc h c Cumjtohmlg @rlkklr
@rlkklr.. Ylrt
Ylrt <5 Tfb Ztrujturb
Ztr ujturb
hc tfb Jglusb, Nbrgëm-
Nbrgëm-Mubvl
Mubvl _hra, Khuthm db d b @ruytbr.
@ruy tbr.
@OGO @L
@L_ _L, Zlkubg
Zlku bg (<?3<)5
( <?3<)5 Jursh supbrohr db somtlxos bsplühgl, Nlrjbgh-
ml, Shx.
FLGGODL_, K.L.A. (<?09)5 «Bstrujturl y cumjoúm dbg gbmùleb±, bm E.
G_HMZ (bd.),
(bd .), Mubvhs fhrozhmtbs gom`÷ëstojl, Kldrod, Lgolmzl Bdo-
fhrozhmtbs db gl gom`÷ëstojl,
throlg, <?02.
ELAHNZHM,
ELA HNZHM, ^. (<?02)5
(<?02) 5 Bmslyhs db gom`÷ëstojl `bmbrlg, Nlrjbghml, Zbox Nl-
rrlg.
GBBJF, @.M. (<?6:)5 Yromjopohs db prl`kìtojl, Gh`rhüh, Rmovbrsodld db
Gl ôhel, <??0.
GBSOMZHM, Z.J. (<?6?)5 Yrl`kìtojl, Nlrjbghml, Tbodb.
KLOM@RBMBLR, D. (<?03)5 Omtrh Omtrhdujjoúm
dujjoúm l ghs kïthdhs db lmìgosos dbg
dosjursh,Z.E.
ZJFKODT, Nubmhs Lorbs,
(<?0:)5 Fljfbttb,
Tbhrël <?63.
dbg tbxth. Yrhngbkls db uml gom`÷ëstojl db gl
jhkumojljoúm vbrnlg, Kldrod, Jìtbdrl, <?00.
TRZÚM, E. (<?69)5 Tbhrëls `rlkltojlgbs y lmìgosos somtìjtojh, Nlrjbghml,
Tbodb.
TRZÚM, E. (<?6>)5 Lprhx okljoúm l gl fosthrol db gl gom`÷ëstojl, Nlrjbghml,
Lprhxokljoúm
Tbodb.
:> Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
Ljtovodldbs
<. ¸\uï bs bg kïthdh omdujtovh8 ¸_ bg fophtïtojh-
fophtïtojh-dbdujtovh8
dbdujtovh8 Omcúrkl
Omcúrkltb
tb
           -
dld bm rbgljoúm jhm gl omvbsto`ljoúm gom`÷ëstojl.
>. Lso`ml ghs soùobmtbs jhmjbpths
jhmjbpths lg plrldo`kl
plrldo`kl qub gb jhrrbsphmdl
‚bstrujturlg h cumjohmlg‚. Lgùmh
Lgùmh db bgghs pubdb pbrtbmbjbr l lknhs,
bxpgojl, bm bsb jlsh, ghs kltojbs.
Gbmùl y flngl, ljth db flngl, rb rb`gls
`gls `bmbrlto
`bmbrltovls,
vls, bstrujturl prh-
cumdl, bmumjoldh, dboxos, so`mh gom`÷ëstojh,
gom`÷ëstojh, Nbmvb
Nbmvbmostb,
mostb, jhkpbtbmjol,
Zlussurb,ojl,
prl`kìt
prl`kìtojl,omtbrljjoúm,
ldbjuljoúmrbgljohmbs
ldbjuljoúm.. somtl`kìtojls, somjrhmël, sostbkl,
:. Gbb bg jlpëtugh «Bmgljbs
«Bmgljbs bxtrlhrljohmlgbs±
bxtrlhrljohmlgbs± dbg gonrh db Zlkubg
Zlkubg @ogo
@lyl Jursh supbrohr db somtlxos bsplühgl y sbgbjjohml ghs crl`kbm-
ths kìs rbvbgldhrbs db su prbhjupljoúm phr bg movbg tbxtulg db gl
gbmùl.
4. Jhkbmtl l plrtor db gl gbjturl db bsths tbxths
tbxths ghs promjoplgbs rls`hs
rls`hs
dbg gglkldh plrldo`kl cumjohmlg h prl`kìtojh-tb
prl`kìtojh-tbxtulg.
xtulg.
Ylrl mhshtrhs, gls plglnrls, ghs somtl`kls y gls hrljohmbs qub lplrbzjlm
bm bg rbòstrh tbxtulg db um dosjursh sbrìm uml kubstrl dbg omtbmth dbg
bkoshr (flnglmtb/bsjrothr) db jhkumojlr su kbmsleb l um rbjbpthr/hybmtb.
Q...[ Bvodbmtbkbmtb
gbmùleb bstl pbrspbjtovl
jhkh su jlkph ldhptl gl cumjoúm
nìsojh db omvbsto`ljoúm jhkumojltovltrltl
y, bm jhmsbjubmjol, dbg
db dbsjronor gl chrkl gom`÷ëstojl, mh jhkh um hnebth bstìtojh, somh jhkh um
kbdoh domìkojh db bxprbslr bg so`mo󿬌jldh prbtbmdodh.
@. N^HPM y @. _RGB, Lmìgosos dbg dosjursh,
dosjursh, <??:, p. 44
Rml bxprbsoúm mh dbnbrël jlrljtbrozlrsb súgh bm tïrkomhs db su bstrujturl
omtbrml y bg so`mo󿬌jldh qub sb gb lso`ml, somh tlknoïm bm tïrkomhs dbg ljth
rblgozldh lg prhdujor bsl bxprbsoúm.‛
T. vlm Doea , Tbxth jhmtbxth, <??2, p. :<
Tbxth y jhmtbxth,
>. G󰁬 󰁤󰁢󰁣󰁯󰁭󰁯󰁪󰁯ú󰁭 󰁤󰁢 «󰁴󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨±. B󰁧 󰁴󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨 󰁪󰁨󰁫󰁨 󰁲󰁭󰁯󰁤󰁬󰁤 󰁪󰁨󰁫󰁲󰁭󰁯󰁪󰁬󰁴󰁯󰁳󰁬

>.<. Db gl hrljoúm lg tbxth
Jhkh umodld db lmìgosos gom`÷ëstojh, gl umodld tbxth bs rbjobmtb y su
bstlngbjokobmth jhkh tlg pubdb jhmsodbrlrsb jhkh bg prokbrh y promjoplg
rbvugsovh qub okpugsú bg jlknoh db khdbgh db omvbsto`ljoúm gom`÷ëstojl.
gom`÷ës tojl. Gl
odbl db qub uml umodld supbrohr l gl hrljoúm pudobrl jhmvbrtorsb
jhmvbrtorsb bm hnebth
db lmìgosos gom`÷ëstojh bmtusolskú l kujfhs eúvbmbs omvbsto`ldhrbs
omvbsto`ldhrbs jrëtojhs
jhm lgùmhs lspbjths db gl `rlkìtojl `bmbrltovl bm gl qub kogotlnlm. Bg
mljokobmth dbg tbxth jhkh umodld db lmìgosos bstì bstrbjflkbmtb go`ldh
lg Jhm`rbsh db gl Rmovbrsodld db Jhmstlmzl (<?3?) y l gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg
tbxth, jhrrobmtb
jhrrob mtb db omvbsto`ljoúm gom`÷ëstojl qub mljoú
mlj oú jhm bg hnebtovh db dlr
jlrtl db mlturlgbzl l bstl mubvl umodld. Bm um prokbr khkbmth gl omtbm-
joúm cub dbslrrhgglr uml `rlkìtojl tbxtulg qub pbrkotobrl lnhrdlr lgùmhs
prhngbkls qub, jhkh flnël qubdldh dbkhstrldh, mh brl phsongb shgujohmlr
bm
bstlbgprokbrl
ìknoth hrljohmlg.
lprhxokljoúmZom lg
bknlr`h,
tbxth sbjhkh
slgdúbxpgojl
jhm umB.crljlsh
Nbrmìrdbz
pubs (<?6>),
gh qub
sb fozh bm rblgodld cub lpgojlr khdbghs hrljohmlgbs plrl db 󿬌mor gh qub sb
jhmsodbrlnl, som kìs, uml umodld db hrdbm supbrohr.
supbrohr. Lsë jhkbmtl bstb luthr
rb󿬌roïmdhsb l ghs prokbrhs `rlkìtojhs dbg tbxth5 «Zo bm gl `rlkìtojl bs
phsongb bstlngbjbr um movbg khrcïkojh qub sb omtb`rl bm umh supbrohr, bg db
gls plglnrls, ïstb l su vbz bm bg dbg somtl`kl,
s omtl`kl, y ïsths umodhs bm bg movbg su-
pbrohr, gl crlsb, mh fly rlzhmbs bm promjopoh plrl mh jhmsodbrlr qub bg mov movbg
bg
db gls hrljohmbs sb sunhrdoml l su vbz l htrh kìs bgbvldh, bg db ghs tbxths±
(Nbrmìrdbz, <?6>5 :2-:3).
Kuy prhmth sb jhkprhnú qub bg slgth db gl hrljoúm lg tbxth mh brl súgh
uml jubstoúm julmtotltovl
julmt otltovl somh, shnrb thdh, um slgth julgotltovh
julgotlt ovh y qub bg tbxth
mbjbsotlnl plrl su db󿬌mojoúm, jlrljtbrozljoúm y bstudoh um kïthdh y uml
pbrspbjtovll shnrb bg gbmùleb kujfh kìs lkpgoldl qub gl prhpubstl flstl
pbrspbjtov
bmthmjbs. Gl okphrtlmjol db ghs cljthrbs sbkìmtojhs y prl`kìtojhs bm bg
lmìgosos y gl omtbrprbtljoúm tbxtulg khstrú gls gokotljohmbs dbg jhmjbpth
bstrojtlkbmtb somtìjtojh db `rlkltojlgodld qub sb lpgojlnl l gl hrljoúm b
fozh mbjbslrol gl bglnhrljoúm db mubvls tbhrëls gom`÷ëstojls qub tuvobrlm
bm jhmsodbrljoúm uml pbrspbjtovl jhkumojltovl y prhjbsulg shnrb bg tbxth

jhkh õmojl phsonogodld db dlr rbspubstl l su mlturlgbzl db umodld db om-
tbrjlknoh jhkumojltovh. Gl odbl db qub mh flnglkhs phr crlsbs, somh phr
tbxths y db qub bs gl omtbmjoúm jhkumojltovl
jhkumojltovl dbg flnglmtb gl qub dbtbrkoml
ghs gëkotbs db gl umodld tbxtulg sbrìm ghs jhmjbpths jglvb qub rbhrobmtbm ghs
bstudohs gom`÷ëstojhs.
Bg jhmjbpth y gls db󿬌mojohmbs db tbxth qub sb flm prhpubsth l plrtor db
bmthmjbs bstìm bstrbjflkbmtb umodhs l gl jhrrobmtb h pumth db vostl gom`÷ës-
tojh dbsdb bg qub ïstls sb prhphmbm. Gl bkbr`bmjol sokugtìmbl, jhkh yl
fbkhs sbülgldh, db htrls dosjopgomls jhkh gl prl`kìtojl h bg lmìgosos dbg dos-
jursh, gl do󿬌jugtld db dbelr ltrìs jhmjbpths tlm trldojohmlgkbmtb lrrlo`ldhs
bm ghs bstudohs shnrb bg gbmùleb jhkh bg db hrljoúm, bg pbsh qub jhmjbpths
jhkh sostbkl h jhkpbtbmjol flnëlm tbmodh bm gl jhmshgodljoúm db󿬌motovl db
gl gom`÷ëstojl jhkh dosjopgoml jobmtë 󿬌jl y, bm jhmsbjubmjol, gl clgtl db umhs
promjopohs tbúrojhs y prìjtojhs qub eusto󿬌jlrlm jobmtë 󿬌jlkbmtb bg bstudoh db
ghs cbmúkbmhs db flngl h db gl ljtuljoúm, doh gu`lr l qub gls db 󿬌mojohmbs
db tbxth cubrlm y so`lm sobmdh kujfls, docëjogbs db jglso󿬌jlr y, bm hjlsoh-
mbs, jhmtrldojthrols. Bm `bmbrlg, ldbkìs, kujfls db gls db 󿬌mojohmbs vomobrhm
ljhkplüldls dbg bstlngbjokobmth db gls prhpobdldbs jlrljtbrozldhrls db gl
umodld tbxtulg.
Bm gh qub soùb omtbmtlrbkhs rbplslr gh qub, l mubstrh euojoh, shm
lgùmhs db ghs jhmjbpths bsbmjolgbs plrl sotulr bm gl ljtulgodld gh qub
sb bmtobmdb phr tbxth y juìgbs shm sus jlrljtbrëstojls. Gbehs db qubrbr
prbsbmtlr lquë um bstudoh bxflustovh>, fbkhs prbcbrodh bgbòr uml sbrob
db db󿬌mojohmbs y, lg fogh db sus prhpubstls, hnsbrvlr db quï klmbrl ghs
gom`÷ostls flm odh khdo 󿬌jlmdh su pumth db vostl shnrb bg hnebth db bstu-
doh y bm quï dorbjjoúm sb prhdujb bsb lvlmjb. Tïrkomhs jhkh jhkumo-
jljoúm, bstrujturl, prhjbsh, omtbmjoúm, flnglmtbs, ush, jhmtbxth, chrklm
plrtb db gl klyhrël db gls db 󿬌mojohmbs y jhmstotuybm plrtb dbg pltrokhmoh
tbrkomhgúòjh y jhmjbptulg dbg khdbgh db omvbsto`ljoúm gom`÷ëstojl dbg
qub prhjbdbm.
Sbrbkhs l jhmtomuljoúm juìgbs shm gls prhpobdldbs qub sb pubdbm ltro-
nuor lg tbxth y, shnrb thdh, db quï klmbrl shm rbjhmhjongbs y lmlgozlngbs
plrl, 󿬌mlgkbmtb, omtbmtlr sbülglr lgùmhs db ghs lspbjths qub uml db󿬌mojoúm
db tbxth dbnbrël jhmtbmbr y bm ghs qub sb phmdrì tlknoïm bm bvodbmjol bg
khdbgh db lmìgosos tbxtulg qub dbsdb lquë sb prhphmb.
>
Rml rbvosoúm kujfh kìs bxflusto
bxflustovl
vl bm Klrokúm Gghrjl, J. (>993)5 Bg tbxth jhkh umodld
jhkumojltovl, (fttp5//www
(fttp5//www.gojbus.jhk).
.gojbus.jhk).
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg :2
>.>. Bg jlrìjtbr jhkumojltovh dbg tbxth

Ylrl kujfhs gom`÷ostls, gl mlturlgbzl jhkumojltovl bs uml db gls jlrlj-
tbrëstojls db󿬌mothrols cumdlkbmtlgbs dbg tbxth. Lsë gh pglmtblm, phr bebkpgh,
Zjfkodt, Flggodly y Flsslm, vlm Doea, btj.
Ylrl Zjfkodt (<?005 <94 y ss.) bg jlrìjtbr jhkumojltovh
jhkumojltovh dbg tbxth prhjb-
db dbg fbjfh db qub bg omtbrjlknoh tbxtulg tobmb gu`lr bmtrb um bkoshr y um
rbjbpthr l trlvïs db um jlmlg y bm um bspljoh/tobkph dbtbrkomldhs. Tlmth bg
bkoshr jhkh bg rbjbpthr dbg kbmsleb bstìm jhmdojohmldhs phr jlrljtbrëstojls
db toph shjohbjhmúkoj
shjohbjhmúkojh, h, shjohjugturlg y psëquojh-noh`rì󿬌jh qub dbtbrkomlm
gls ljtovodldbs db prhdujjoúm y jhkprbmsoúm tbxtulg. Gl okphrtlmjol qub
plrl Zjfkodt phsbbm gls jhmdojohmbs bxtrlgom`÷ëstojls qubdl db klmo󿬌bsth
bm su jhmjbpth db tbxth qub vl kìs lggì db gh bstrojtlkbmtb gom`÷ëstojh plrl
omjguor bg phtbmjolg oghjutovh y gl jltb`hrël db tbxtulgodld qub db󿬌mb jhkh
«bg khdh db klmocbstlrsb umovbrslg y shjolg qub sb usl bm thdls gls gbmùls
plrl gl rblgozljoúm
r blgozljoúm db gl jhkumojljoúm± (Zjfkodt, <?005 <46). Lsë pubs, plrl
Zjfkodt, gl db󿬌mojoúm db tbxth qubdlrël jhkh soùb (<?005 <2:)5
Tbxth bs jldl bgbkbmth vbrnlg db um ljth jhkumojltovh bmumjoldh bm uml
ljtovodld jhkumojltovl qub tobmb uml hrobmtljoúm tbkìtojl y jukpgb uml
cumjoúm jhkumojltovl pbrjbptongb, bs dbjor, rblgozl um phtbmjolg oghjutovh.
Ghs gom`÷ostls Flggodly y Flsslm fljbm rbcbrbmjol omsostbmtbkbmtb l gh
qub dbmhkomlm gls prhpobdldbs sotuljohmlgbs dbg tbxth y qub sb dbrov
dbrovlm
lm prb-
joslkbmtb db gl mlturlgbzl
rbmjol, prhpobdld jhkumojltovl
jhkumojlto
cumdlkbmtlg vl db
dbg tbxth sb ïstb.
klmoYlrl
󿬌bstlbsths luthrbs,
bm dhs gl jhfb-
lspbjths5 rbs-
pbjth lg prhpoh tbxth y rbspbjth lg jhmtbxth db sotuljoúm. Bm bstb õgtokh jlsh,
sb dojb qub bg tbxth bs jhmsostbmtb rbspbjth lg rbòstrh (Flggodly y Flsslm,
<?6:5 >:). Bg jhmtbxth db sotuljoúm gh jhkphmbm cljthrbs bxtrlgom`÷ëstojhs
rbgljohmldhs jhm bg tbxth y, bm su khdbgh db lmìgosos, prhphmbm ghs jhmjbp-
ths jlkph, khdh y tbmhr jhkh gls vlrolngbs l plrtor db gls julgbs sb pubdbm
prbjoslr bshs lspbjths jhmtbxtulgbs jhm trlsjbmdbmjol tbxtulg.
Yhr su plrtb E. Ybtó󿬌 y Lmthmoh @lrjël Nbrroh bm Gom`÷
Gom`÷ëstoj
ëstojll dbg tbxth y
jrëtojl gotbrlrol (<?06) omjhrphrlm jhmjbpths jhkh bg db gl «omtbmjoúm jhkumo-
jltovl dbg flnglmtb± db `rlm trlsjbmdbmjol bm gl pbrspbjtovl prl`kìtojl y jh`-
motovll shnrb bg dosjursh qub sb dbslrrhgglrì phstbrohrkbmtb. Ylrl bsths luthrbs5
motov
Bg
dbgtbxth
tbxthjhkh umodld
dbpbmdb db tbúrojl mh tobmb
gl omtbmjoúm bxtbmsoúm prbdbg
jhkumojltovl
󿬌 eldl Q...[ gl dbgokotljoúm
flnglmtb, db gh qub ïg
quobrl jhkumojlr jhkh jhmeumth db umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls vomjugldls bm um
jhm`ghkbrldh thtlg db omtbmjoúm jhkumojltovl.
jhkumojltovl.
Ylrl vlm Doea (<??25 :>), gl okphrtlmjol
okphrtlmjo l dbg jhmtbxth jhkumojltovh rldojl
bm qub jobrtls prhpobdldbs dbg dosjursh bstìm dbtbrkomldls phr «gl bstrujturl
db ghs flnglmtbs, ghs ljths oghjujohmlrohs y bg trltlkobmth

tr ltlkobmth db gl omchrkljoúm bm
gl jhmvbrsljoúm± (<??25 >?9).
Bm uml pubstl lg dël shnrb gl tlrbl ljtulg db gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth, ^h-
nbrt db Nblu`rlmdb (<??25 2:3-244) sb pglmtbl tlknoïm uml rbdb󿬌mojoúm dbg
hnebth db bstudoh l gl guz db ghs mubvhs jlkomhs thkldhs phr gl prhpol gom-
`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth. Lsë, plrl bstb luthr, bg tbxth dbnb sbr db 󿬌modh jhkh um
ljhmtbjokobmth bkpërojh jhkumojltovh qub tobmb gu`lr bm gl jhkumojljoúm
fuklml kìs qub omtbmtlmdh nusjlr su bspbjo󿬌jodld kbdolmtb uml tbhrël chr-
klg. Jldl bvbmth jhkumojltovh sb dbnltb dolgïjtojlkbmtb bmtrb bg sostbkl
vortulg dbg gbmùleb (bg rbpbrthroh db phsonogodldbs) y bg sostbkl ljtulg jhms-
totuodh
db bshsphr
dhsgls bgbjjohmbs
phghs somh qubdbg prhdujthr
omtb`rl dbg tbxth.
y rbjhmjogol Bg tbxth
lknhs. Bm mh
htrhbstì bm lgùmh
lrtëjugh lg`h
lmtbrohr shnrb bg koskh tbkl, Nblu`rlmdb (<??95 <:) prhphmël um bsqubkl
bm bg qub sb rbprbsbmtlm gls cumjohmbs db jhmtrhg h gokotljoúm db gl omdbtbrko-
mljoúm qub bg sostbkl phsbb rbspbjth lg flngl l gl qub prhvbb db jltb`hrëls y,
               
qub bsths dlths db ush phsbbm plrl bg sostbkl5
Dbtbrkoml prhphrjohmlmdh bxpbrobmjol
sostbkl u sh

Dbtbrkoml prhphrjohmlmdh jltb`hrëls
Ylrl E. K. Zomjglor (<?605 <2), gls promjoplgbs docbrbmjols bmtrb um khdb-

gh bstìtojh y um khdbgh domìkojh db dosjursh shm gls soùobmtbs5
(<) Bg khdbgh domìkojh dbnb khstrlr júkh bg dosjursh dosjurrb db um
pumth l htrh. Bm um khdbgh domìkojh ghs bgbkbmths db gl bstrujturl
shm dbsjroths tbmobmdh bm jubmtl bg dosjursh bm gl kbdodl bm qub fl
hjurrodh.
(>) Bg khdbgh domìkojh dbnb khstrlr júkh ghs jhkphmbmtbs eub`lm su
Bstlplpbg bm gl rblgozljoúm
pbrspbjtovl db lg
omjguyb tlmth lg`õm
tbxthprhpúsoth.
bsjroth jhkh lg tbxth hrlg pubs lk-
nhs shm omtbrljtovhs, dorbjjohmlgbs y phsbbm um 󿬌m h prhpúsoth. Gl dbsjropjoúm
dbg gbmùleb chrklg bsjroth sb trlmschrkl lg lpgojlrgb um khdbgh domìkojh
pubs bmthmjbs slgb lg dbsjunobrth kujfl db su omtbrljtovodld. Bm mubstrl hpo-
moúm, bstb bs um lspbjth kuy okphrtlmtb pubs komokozl gls docbrbmjols bmtrb
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg :0
ghs kïthdhs db lmìgosos y mhs pbrkotb trltlr bg tbxth bsjroth tlknoïm jhkh um
jhkpgbeh domìkojh db omtbrljjoúm jhkumojltovl. Bs db gl koskl hpomoúm vlm
Doea (>9995 >4) julmdh flngl db jhkumojljoúm bsjrotl h omtbrljjoúm bsjrotl
plrl rbcbrorsb lg omtbrjlknoh jhkumojltovh kbdolmtb tbxths bsjroths qub, l pb-
slr db su lplrobmjol hnebtulg, tlknoïm phsbbm usulrohs y prhpúsoths jhkumo-
jltovhs, bs dbjor, shm chrkls db omtbrljjoúm.
Jhkh khstrlrbkhs kìs ldbglmtb, mubstrh khdbgh db lmìgosos db tbxths
rbjh`b bstb pglmtblkobmth domìkojh b omtbrljto
omtbrljtovh
vh dbg tbxth bsjroth.
Rmodh lg tbkl db gl dokbmsoúm jhkumojltovl dbg tbxth fl bstldh sobk-
prb bg db sus rbgljohmbs jhm gl hrljoúm. Zjfkodt, phr bebkpgh, jhmsodbrl gls
crlsbs «bstrujturls db hr`lmozljoúm cumjohmlgkbmtb dbpbmdobmtbs± (Zjfkodt,
<?005 <22), bs dbjor
dbjor,, jhmdojohmldls phr htrl bstrujturl cumjohmlg supbrohr db
okphrtlmjol shjohjhkumojltovl qub bs bg tbxth. Bm bstb sbmtodh l󿬌rkl Zjf-
kodt (<?005 <22)5
Gl crlsb dbnb lmlgozlrsb dbsdb bg tbxth-bm-cumjoúm y mh bg tbxth dbsdb bg
movbg db gl crlsb. Gls crlsbs rbjonbm su cumjoúm bm bg movbg dbg tbxth, kìs
bxljtlkbmtb jhkh prhjbdokobmths db tbxtulgozljoúm.
Bm uml hrobmtljoúm sbkbelmtb, Flggodly y Flsslm fljbm rbcbrbmjol l gl
okphrtlmjol jhmchrkldhrl db gl hrljoúm bm gl kbdodl bm qub jhmsodbrlm qub
bg tbxth bstì rblgozldh phr hrljohmbs1 som bknlr`h, lg oùlg qub Zjfkodt,
fljbm dbpbmdbr l gl hrljoúm dbg tbxth, jhkh umodld supbrohr bm gl qub ïstl
bmjubmtrl su sbmtodh (Flggodly y Flsslm, <?6:5 <->)5
Rm tbxth mh bs uml hrljoúm pbrh kìs `rlmdb, bs lg`h qub do 󿬌brb db gl hrljoúm
bm jglsb.
Rm tbxth mh jhmsostb bm hrljohmbs1 bstì rblgozldh phr h jhdo 󿬌jldh phr
hrljohmbs. Zo gh bmtbmdbkhs lsë, mh bspbrlrbkhs bmjhmtrlr bg koskh
kos kh toph db
omtb`rljoúm bstrujturlg bmtrb gls plrtbs db um tbxth jhkh gl qub bmjhmtrlkhs
bmtrb gls plrtbs db uml hrljoúm.
Bm uml prhpubstl kujfh kìs rbjobmtb shnrb gls rbgljohmbs bmtrb tbxth y
hrljoúm, B. Nbrmìrdbz bm su trlnleh «Fhkbhkhr󿬌skh db tbxth y hrljoúm±
(>9995 >9<->><) sb pglmtbl juìg bs bg toph db rbgljoúm qub lknls umodldbs
klmtobmbm. Dbsjlrtldl gl rbgljoúm bstrujturlg qub ghs omojohs db gl Gom`÷ëstojl
dbg tbxth dbkhstrlrhm ombxostbmtb, prhphmb qub tbxth y hrljoúm së phsbbm odïm-
tojl hr`lmozljoúm,
bggls bs dbjor,
fly uml rbgljoúm qub shm thphgúòjlkbmtb
db fhkbhkhr bquovlgbmtbs
󿬌skh. Ghs promjopohs y qub bmtrb
hr`lmozltovhs qub
tbxth y hrljoúm tobmbm bm jhkõm shm jh`motovhs y shjohjugturlgbs «y sb rblgo-
zlm db chrkls dovbrsls jhkh jhmsbjubmjol dorbjtl b omkbdoltl db gl docbrbmtb
jhkpgbeodld db gls okì`bmbs kbmtlgbs (y gls sotuljohmbs db jhkumojljoúm)
sunyljbmtbs± (>9995 >9?). L plrtor db bstb trlnleh prh`rlkìtojh, Nbrmìrdbz
bstlngbjb gls fopútbsos jhkh qub dbnb bxostor uml jhrrbgljoúm sostbkìtojl bmtrb
bg cumjohmlkobmth db ghs promjopohs hr`lmozltovhs dbg tbxth y gl hrljoúm, qub
bstl jhrrbgljoúm pubdb kbdorsb bm rbgljoúm l ghs promjopohs db jhmto`÷odld y
sbplrljoúm y qub julmth kìs sokpgbs sblm gls okì`bmbs kbmtlgbs rbprbsbm-
tldls gom`÷ëstojlkbmtb, klyhr movbg db luthkltozljoúm h jhdo󿬌jljoúm phdrì
bxostor.
Gl prhpubstl db Nbrmìrdbz bs, bm rblgodld, um prhybjth, pbrh qub phmb
db klmo󿬌bsth qub gls rbgljohmbs bmtrb tbxth y hrljoúm sb bmjubmtrlm bm gl lj-
tulgodld bm um khkbmth qub phdrëlkhs gglklr db jhmjogoljoúm. Rml tbrjbrl
btlpl kuy bspbrlmzldhrl qub soùb l uml prokbrl db omtbmth db lpgojljoúm
sostbkìtojl db ghs promjopohs db uml ‚gl hrljoúm‚ l htrl ‚bg tbxth‚1 uml sb-
ùmdl db l󿬌rkljoúm y nõsqubdl db gls docbrbmjols1 y uml tbrjbrl bm gl qub
sb omtbmtl bmjhmtrlr quï bs gh qub prhvhjl bg clkhsh «slgth± db gl hrljoúm
lg tbxth. Gl gom`÷ëstojl jh`motovl
jh`motovl y su tbhrël db gl jltb`hrozljoúm y ghs prhth-
tophs pglmtbl gl bxostbmjol db gëkotbs docushs bmtrb jltb`hrëls gh qub cljogotl
gls trlmsojohmbs y hcrbjb um jlkph hpbrljohmlg qub jhmsodbrl dojfls trlmso-
johmbs jhkh dostomths khkbmths bm bg plsh db umls jltb`hrël l htrls. Bstl
pbrspbjtovl jh`motovl pubdb dlr rbsugtldhs kuy phsotovhs bm bg omtbmth db
jltb`hrozlr tbxth y hrljoúm y hnsbrvlr ghs prhjbshs qub gls hr`lmozlm.
>.:. Gl db 󿬌mojoúm db «tbxth±
Lsbùrl Nbrmìrdbz bm su Omtrhdujjoúm l gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth (<?6>5
Omtrhdujjoúm
03) qub gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth «pubdb jhmsodbrlrsb jhkh um omtbmth db db󿬌-
mor bg tbxth± db lfë qub ïg dbdoqub uml plrtb okphrtlmtb db su gonrh l rbplslr
gls promjoplgbs db󿬌mojohmbs qub dbsdb cubrl y dbsdb dbmtrh db gl gom`÷ëstojl
dbg tbxth sb flm dldh dbg koskh. Dbsdb su pumth db vostl, plrl db󿬌mor tbxth
fly qub tbmbr bm jubmtl ghs soùobmtbs cljthrbs5
<) Jlrìjtbr jhkumojltov
jhkumojltovh5h5 bs uml
uml ljjoúm qub tobmb jhkh 󿬌mlgodld jh-
kumojlr.
>) Jlrìjtbr prl`kìtojh5
prl`kìtojh5 sb prhdujb bmbm um jhmtbxth bxtrlgom`÷ëst
bxtrlgom`÷ëstojh,
ojh, jhm
omtbrghjuthrbs y rbcbrbmjols jhmstlmtbs lg jhmtbxth.
:) Jlrìjtbr bstrujturldh5
bstrujturldh5 bs uml hr`lmozljoúm
hr`lmozljoúm omtbrml nlsldl
nlsldl bm rb`gls
rb`gls
qub `lrlmtozlm bg so`mo󿬌jldh.
Ylrtobmdh db bsths rbquosoths, Nbrmìrdbz bglnhrl gl soùobmtb db 󿬌mojoúm
(<?6>5 62)5
Tbxth bs gl umodld gom`÷ëstojl jhkumojltovl cumdlkbmtlg, prhdujth db gl
ljtovodld vbrnlg fuklml, qub phsbb sobkprb jlrìjtbr shjolg1
s hjolg1 bstì jlrljtbrozldl
phr su jobrrb sbkìmtojh y jhkumojltov
jhkumojltovh,
h, lsë jhkh phr su jhfbrbmjol prhcumdl
y supbr󿬌jolg, dbnodh l gl omtbmjoúm (jhkumojltovl) dbg flnglmtb db jrblr um
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg :?
tbxth ëmtb`rh y l su bstrujturljoúm kbdolmtb dhs jhmeumths db rb`gls5 gls

prhpols dbg movbg tbxtulg y gls dbg sostbkl db gl gbmùl.
Jhkh l󿬌rklm bm su jhkbmtlroh l bstl db 󿬌mojoúm Klrol Ehsbp Jubmjl
y sus jhglnhrldhrbs (<??65 :), dbsdb bstb pumth db vostl, gl jhkumojljoúm
vbrnlg sb sustbmtlrël shnrb ghs soùobmtbs phghs5 gl ljtuljoúm db ghs flnglmtbs
(bg ljth jhkumojltovh),
jhkumojltovh), bg kltbrolg dbg qub dosphmbm (bg sostbkl db gl gbmùl)
y bg jhmhjokobmth tlmth dbg sostbkl (gl jhkpbtbmjol gom`÷ëstojl) jhkh db
gls sotuljohmbs db jhkumojljoúm (jhkpbtbmjol prl`kìtojl). Bg tbxth, pubs,
lplrbjb jhkh bg rbsugtldh db gl ljtovodld gom`÷ëstojl db um omdovoduh qub
prhybjtl su omtbmjoúm shnrb um kltbrolg vbrnlg. Gl prhpubstl db Nbrmìrdbz
rbjh`b lgùmhs db ghs jhmjbpths jglvb qub flnëlkhs sbülgldh bm db 󿬌mojoh-
mbs lmtbrohrbs jhkh «ljtovodld vbrnlg±, «omtbmjoúm jhkumojltovl±
jhkumojltovl± h «jobrrb
sbkìmtojh±, bs, pubs, gl jugkomljoúm bm bg ìknoth fospìmojh db gl nõsqubdl
db uml db󿬌mojoúm lnlrjldhrl y hpbrltovl db uml umodld, bg tbxth, db docë-
jog lprbfbmsoúm. Bm bggl sb jukpgbm lgùmls db gls jhmstlmtbs qub Jlstbggé
(<??>5 4?-29) sbülgl jhkh jhkumbs l kujfls db󿬌mojohmbs db tbxth5
l) Bs uml umodld jhkumojltovl.
n) Bs um prhdujth db glgl ljtovodld
ljtovodld gom`÷ëstojl.
j) Bstì ëmtoklkbmtb
ëmtoklkbmtb rbgljohmldh jhm bg jhmtbxth h sotuljoúm
sotuljoúm db prhdujjoúm.
d) Bstì bstrujturldh phr rb`gls qub gb jhm󿬌brbm jhfbrbmjol.
b) Bstì dbtbrkomldh
dbtbrkomldh phr ghs prhjbshs y gls bstrltbòls dbg bkoshr y bg
rbjbpthr bm ghs prhjbshs db prhdujjoúm y rbjbpjoúm.
Bg prhpoh
Nbrmìrdbz y bmJlstbggé (<??>5
gl qub sb 29) omtbmtl
dbsprbmdb uml dbtïrkomhs
db lgùmhs 󿬌mojoúm omsporldl bm gl`b-
db rbshmlmjol db
mbrltovll y ghs sustotuyb phr jhmjbpths qub prhjbdbm db gl prl`kìtojl y db gl
mbrltov
dodìjtojl db nlsb jh`motov
jh`motovl.
l. Bs gl soùobmtb5
Tbxth bs uml umodld gom`÷ëstojl jhkumojltovl, prhdujth db gl ljtovodld
vbrnlg fuklml, qub phsbb jlrìjtbr shjolg. Zb jlrljtbrozl phr gl ldbjuljoúm
lg jhmtbxth jhkumojltovh, gl jhfbrbmjol omchrkltovl
omchrkltovl y gl jhfbsoúm gomblg. Zu
          
bm ghs prhjbshs db bglnhrljoúm b omtbrprbtljoúm. Zb jhmstruyb phr kbdoh db
dhs jhmeumths db jlpljodldbs y jhmhjokobmths5 ghs prhpohs dbg movbg tbxtulg
y ghs dbg sostbkl db gl gbmùl.
Zb trltl db uml db󿬌mojoúm omtbrbslmtb pubs bm bggl omjguyb gh qub phdbkhs
jhmsodbrlr ghs trbs tïrkomhs qub db󿬌mbm uml plrtb okphrtlmtb dbg lmìgosos db
tbxths y qub shm gl ldbjuljoúm, gl jhfbrbmjol y gl jhfbsoúm.
Tlknoïm jhm gl ljtovodld db lmìgosos db tbxths db chmdh, Eblm-Kojfbg
Ldlk y Jglrl-Rnlgdoml Ghrdl bm Gom`÷ëstojl db ghs tbxths mlrrltovhs (<???)
sbülglm gh qub jhmsodbrlm ghs sbos bgbkbmths plrl uml db 󿬌mojoúm db tbxth.
Gl prhpubstl db Ldlk, bm gl gëmbl db sus pglmtblkobmths lmtbrohrbs (Ldlk,

<??9), kìs qub uml db󿬌mojoúm db tbxth bs uml bmukbrljoúm db ghs lspbjths
qub jhmsodbrl bsbmjolgbs bm gl jhmchrkljoúm db uml umodld tbxtulg y phmb
bg ljbmth bm lqubgghs qub pubdbm jhmstotuor kltbrol db lmìgosos phr plrtb dbg
gom`÷ostl. Zhm ghs soùobmtbs5
Bgbkbmth < plrl uml db󿬌mojoúm dbg tbxth5 Bg tbxth bs um hnebth vbrnlg
sb`kbmtldhh bm umodldbs db docbrbmtbs mov
sb`kbmtld movbgbs
bgbs db jhkpgbeodld.
Bgbkbmth > plrl uml db󿬌mojoúm dbg tbxth5 Rm tbxth bs uml crìòg umodld
shkbtodl l gl vbz l um promjopoh jbmtrëpbth (su jlrìjtbr jbrrldh, jhkpgbeh) y
l um promjopoh jbmtrëcu`h (su lpbrturl omtbrtbxtulg y `bmïrojl).
Bgbkbmth : plrl uml db󿬌mojoúm dbg tbxth5 Bm thdh tbxth sb jrbl um bquo-
gonroh dbgojldh bmtrb uml jhmtomuodld-rbpbtojoúm,
jhmtomuodld-rbpbtojoúm, phr uml plrtb, y uml prh`rb-
soúm db gl omchrkljoúm, phr htrl plrtb.
Bgbkbmth 4 plrl uml db󿬌mojoúm dbg tbxth5 Gls dostomtls umodldbs qub jhk-
phmbm bg tbxth bstìm bmglzldls bmtrb bggls phr kbdohs docbrbmtbs (jhmbjthrbs,
bgbkbmths lmlcúrojhs, sustotujoúm gïxojl, rbgljoúm sbkìmtojl-gúòjl bmtrb ghs
ljhmtbjokobmths)
ljhmtbjokobm ths) db klmbrl qub jhkphmbm umodldbs db rlm`h supbrohr.
Bgbkbmth 2 plrl uml db󿬌mojoúm dbg tbxth5 Gl umodld tbxtulg qub db-
so`mlkhs jhkh sbjubmjol sb prbsbmtl, phr uml plrtb, jhkh uml rbd db
rbgljohmbs ebrìrquojls ‚pubdb dbsjhkphmbrsb bm plrtbs (hrljohmbs) umo-
dls bmtrb bggls (prhphsojohmbs) y umodls lg thdh qub jhmstotuybm (sbjubm-
jol)‚ y, phr htrl plrtb, jhkh uml bmtodld rbgltovlkbmtb lutúmhkl. Bstì
dhtldl db hr`lmozljoúm omtbrml prhpol y klmtobmb uml rbgljoúm dbpbmdbm-
jol/omtbrdbpbmdbmjol
jol/omtbrdbpbmdbm jol jhm bg jhmeumth kìs lkpgoh dbg qub chrkl plrtb5 bg
tbxth.
Bgbkbmth 3 plrl uml db󿬌mojoúm dbg tbxth5 jhkh bstrujturl sbjubmjolg, um
tbxth (T) jhmtobmb um mõkbrh (m) db sbjubmjols jhkpgbels h bgëptojls.
Zb trltl db uml db󿬌mojoúm hrobmtldl l dlr jlnodl lg jhmjbpth db «sbjubm-
jol± jhm bg qub omtb`rl, dbmtrh db gl bstrujturl dbg tbxth, su hr`lmozljoúm
tophgúòjl.
>.4. Tbxth y/h dosjursh5 uml db 󿬌mojoúm plrl bg lmìgosos db tbxths

Bm ghs hrë`bmbs db gls dosjopgomls qub sb dbdojlm lg bstudoh db bstls umo-
dldbs ‚gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth y lmìgosos dbg dosjursh‚ flnël docbrbmjols rbsb-
ülngbs bm julmth l pumths db vostl shnrb bg gbmùleb, lsë jhkh phr gh qub sb
rb󿬌brb l gl kbthdhgh`ël y lg hnebth db bstudoh. Sojbmt Zlgvldhr (<??95 <9),
plrtobmdh db gl docbrbmjol btokhgúòjl bmtrb lknhs tïrkomhs ‚tbxth prhjbdb
db tbxtuk, tbeodh y dosjursh db dosjurrbrb‚ rblgozl um bsqubkl jhmtrlstovh
bmtrb gh qub so`mo󿬌jlrëlm lknhs jhmjbpths, lsë5
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg 4<
TBVTH DOZJR^ZH
Bsjroth Hrlg
Jglusurldh y nrbvb Bxtbmsh y lnobrth
Yrhdujth kltbrolgozldh Yrhjbsh rbgljohmlg
Khmhgúòjh Dolgúòjh
Dbtbrkomldh omdovodulgkbmtb Jhmjbpth `bmïrojh h tophgúòjh
Tïr
ïrko
komh
mh vo
vomj
mjug
ugld
ldhh l tbm
tbmdb
dbmj
mjol
olss bur
burhp
hpbl
blss Rshh kìs
Rs kìs `b
`bmb
mbrrlg
lgoz
ozld
ldhh
Bm rblgodld, jhkh l󿬌rkl B. Nbrmìrdbz (<?6>5 63-60) gl mh jhmsodbrl-

joúm dbg lspbjth jhkumojltovh h db gl ljtovodld bs uml jlrljtbrëstojl db gl
prokbrl
dosjursh.clsb db gl gom`÷ëstojl
Db fbjfh jhkh fbkhs dbgjhkprhnldh
tbxth y mh dbg
bmtbxth
gls dbjhkh umodld crbmtb lg
󿬌mojohmbs, ghs prhpohs
gom`÷ostls dbg tbxth flm odh omjhrphrldh lspbjths prl`kìtojhs y jhkumojlto-
vhs l sus db󿬌mojohmbs phr gh qub bstlngbjbr gëmbls bstrojtls db dovosoúm bmtrb
gls umodldbs rbsugtl kìs nobm prhngbkìtojh.
Bm um omtbmth phr bstlngbjbr umodldbs y jltb`hrëls lmlgëtojls dbmtrh dbg
ìknoth tbxtulg-dosjursovh,
tbxtulg-dosjursovh, Ehlquëm @lrrodh (<??0 y >99:) db󿬌mb tbxth jhkh
gl umodld gom`÷ëstojl jhmstotuodl phr dosjurshs, y dosjursh jhkh uml umodld
jhmstotuodl phr hrljohmbs. Db bstl klmbrl, bg tbxth sbrël gl jltb`hrël kìs bx-
tbrml y su mlturlgbzl y tophgh`ël bstlrëlm vomjugldls l gls ljjohmbs shjolgbs.
Bm bg soùobmtb juldrh dbg prhpoh luthr sb hnsbrvlm lknhs jhmjbpths5
JLTB@H^ËLZ RMODLDBZ
@ïmbrh5 hpjohmbs bm bg tbxth Tbxth5 hr`lmozljoúm dbg dosjursh
Bstogh5 hpjohmbs bm bg dosjursh Dosjursh5 hr`lmozljoúm db hrljohmbs

Dbsdb mubstrh pumth db vostl y tbmobmdh bm jubmtl ghs hnebtovhs dbg Lmì-
Lmì-
gosos db tbxths, jhmsodbrlkhs bg tbxth ‚hrlg h bsjroth‚ jhkh uml umodld do-
mìkojl db omtbrljjoúm gom`÷ëstojl bmtrb ghs plrtojoplmtbs bm um omtbrjlknoh
jhkumojltovh. Lg flnglr db umodld domìkojl bstlkhs fljobmdh rbcbrbmjol5
l) L qub bg tbxth
tbxth phsbb
phsbb prhpobdldbs
prhpobdldbs gom`÷ëstojh-`rlkltojlgbs
gom`÷ëstojh-`rlkltojlgbs y sbkìmto-
sbkìmto-
jh-hr`lmozltovls qub gh jhmvobrtbm bm um thdh. Bs dbjor, bstì jhfbsoh-
mldh y bs sbkìmtojlkbmtb jhfbrbmtb.
n) L
bshqub
bs ghbgqub
tbxth
gb bs
dl bg rbsugtldh
sbmtodh db uml
(umodld ljjoúm
ljjoúm
db so`mo omdobm
omdovodulg
󿬌jldh vodulg b omtbmjohmlg
omtbmjohmlg
jhmtbxth) jhkh fb-y
jfh prl`kìtojh. Jhkh plrtojoplmtbs dorbjths y rbsphmslngbs dbg ljhm-
tbjokobmth tbxtulg, ghs flnglmtbs, bstlngbjbm 󿬌mlgodldbs, khdlgozlm bg
tbxth bm rbgljoúm jhm sus omtbmjohmbs y gh hrobmtlm lrùkbmtltovlkbmtb
4> Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
db klmbrl qub bg tbxth sbl uml rbspubstl l bsls ljtotudbs. Bs dbjor, gh

dhtlm db jhfbrbmjol prl`kìtojl. Bs bsl mlturlgbzl prl`kìtojl gh qub
jhmjbdb lg tbxth su domlkojodld, su dolghòskh, su jlrìjtbr prhjbsulg,
bs dbjor, su jhmsodbrljoúm jhkh ‗um ljhmtbjokobmth db ljjoúm fukl-
ml, omtbrljjoúm, jhkumojljoúm y jh`mojoúm (Nblu`rlmdb, <??25 244).
Gl okpgojljoúm db ghs flnglmtbs mhs rbkotb l gl mbjbslrol jhmsodbrljoúm
db ghs prhjbshs jh`moto
jh`motovhs
vhs okpgojldhs bm gl ljtovodld gom`÷ëstojl, l ghs gëkotbs
db gl jhkprbmsoúm y, bm rbgljoúm jhm bsth õgtokh, l gl bxostbmjol db khdbghs
tbxtulgbs ‚bstrujturls prhthtëpojls‚, rbjhmhjongbs phr ghs flnglmtbs b odbmto󿬌-
jlngbs bm rbgljoúm jhm su bstrujturl hr`lmozltovl
hr`lmozltovl y jhm sus cumjohmbs (lumqub
bm bstb gonrh mh mhs vlylkhs l hjuplr db bgghs).
Ybrh ghs flnglmtbs
db ljhkhdlrsb y bg prhpoh
h ldlptlrsb l umlssostbkl db gl gbmùl
jorjumstlmjols shm, ldbkìs,
dbtbrkomldls jlpljbs
db bkosoúm-
rbjbpjoúm. Db tbmbr bm jubmtl bg ush jhmjrbth db gl gbmùl bm rbgljoúm jhm bg
jhmtbxth db omtbrljjoúm gom`÷ëstojl. Gl ldbjuljoúm bs uml jhmsbjubmjol dbg
jlrìjtbr shjolg qub phsbb sobkprb gl ljtovodl
ljtovodldd jhkumojltovl
jhkumojltovl fuklml.
Zo bm mubstrl db󿬌mojoúm db tbxth flnglkhs db «omtbrljjoúm gom`÷ëstojl±,
mh mhs bstlkhs rb󿬌robmdh õmojlkbmtb l gl omtbrljjoúm vbrnlg-hrlg, somh l
julgquobr toph db ljtovodld gom`÷ëstojh-jhkumojltovl, omjguodl, dbsdb gub`h,
gl qub sb rblgozl l trlvïs db gl bsjroturl ‚hnebtovh
‚hnebtovh jlso prohrotlroh dbg lmìgosos
db tbxths‚. Zbùokhs bm bstb jlsh, jhkh yl doeokhs lmtbrohrkbmtb, l vlm
Doea (>999) y su jhmjbpth db «omtbrljjoúm bsjrotl± jhm bg qub sb rb 󿬌brb l gl
rbgljoúm qub sb bstlngbjb bmtrb ghs plrtojoplmtbs bm um omtbrjlknoh jhkumo-
jltovh kbdolmtb tbxths bsjroths. Lumqub bstb luthr prb󿬌brb bg tïrkomh `bmbrlg
jltovh
«dosjursh± plrl fljbr rbcbrbmjol lg ush dbg gbmùleb bm jhmtbxth sbl julg
sbl gl khdlgodld db omtbrjlknoh bgbòdl phr ghs flnglmtbs, bm mubstrh jlsh
utogozlkhs bg tïrkomh «tbxth± bm gl pbrspbjtovl jhkumojltovl y domìkojl qub
ljlnlkhs db db󿬌mor, lumqub bm lgùmhs jlshs utogojbkhs bg tïrkomh dosjursh
jhkh somúmokh dbg prokbrh.
Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël
LJHZTL, G. (<?6>)5 Jubstohmbs db gom`÷ëstojl tbxtulg, Zlglklmjl, Rmovbr-
sodld db Zlglklmjl.
LDLK,
LDLK, E.-K. (<??9)5 Ïgïkbmts db gomùostoqub tbxtubggb,
tbxtubggb, Gobel, Klrdl`l.
LDLK, J.R. GH^DL (<???)5 Gom`÷ëstojl db ghs tbxths mlrrltovhs,

E.-K. yLrobg.
Nlrjbghml,
NLETËM, K.K. (<?0?)5 Bstïtojl db gl jrbljoú
jrbljoúmm vbrnlg, Kïxojh, Zo`gh VVO.
NBLR@^LMDB, ^. db (<?66)5 «Tbxt Gomùostojs om Dosjhursb Ztudobs±, bm
vlm Doea (bd.)5 Flmdnh
Flmdnhha
ha hc Dosjhur
Dosjhursb Lmlgysos, Ghmdrbs, LY, pp.4<-09.
sb Lmlgysos,
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg 4:
————— (<??9)5 «Tbxt Gomùostojs tfrhu`f tfb yblrs±, Tbxt, <9, </>, pp.
?-<0.
————— (<??2)5 «Tbxt Gomùostojs±, bm E. Sbrsjfubrbm, E.H. Óstkbm y
E. Nghkklbrt (bds.)5 Flmdnhha hc Yrl`kltoj
Yrl`kltojss, Lkstbrdlk, Ehfm Nbmel-
koms, pp. 2:3-244.
NB^MÌ^DBU, B. (<?6>)5 Omtrh dujjoúm l gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth, Kldrod5
Omtrhdujjoúm
Bsplsl-Jlgpb.
————— (>999)5 «Fhkbhkhr󿬌skh db tbxth y hrljoúm±, bm E.E. db Nusths
Thvlr, Y. Jflrludblu bt lg. (>999)5 Gbmùl, Dosjursh, Tbxth, Kldrod,
Soshr, pp. >9<->>2.
JLZTBGGÉ, E.K. (<??>)5 Db gl crlsb
crlsb lg tbxt.
tbxt. Tbhrobs g‟õs gom`÷ëstoj, Nlr-
Tbhrobs db g‟õs
jbghml, Bkpõrobs.
JHMJL, K. (<??6)5 Tbxt o `rlkétojl5 tbhrol o préjtojl db gl jhkpbtæmjol
dosjursovl, Nlrjbghml, Tbodb.
DOEA, T.L. vlm (bd.) (>999)5 Bg dosjursh jhkh bstrujturl y prhjbsh, Nlrjb-
ghml, @bdosl.
————— (<?00)5 Tbxth y jhmtbxth. Zbkìmtojl y prl`kìtojl dbg dosjursh,
Kldrod, Jìtbdrl, <??2.
@L^JËL NB^ÔH, L. y E.Z. YBTÓCO (<?06)5 Gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth tbxth y jrëtojl
gotbrlrol, Kldrod, Lgnbrth Jhrlzúm.
@L^ÔDH KBDOML, E. (<??0)5 Bstogh y tbxth bm gl gbmùl, Kldrod, @rb-
dhs.
————— (>99:) «^bgbvlmjb vbrsus Jhmmbjtohm5 Dosjhursb lmd Tbxt ls
Rmots hc Lmlgysos±, bm JGLJ , <:, (fttp5//www.ujk.bs/omch/jorjugh/mh<:/
`lrrodh.pdc).
FLGGODL_, K.L.A. y ^. FLZLM (<?03)5 Jhfbsohm om Bm`gosf, Ghmdrbs,
Ghm`klm, <?6:.
KLÔKÚM GGH^JL, J. (>993)5 Bg tbxth jhkh umodld db lmìgosos gom`÷ës-
tojh, (fttp5//.www.gojbus.jhk).
KL^TËMBU, K.J. (>99<)5 Lmìgosos dbg dosjursh y prìjtojl pbdl`ú` pbdl`úòjl,
ojl,
Zlmtl Cb, FhkhZlpobms Bdojohmbs
ZLGS
ZLG SLDH^, S. S. (<??9)5
(<??9) 5 «G‟lmégoso
«G‟lmégoso dbg dosjurs,
dosju rs, bmtrb
bmt rb g‟hrlgotlt
g‟hr lgotlt o g‟bsjr
g‟bsjropturl±,
opturl±,
Jlpggbtrl. ^bvostl db Coghghòl, 0, pp. ?-:<.
ZOMJGLO^, E.K. (<?60)5 «Hm tfb omtb`rltohm hc Gomùostoj Dbsjroptohm±, bm
T.L. vlm Doea (bd.)5 Flmdnhha hc Dosjhursb Lmlgysos, vhg. >, Ghmdhm,
Ljldbkoj Yrbss, pp. <:->6.
ZJFKODT, Z.E. (<?0:)5 Tbhrël dbg tbxth. Yrhngbkls db uml gom`÷ëstojl db gl
Ljtovodldbs
<. Gbb bg soùobmtb tbxth db K.ª Jrostoml Klrtëmbz
Klrtëmbz (>99<5<>)
(>99<5<>) y eusto󿬌jl
gl okphrtlmjol dbg lmìgosos dbg dosjursh bm gl bmsbülmzl. Lyõdltb
Lyõdltb bm
tus lrùkbmths db gonrhs db gl nongoh`rlcël
nongoh`rlcël55
Gl 󿬌mlgodld dbg prhjbsh pbdl`úòjh db bmsbülmzl db gl gbmùl kltbrml
dbsdb uml pbrspbjtovl dosjursovl,
dosjursovl, omsjrotl bm uml dokbmsoúm dolgúòjl, mh bs
tlmth bg dbsjunrokobmth db gl omchrkljoúm jhkh së gh bs bg dbsjunrokobmth
y dbslrrhggh
dbslrrhggh db ghs promjopohs
promjopohs nìsojhs qub pbrkotbm ldquoror
ldquoror y `bmb
`bmbrlr
rlr
jhmhjokobmth, lmlgozlr y jhmstruor dosjurshs, bgujodlmdh ghs jhmhjokobmths
qub sb hpbrlm bm bg khkbmth db lnhrdlr um tbxth bsjroth yl sbl dbsdb gl
prhdujjoúm jhkh dbsdb gl jhkprbmsoúm.
>. T. vlm
vlm Doea (>9995 2>) flngl db trbs bmchqubs promjoplgbs shnrb bg
dosjursh5
l) ghs qub
qub sb jhmjbmtrlm bm bg dosjursh koskh.
n) ghs qub bstudolm bg dosjursh y gl jhkumojljoúm
jhkumojljoúm jhkh
jhkh jh`mojoúm.
jh`mojoúm.
j) ghs qub sb jhmjbmtrlm bm gl bstrujturl shjolg
shjolg y bm gl jugturl.
^bplsl gls db󿬌mojohmbs db tbxth qub fls bstudoldh b omtbmtl lds-
jronorgls l umh db bsths bmchqubs.
:. Gbb bg soùobmtb tbxth db K. Nletëm y eusto󿬌jl gl prìjtojl dbg lmìgosos
db tbxths bm gls jobmjols shjolgbs5
Gls jobmjols fuklmls shm jobmjols qub bstudolm lg fhknrb bm su
bspbjo 󿬌
󿬌jodld, y mh jhkh jhsl som vhz h cbmúkbmh mlturlg.
mlturlg. Bg fhk-
nrb bm su bspbjo 󿬌jodld fuklml sobkprb sb bstì bxprbslmdh (fl-
nglmdh), bs dbjor, bstì jrblmdh tbxth (lumqub sbl ïstb um tbxth bm
phtbmjol).. K. Nletëm, Bstïtojl db gl jrbljoúm vbrnlg, <?0?, p. >?6.
phtbmjol)
4. Gbb bg rbglth db Luùsth Khmtbrrhsh
Khmtbrrhsh totugldh «Bg bjgopsb± y jhk-
prubnl so ghs sbos bgbkbmths plrl gl db󿬌mojoúm db tbxth db Ldlk y
Ghrdl sb pubdbm lpgojlr lquë5
Julmdh crly Nlrthghkï Lrrlzhgl sb somtoú pbrdodh ljbptú qub yl mldl phdrël
slgvlrgh. Gl sbgvl phdbrhsl db @ultbklgl gh flnël lprbsldh, okpgljlngb y
db󿬌motovl. Lmtb su o`mhrlmjol thph`rì󿬌jl sb sbmtú jhm trlmquogodld l bspbrlr
gl kubrtb. \uosh khror lggë, som momùml bspbrlmzl, losgldh jhm bg pbmslkobmth
󿬌 eh bm gl Bsplül dostlmtb, plrtojuglrkbmtb bm bg jhmv jhmvbmth
bmth Ghs Lnrhehs,
dhmdb Jlrghs \uomth jhmdbsjbmdobrl uml vbz l nlelr db su bkombmjol plrl
dbjorgb qub jhm󿬌lnl bm bg jbgh rbgoòhsh db su glnhr rbdbmthrl.
Lg dbspbrtlr sb bmjhmtrú rhdbldh phr um `ruph db omdë`bmls db rhstrh
okplsongb qub sb dosphmëlm l sljro󿬌jlrgh lmtb um lgtlr, um lgtlr qub
l Nlrthghkï gb plrbjoú jhkh bg gbjfh bm qub dbsjlmslrël, lg 󿬌m, db sus
tbkhrbs, db su dbstomh, db së koskh.
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg 42
Trbs lühs
mltovls.
mltovl bm bg plës
s. Omtbmtú lg`h.gbDoeh
flnëlm jhmcbrodh
lgùmls um kbdolmh
plglnrls dhkomoh
qub cubrhm db gls gbmùls
jhkprbmdodls.
               
jugturl umovbrslg y db su lrduh jhmhjokobmth db Lrostútbgbs. ^bjhrdú qub
plrl bsb dël sb bspbrlnl um bjgopsb thtlg db shg. _ dospush, bm gh kìs ëmtokh,
vlgbrsb db lqubg jhmhjokobmth plrl bm`lülr l sus hprbshrbs y slgvlr gl
vodl.
‚Zo kb kltìos ‚gbs doeh‚ pubdh fljbr qub bg shg sb hsjurbzjl bm su lgturl.
Ghs omdë`bmls gb korlrhm 󿬌 elkbmtb y Nlrthghkï shrprbmdoú gl omjrbdugodld
bm sus hehs. Soh qub sb prhdueh um pbqubüh jhmsbeh, y bspbrú jhm 󿬌ldh, mh
som um jobrth dbsdïm.
Dhs fhrls dbspuïs bg jhrlzúm db crly Nlrthghkï Lrrlzhgl jfhrrblnl slm`rb
vbfbkbmtb shnrb gl pobdrl db ghs sljro 󿬌johs (nrogglmtb nleh gl hpljl guz db
           
vhz, som prosl, uml phr uml, gls om 󿬌motls cbjfls bm qub sb prhdujorëlm bjgopsbs
shglrbs y gumlrbs, qub ghs lstrúmhkhs db gl jhkumodld klyl flnëlm prbvosth
y lmhtldh bm sus júdojbs som gl vlgohsl lyudl db Lrostútbgbs.

:. G󰁬󰁺 󰁹󰁾󰁨󰁹󰁯󰁢󰁤󰁬󰁤󰁢󰁺 󰁤󰁢󰁧 󰁴󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨
:.<. Omtrhdujjoúm
Bg omtbrïs phr db󿬌mor gl mubvl umodld db lmìgosos, bg tbxth, bstuvh umodh l gl
mbjbsodld db bspbjo󿬌jlr y prbjoslr juìgbs brlm gls prhpobdldbs phr gls qub bsl
mubvl umodld phdël jlrljtbrozlrsb. Ghs tïrkomhs qub prokbrlkbmtb sb ljuül-
rhm plrl db󿬌mor gl julgodld h jlgodld db sbr tbxth shm ghs db tbxturl y tbxtulgo-
dld. Bm lknhs jlshs sb trltl db um jhmeumth db prhpobdldbs h jlrljtbrëstojls
`rljols l gls julgbs sbrël phsongb db󿬌mor mh súgh bg hnebth tbxth somh gl ljtovodld
bm gl julg sb bmklrjl gl prhdujjoúm-rbjbpjoúm dbg hnebth db bstudoh.
L plrtor db gls prhpubstls omojolgbs db Flggodly y Flsslm (<?03) y Nblu-
`rlmdb y Drbssgbr (<?00)
( <?00) shnrb ghs jhmjbpths db tbxturl y tbxtulgodld rbspbj-
tovlkbmtb,
tovlkbmtb, gl dosjusoúm shnrb juìgbs shm gls prhpobdldbs jlrljtbrozldhrls dbg
tbxth fl thkldh kuy dostomtls dorbjjohmbs qub fl ggbvldh l gl gom`÷ëstojl l
jbmtrlrsb bm lspbjths dov
dovbrshs
brshs (Fltbabylkl, <?64, Jflrhggbs, <?66). Yhr uml
plrtb phdbkhs l󿬌rklr qub gls dhs prhpobdldbs qub dbsdb bg promjopoh flm rb-
jonodh kìs ltbmjoúm db ghs bspbjolgostls flm sodh gl jhfbrbmjol y gl jhfbsoúm.
Zb trltl, bm lknhs jlshs, db prhpobdldbs jhmsodbrldls bstrojtlkbmtb tbxtul-
gbs, jbmtrldls bm bg «kltbrolg tbxtulg± y, phr gh tlmth, lsumth y hnebtovh db gl
gom`÷ëstojl. Zom bknlr`h, gl docbrbmjol db jrotbrohs, gl dovb
dovbr`bmjol
r`bmjol bm julmth l
gl mlturlgbzl db dojfls prhpobdldbs b omjgush gl jhmcusoúm tbrkomhgúòjl flm
dldh gu`lr l qub bm gl ljtulgodld sbl okphsongb bmjhmtrlr uml prhpubstl umo-
󿬌jldhrl. Bstb fbjfh ‚jhkprhnlngb bm gl nongoh`rlcël lg rbspbjth (Cubmtbs,
<??>)‚ bstì bm rblgodld dbtbrkomldh phr ghs kuy dostomths pumths db vostl
dbsdb ghs qub bg tbxth bstì sobmdh bxlkomldh bm ghs õgtokhs lühs.
Ybrh, ldbkìs, bg jhmtljth db gl gom`÷ëstojl
gom`÷ës tojl jhm gl psojhgh`ël jh`motovl, jhm
ghs kbjlmoskhs db prhjbslkobmth db omchrkljoúm y jhm gls jobmjols shjolgbs,
umodh lg jhmtomuh lphrtb dbsdb gl prhpol dosjopgoml db mubvls tbhrëls shnrb bg
so`mo󿬌jldh, gl bxprbsoúm gom`÷ëstojl y gls phsonogodldbs bxprbsovh-jhkumojlto-
vls
tbxthdbgsbgbmùleb, fl dldhshnrb
jbmtrb tlknoïm gu`lrlspbjths
l qub bg prl`kìtojhs
bstlngbjokobmth db gls prhpobdldbs
y jh`motovhs dbg
rbgljohmldhs
jhm gls phsonogodldbs db prhjbslkobmth tbxtulg db ghs flnglmtbs tlmth jhkh
shnrb gl bmukbrljoúm jhmjrbtl db jlrljtbrëstojls `rlkltojlgbs y gom`÷ëstojls
(Gumdquost, <?69, Zhzbr, <?62). Ldbkìs, gl l 󿬌rkljoúm db gl rbgljoúm dbg tbxth

jhm gl sotuljoúm db ush y jhm ghs usulrohs fl fbjfh qub prhpobdldbs rbgljohml-
dls jhm bg jhmtbxth db sotuljoúm sb bstïm jhmvortobmdh bm okprbsjomdongbs plrl
gl db󿬌mojoúm db gh tbxtulg. Comlgkbmtb, bg fbjfh db qub ghs tbxths rbsphmdlm mh
súgh l dbjosohmbs omdovodulgbs db prhdujjoúm, somh l jobrths khdbghs jhkumbs
db jhmstrujjoúm tbxtulg fljb qub gls prhpobdldbs dbrovldls db gl pbrtbmbmjol
dbg tbxth l umh db bshs bsqubkl khdïgojhs rbsugtbm tlknoïm dbtbrkomlmtbs bm bm
gl db󿬌mojoúm db su mlturlgbzl.
:.>. Db gl «tbxturl± l gl «tbxtulgodld±

Ylrl Flggodly y Flsslm (<?6:5 >-:) gl tbxturl bs gl julgodld qub docbrbm-
jol um tbxth db gh qub mh gh bs y «sb dbrovl dbg fbjfh db qub cumjohml jhkh
uml umodld jhm
db rbgljohmbs rbspbjthbmtrb
jhfbsovls l gh qub gb rhdbl±. Ylrl
ghs bgbkbmths bsthsbsluthrbs,
dbg tbxth gh qub gl bxostbmjol
prhphrjohml
tbxturl. Ybrh gl tbxturl mh dbpbmdb õmojlkbmtb db gh qub hjurrb dbmtrh dbg
tbxth somh qub tlknoïm tobmb qub vbr jhm gls rbgljohmbs qub bg tbxth klmtobmb
jhm gl sotuljoúm db jhkumojljoúm. Gl tbxturl rbsugtl, phr tlmth, db gls jhm󿬌-
ùrljohmbs sbkìmtojls lshjoldls lg rbòstrh y db gl jhfbrbmjol, bs dbjor, db
gls rbgljohmbs so`mo󿬌jltovls qub sb dlm bm bg tbxth y qub gh dostomùbm db gh
qub mh bs um tbxth. Db bstl klmbrl, um tbxth pubdb sbr db 󿬌modh jhkh (<?6:5
>:)5
Rm plsleb db dosjursh qub bs jhfbrbmtb bm dhs lspbjths5 bs jhfbrbmtb rbspbjth
l së koskh y, phr tlmth, jhfbsovh1 y bs jhfbrbmtb rbspbjth lg jhmtbxth db
sotuljoúm y, phr tlmth, jhmsostbmtb rbspbjth lg rbòstrh.
Bg omtbrïs omojolg db Flggodly y Flsslm bstì jbmtrldh bm um promjopoh bm
jhmjrbtlr quï cbmúkbmhs rbjhmhjongbs gom`÷ëstojlkbmtb b omvbmtlrolngbs pub-
dbm bstlngbjbrsb jhkh rbvbgldhrbs db gl jhfbsoúm tbxtulg. Lsë bstlngbjbm ghs
tlm jhmhjodhs jomjh tophs db bmgljbs jhfbsovhs qub fljbm qub um tbxth phsbl
tbxturl qub shm5 gl rbcbrbmjol, gl sustotujoúm, gl bgopsos, gl jhmeumjoúm y gl
jhfbsoúm gïxojl.
Gl prbsbmjol db cbmúkbmhs pbrtbmbjobmtbs l bstls jomjh jltb`hrëls shm
ghs qub lsbùrlm gl jhmstrujjoúm
jhmstr ujjoúm jhfbsovl
jhfbs ovl dbg tbxth y,
y, phr gh tlmth, su bxostbm-
jol jhkh tlg. Mh fly qub hgvodlr
hgvodlr,, som bknlr`h, qub plrl Flggodly y Flsslm,
gl jhfbsoúm bs uml rbgljoúm db toph sbkìmtojh, bs dbjor, qub gl jrbljoúm db
tbxturl sb dbnb l qub plrl omtbrprbtlr um bgbkbmth bs mbjbslroh fljbr rbcb-
rbmjol l htrh
um tbxth, rbgljohmldh
bs dbjor y prbsbmtb
gl jhkprbmsoúm db bm
ïstbbgjhkh
prhpoh
umtbxth.
thdh,Lsë, gl jhfbrbmjol
dbpbmdb db
dbg bstlngb-
jokobmth db ghs glzhs gom`÷ëstojhs ldbjuldhs ‚db gl jhfbsoúm‚ lsë jhkh db
gls rbgljohmbs qub thdh bg tbxth klmtbm`l jhm bg jhmtbxth jhkumojltovh bm
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg 4?
             
qub bg prhpoh Flggodly jhmjrbtlrì lgùmhs lühs dbspuïs. Bm db󿬌motovl phdb-
khs dbjor qub plrl bsths luthrbs gl jhfbsoúm bs uml prhpobdld jhmstrujtovl
y bstrujturldhrl dbg tbxth, rbjhmhjongb y,
y, bm jhmsbjubmjol, susjbptongb db sbr
bstudoldl jhkh jhmeumth db rls`hs gom`÷ëstojhs qub hr`lmozlm bg gbmùleb bm
um movbg dostomth lg db gl hrljoúm.
Zo nobm phr um gldh bg jhmeumth db «glzhs jhfbsovhs± db Flggodly y
Flsslm fl sbrvodh db nlsb omdosjutongb plrl omvbmtlrolr y jglso 󿬌jlr gl
jhfbsoúm bm gls dostomtls gbmùls ‚yl vbrbkhs bg jlsh dbg bsplühg‚, phr
htrl plrtb bg jhmjbpth db tbxturl sb jhmsodbrú bxjbsovlkbmtb bstìtojh y
bstrujturlg. Lsë, Zo`crobd Zjfkodt (<?005 <46) prb󿬌brb bg jhmjbpth db
tbxtulgodld qub db󿬌mb bm rbgljoúm jhm bg db tbxth. Ylrl bstb luthr, gl tbx-
tulgodld bs «bg khdh db klmocbstljoúm umovbrslg
umovbrslg y shjolg qub sb usl bm th-
dls gls gbmùls plrl gl rblgozljoúm db gl jhkumojljoúm±, kobmtrls qub ghs
tbxths sbrëlm «gls rblgozljohmbs jhmjrbtls db gl bstrujturl ‗tbxtulgodld‛
bm um dbtbrkomldh kbdoh db jhkumojljoúm±. Ylrl Zjfkodt gl prhpobdld
qub db󿬌mb gl tbxtulgodld bs gl jhfbrbmjol qub phmb bm rbgljoúm jhm ghs
tophs db tbxths y jhm gls ljtovodldbs shjohjhkumojltovls qub bsths dbs-
bkpbülm. Tbxtulgodld-tbxth plrbjbm bstlr bm gl gëmbl dbg bstlngbjokobm-
th db plrbs dbg toph gbmùl-flngl, jhkpbtbmjol-ljtuljoúm jhm ghs qub sb
prbtbmdb bxpgojlr dbsdb bg bstlngbjokobmth db gl gom`÷ëstojl khdbrml gl
docëjog y sbjuglr rbgljoúm bmtrb gh umh y gh dovbrsh, gh `bmbrlg y gh plr-
tojuglr, gh jhgbjtovh y gh omdovodulg. Jhm bstl mubvl dojhthkël, Zjfkodt
prbtbmdb dostomùor bmtrb umls prhpobdldbs `bmbrlgbs y gl klmocbstljoúm
jhmjrbtl db bsls prhpobdldbs bm um tbxth bm gbmùl plrtojuglr.
plrtojuglr. Bs pubs gl
jhfbrbmjol y mh gl jhfbsoúm ‚kìs go`ldl bstl õgtokl l gl mlturlgbzl db
jldl gbmùl‚ gh qub, plrl bstb gom`÷ostl, db 󿬌mb lg tbxth.
Gl jglso󿬌jljoúm kìs jhmhjodl db ghs prhjbdokobmths db tbxtulgodld bs gl
rblgozldl phr Nblu`rlmdb y Drbssgbr (<??0). L gl bxflustovodld db su prh-
pubstl fly qub lüldor jhkh jlrljtbrëstojl gl pbrspbjtov
pbrspbjtovll prhjbsulg y domìko-
jl qub omjhrphrl l ghs promjopohs db jhmchrkljoúm dbg tbxth. Bm jhmshmlmjol
jhm su bmchqub prhjbdokbmtlg, gl tbxtulgodld y bg prhjbslkobmth tbxtulg shm
vosths jhkh kbjlmoskhs db rbshgujoúm db prhngbkls qub sb bmjlr`lm db
rbùglr gl bstlnogodld dbg sostbkl plrl qub ïstb tbm`l jhmtomuodld. Dbsdb bstb
pumth db vostl, bg tbxth bs vosth y jlrljtbrozldh tlmth dbsdb gl pbrspbjtovl db
gl prhdujjoúm jhkh dbsdb bg pumth db vostl db gl rbjbpjoúm. Lsë, julgquobrl
db gls mhrkls db tbxtulgodld pubdb bstudolrsb jhkh prhjbdokobmth db jhms-
trujjoúm tbxtulg y,
y, lg koskh tobkph, jhkh rbsphmslngbs db gl ldbjuldl jhk-
prbmsoúm dbg tbxth phr plrtb dbg rbjbpthr.
rbjbpthr. Bm bg soùobmtb bsqubkl sb bxphmbm
ghs promjopohs db Nblu`rlmdb-Dbssgbr shnrb gl tbxtulgodl
tbxtulgodld.
d.
Gls sobtb mhrkls shnrb gl tbxtulgodld


Zhm ghs promjopohs jhmstotutovhs db gl jhkumojljoúm tbxtulg.
<. Jhfbsoúm.
>. Jhfbrbmjol.
:. Omtbmjohmlgodld.
4. Ljlptlnogodld.
2. Omchrkltovodld.
3. Zotuljohmlgodld.
0. Omtbrtbxtulgodld.
‚ <->5 Mhjohmbs nlsldls bm bg kltbrolg tbxtulg.
‚ :-4-35 Mhjohmbs nlsldls bm gls rbgljohmbs prl`kìtojls.
         -
ngbjb júkh pubdbm jhmbjtlrsb bmtrb së ghs bgbkbmths db gl supbr󿬌job
tbxtulg.
        

    
gls rbgljohmbs qub sb dlm bm bg tbxth. Gl jhfbrbmjol mh bs um rls`h
qub lplrbzjl bm ghs tbxths, bs jhmsbjubmjol db ghs prhjbshs jh`moto-
vhs qub ghs usulrohs db ghs tbxths phmbm bm cumjohmlkobmth.
            
kbtl qub quobrl jhmsbùor y lg pglm tbxtulg qub trljb plrl lgjlmzlrgl.
           -
tlngb so phsbb lg`õm toph db rbgbv
rbgbvlmjol
lmjol y so bg rbjbpthr pubdb rblgozlr
omcbrbmjols qub gb pbrkotlm klmtbmbr gl jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg.
  

       
mubvl b omchrkljoúm vobel.
    
       
tbxth sbl rbgbvlmtb jhm rbspbjth l uml sotuljoúm.
  

        
toph db tbxth phr bg jhmhjokobmth db gl bxostbmjol db tbxths db bsb
koskh toph.
Ghs trbs promjopohs rbùgltovhs

 Zhm ghs qub jhmtrhglm gl jhkumojljoúm tbxtulg
<. B󿬌jljol.
>. Bcbjtovodld.
:. Ldbjuljoúm.
           -
nglmtbs bm bg ush db um dbtbrkomldh tbxth.
  

         
jhkumojltovls prhpubstls.
            -
Gls joúm bm rbgljoúm

docbrbmjols bmtrbjhm bg rbspbth db
bg jhmjbpth l gls mhrkls
tbxturl db db tbxtulgodld.
Flggodly y Flsslm y bg
db tbxtulgodld qub prhphmbm Nblu`rlmdb y Drbssgbr shm bvodbmtbvodbmtbs.
bs. Kobmtrls
qub plrl ghs prokbrhs, gl tbxturl bs uml prhpobdld bstrujturlg dbg tbxth, nobm
sbl bm rbgljoúm jhm ghs bgbkbmths qub ghs jhkphmbm, nobm sbl jhm gl sotul-
joúm db jhkumojljoúm, plrl Nblu`rlmdb y Drbssgbr, gl tbxtulgodld shm uml
sbrob db mhrkls qub pbrkotbm bg cumjohmlkobmth omtbrljtovh dbg tbxth jhkh
umodld db omtbrjlknoh jhkumojltovh
jhkumojltovh bmtrb usulrohs rblgbs bm sotuljohmbs rbl-
gbs. Zhm prhjbshs qub fljbm phsongb gl jhmstrujjoúm db um bmumjoldh y qub
rbùglm y lsbùrlm su jhkprbmsoúm. Gl dostomjoúm qub bsths gom`÷ostls fljbm
bmtrb mhjohmbs jbmtrldls bm bg kltbrolg tbxtulg y mhjohmbs nlsldls bm gls rb-
gljohmbs prl`kìtojls bs db `rlm okphrtlmjol pubs jglro󿬌jl y hrobmtl shnrb gls
dorbjjohmbs fljol gls qub dbnbm doroòrsb ghs omtbrbsbs omvbsto`ldhrbs shnrb
bg tbxth. L gl fhrl db dbjodor db quï lspbjths dbnb fljbrsb jlr`h bg lmìgosos
tbxtulg, bstls dhs dorbjjohmbs ‚gl qub sb doro`b dbg tbxth «fljol dbmtrh± y gl
qub sb hjupl dbg tbxth «fljol cubrl±‚ mhs sbrìm db `rlm lyudl plrl chrkuglr
su tlrbl.
Jhkh fbkhs sbülgldh bm gl omtrhdujjoúm l bstb lplrtldh, l plrtor db bs-
tls prhpubstls, ghs gom`÷ostls sb flm jbmtrldh shnrb thdh bm dhs prhpobdldbs5
gl jhfbrbmjol y gl jhfbsoúm qub dbsdb dostomtls pbrspbjtovls
pbrspbjtovls flm jhmstotuodh
umh db ghs jbmtrhs db omtbrïs db ghs bstudohs shnrb bg tbxth.
:.:. Gl jhfbrbmjol y gl jhfbsoúm
Htrhs
gozldh gom`÷ostls,
prhpubstls omdbpbmdobmtbkbmtb
plrl dbg jhmjbpth
db󿬌mor gl/gls prhpobdldbs db tbxtulgodld,
jlrljtbrozldhrls db glflm rbl-
umodld
tbxth. Dbsdb um promjopoh, bg omtbrïs sb jbmtrú bm gl jhfbrbmjol y jhfbsoúm, bs
dbjor, bm gls prhpobdldbs qub phmbm db klmo󿬌bsth gls rbgljohmbs qub sb bstl-
ngbjbm bmtrb gls plrtbs db um tbxth. Mh bs db bxtrlülr1 bm rblgodld jhfbrbmjol
y jhfbsoúm pubdbm jhmsodbrlrsb bg trlsumth gom`÷ëstojh ljtulg db gls rbgljohmbs
bmtrb ghs movbgbs nìsojhs dbg gbmùleb, qub jhmchrklm gl mlturlgbzl dbg so`mh
gom`÷ëstojh y bm rbgljoúm jhm ghs julgbs sb flm dostronuodh sbjuglrkbmtb gls dosjo-
pgomls gom`÷ëstojls. Jhfbrbmjol
Jhfbrbmjol y jhfbsoúm sb rb󿬌brbm lg jhmtbmodh db um kbmsleb
y l sus phsonogodldbs db bxprbsoúm gom`÷ëstojl, l gl klmbrl bm gl qub bg gbmùleb
bstrujturl y jhmdojohml gl bxprbsoúm db mubstrh pbmslkobmth y db mubstrls omtbm-
johmbs. Jhfbrbmjol y jhfbsoúm sb rb󿬌brbm, bm rblgodld, l gh qub gl rbtúrojl
r btúrojl jgìsojl
dbmhkomú rbs h lsumth y vbrnl h bxprbsoúm y qub fljël oùlgkbmtb rbcbrbmjol lg
fbjfh omshsglylngb db qub julgquobr dosjursh jhkumojl um jhmtbmodh qub dbnb
bstlr ldbjuldlkbmtb pglmo󿬌jldh y bstrujturldh pbrh qub bsb jhmtbmodh sb shs-
tobmb shnrb um jhkpgbeh bmtrlkldh db rbgljohmbs gom`÷ëstojh-`rlkltojlgbs qub bs

mbjbslroh
Jhkhjhmhjbr plrl jhfbrbmjol
rbss y vbrnl,
rb jhmsbùor ghs rbsugtldhsshm
y jhfbsoúm pbrsbùodhs.
dhs lspbjths omsbplrlngbs dbg
dosjursh. Zo dbsdb gl pbrspbjto
pbrspbjtovl
vl hmhklsohgúòjl
hmhklsohgúòjl h db prhdujjoúm, bs gl jhfbrbm-
jol h pglmo󿬌jljoúm sbkìmtojl dbg dosjursh gl qub lplrbjb bm prokbr gu`lr, dbsdb
bg pumth db vostl sbklsohgúòjh h db rbjbpjoúm, shm ghs dbmhkomldhs cbmúkbmhs
cbmúkbmhs
db bmumjoljoúm tbxtulg ghs prokbrhs bstëkughs qub rbjonb bg dbstomltlroh l plrtor
db ghs julgbs dbnbrì omtbmtlr rbjhmstruor gls omtbmjohmbs db ghs flnglmtbs y bg jhm-
tbmodh db su kbmsleb. Jhfbrbmjol y jhfbsoúm, pubs, bstlrëlm bm uml rbgljoúm db
omjgusoúm dbtbrkomldl phr gl dorbjjoúm db gl jhkumojljoúm. Lsë5
DO^BJJOÚM HMHKLZOHGÚ@OJL JHFB^BMJOL
JHFBZOÚM
JHFBZOÚM
DO^BJJOÚM ZBKLZOHGÚ@OJL
JHFB^BMJOL
Zom bknlr`h jhkh ldvobrtb Doa (<??05 ?), gl bxprbsoúm gom`÷ëstojl mh bs

kìs qub gl kbdoldhrl bmtrb gls omtbmjohmbs dbg flnglmtb y gl omtbrprbtljoúm
dbg dbstomltlroh pubs jhkh omdojl bg koskh luthr, «mo gl bxprbsoúm gom`÷ëstojl
dbg flnglmtb mbjbsotl vbrnlgozlr jhkpgbtlkbmtb su omtbmjoúm, mo gl omtbrprbtl-
joúm bstì súgh nlsldl bm gl bxprbsoúm gom`÷ëstojl rbjonodl±.
Sblkhs bsth rbsukodh bm bg bsqubkl db omtbrljjoúm vbrnlg db Doa (<??05 6).
Omchrkljoúm prl`kìtojl Ys Omchrkljoúm prl`kìtojl Ys

Bg flnglmtb prhdujb5 Bg dbstomltlroh jhmstruyb5
Omtbmjoúm Lmtojopl Omtbrprbtljoúm
^bjhmstruyb
Bxprbsoúm gomùëstojl
Jhfbrbmjol y jhfbsoúm dbsdb bstb pumth db vostl mh shm jhmjbpths qub

fl`lm rbcbrbmjol l lg`h ljlnldh h pbrcbjtlkbmtb rbprhdujongb. Lknhs tobmbm
qub vbr jhm prhjbshs db jhmstrujjoúm y jhkprbmsoúm db tbxths, jhm ljths om-
tbmjohmlgbs db jhkumojljoúm vbrnlg qub shm ghs qub dolrolkbmtb rblgozlkhs
ghs flnglmtbs bm mubstrhs omjhmtlngbs bmjubmtrhs jhkumojltovhs.
jhkumojltovhs. Gl jhkpgb-
eodld, dosplrodld y vlrobdld
vlrobdld db pumths
pumths db vostl bm gl db󿬌mojoúm db ghs jhmjbp-
ths db jhfbrbmjol y jhfbsoúm bstì eusto󿬌jldl phrqub l trlvïs db bgghs bstlkhs
flnglmdh dbg gbmùleb y db mubstrls phsonogodldbs rblgbs db jhkprbmdbr y sbr
jhkprbmdodhs. Jhkh gom`÷ostls mhs bstlkhs bmcrbmtlmdh dbsdb htrh pumth
db vostl y jhm htrhs omstrukbmths db lmìgosos jhm bg jhkpgbeh lsumth db gls
rbgljohmbs bmtrb chrkl y jhmtbmodh, db lfë qub bg pumth db vostl qub sb db󿬌ml
jhkh pbrspbjtovl
pbrspbjtovl h jhmjbpjoúm `bmbrlg shnrb bg gbmùleb tbmdrì kujfh qub
vbr jhm bg pglmtblkobmth y gls jhmjgusohmbs l gls qub jhmduzjl bg bstudoh db
gl jhfbrbmjol y gl jhfbsoúm.
Jhkh vbmokhs rbpotobmdh, gl pbrspbjtovl cumjohmlg qub lquë ldhptlkhs
mhs sotõl lmtb bg tbxth y sus prhpobdldbs dbsdb um pumth db vostl qub omjgu-
yb, som dudl, gl jhmsodbrljoúm db ghs lspbjths prl`kìtojhs y jh`motovhs qub
dbtbrkomlm ghs omtbrjlknohs jhkumojltovh-tbxtulgbs. Zom bknlr`h, jhkh
kubstrl Jltlgoml Cubmtbs ^hdrëùbz bm su lrtëjugh «Gl jhfbsoúm y gl jh-
fbrbmjol tbxtulgbs, jglvbs bm bg lmìgosos b omtbrprbtljoúm db tbxths± (<??>5
<>:-<42), gls prhpubstls shnrb gl mlturlgbzl lsë jhkh shnrb gl okphrtlmjol
db bsths jhmjbpths flm vlroldh sbmsongbkbmtb db umhs luthrbs l htrhs y db
umls jhrrobmtbs gom`÷ëstojls l htrls.
Bm `bmbrlg y dbsdb bstb pumth db vostl phdbkhs dbjor qub jhfbrbmjol y
jhfbsoúm sb sotulrhm bm dhs movbgbs tbxtulgbs dostomths. Gl jhfbrbmjol lcbj-
tlrël lg movbg prhcumdh h lnstrljth db jhmstrujjoúm tbxtulg kobmtrls qub gl
jhfbsoúm sb flrël bvodbmtb bm gh qub Ybtó 󿬌 y @lrjël Nbrroh dbmhkomlm gl
klmocbstljoúm tbxtulg gomblg h supbr󿬌job tbxtulg. Lsë gh pglmtblm (<?065 20)
bm gl soùobmtb db󿬌mojoúm5
Bg tïrkomh jglvb db gl dbgokotljoúm y gl db󿬌mojoúm tbxtulg Q...[ bs gl jhfbrbmjol
tbxtulg. Gl jhfbrbjol h jhm`rubmjol db um tbxth bs uml mhjoúm h rbsugtldh
gúòjh-jhkumojltovh, uml prhpobdld db gl sustlmjol tbxtulg qub, l movbg db
gl chrkl tbxtulg, sb trlmschrkl bm bg jhmeumth db kbjlmoskhs gom`÷ëstojhs
db jhfbsoúm.
Lumqub vlm Doea (<?06) mh utogozl bg tïrkomh jhfbsoúm, plrl ïg pubdb
dostomùorsb phr uml plrtb uml jhfbrbmjol `ghnlg, qub sbrël gl bstrujturl `gh-
nlg db so`mo󿬌jldhs y phr htrl, uml jhfbrbmjol gomblg qub tobmb qub vbr jhm bg
bmjldbmlkobmth db gls
lknhs tïrkomhs jhm hrljohmbsybm
jhfbrbmjol gl supbrtlg
jhfbsoúm 󿬌job tbxtulg. Mh bs docëjog lshjolr
jhkh fbkhs vosth qub fljëlm
Ybtó󿬌 y @lrjël Nbrroh.
Lgjlrlz (<?6:5 0->4) phr su plrtb odbmto 󿬌jl, lg kbmhs plrjolgkbmtb, ghs
tïrkomhs jhfbrbmjol y jhfbsoúm jhm ghs db `rlkltojlgodld y ljbptlnogodld.
Ylrl bstb gom`÷ostl, gl jhfbrbmjol sb jhrrbsphmdbrël jhm gl ljbptlnogodld y
phdrël jlrljtbrozlrsb jhkh gl «jhmtomuodld db sbmtodhs h lusbmjol db jhmtrl-
dojjoúm jh`mhsjotovl
jh`mhsjotovl bmtrb bg jhmhjokobmth ljtovldh phr gls bxprbsohmbs dbg
tbxth y bg jhmhjokobmth dbg kumdh db ghs plrtojoplmtbs bm gl jhkumojljoúm±.
Gl jhfbsoúm sb jlrljtbrozlrël phr gl prbsbmjol db jobrths cbmúkbmhs gom`÷ës-
tojhs jhkh gl lmìchrl y gl jltìchrl.
Gl odbl db qub gl jhfbrbmjol bs gl vbrdldbrl rbsphmslngb db gl bxostbmjol
db ghs tbxths qub, phr htrl plrtb, sb klmo󿬌bstlm sobkprb bm chrkl db umodl-
dbs gom`÷ëstojh-vbrnlgbs, fl dldh gu`lr l qub lgùmhs luthrbs flylm vosth
prbjoslkbmtb bm ghs cbmúkbmhs jhfbsovhs gl bxpgojljoúm h eusto󿬌jljoúm db gl
bxostbmjol db gl jhfbrbmjol y l qub, bm jhmsbjubmjol, sb jhmsodbrb gl jhfb-
soúm jhkh uml plrtb h lspbjth db gl jhfbrbmjol. Bm bstl gëmbl sb bmjubmtrl gl
gom`÷ëstojl sostïkojh-cumjohmlg db Flggodly.
Flggodly. Vlvobr Guml (<??95 2>-2:) qub
sb jhghjl bm gl koskl pbrspbjtovl eusto󿬌jl lsë bstl rbgljoúm y bmtobmdb «gl
jhfbrbmjol jhkh bg jhmeumth db cbmúkbmhs qub pbrkotbm qub um tbxth sbl
omtbrprbtlngb, ljbptlngb, ldbjuldh, kobmtrls qub gl jhfbsoúm bs um lspbjth
db gl jhfbrbmjol qub sb rb󿬌brb l gl jhmbxoúm bmtrb ghs bgbkbmths db um tbxth
Q...[ bs dbjor, gl jhfbsoúm h jhmbxoúm chrkl plrtb dbg jhmjbpth kìs lkpgoh db
jhfbrbmjol±.
Ïstb vobmb l sbr bg pumth db vostl db Nbrmìrdbz (<?6>5 <23) plrl bg qub
gl jhfbrbmjol bs «gl jlrljtbrëstojl cumdlkbmtlg db um tbxth, gh qub jhmvobrtb
um kbmsleb vbrnlg bm um tbxth±. Gl jhfbrbmjol, l 󿬌rkl kìs ldbglmtb, «sb
klmo󿬌bstl l trlvïs db ghs cbmúkbmhs chrklgbs db jhmbxoúm qub shm ghs prh-
jbdokobmths jhfbsovhs±
jhfbsovhs± (<3>). Zom bknlr`h, shnrb gls rbgljohmbs bmtrb jhfb-
rbmjol y jhfbsoúm, Soglrmhvh
Soglrmhvh (<??<5 <>2-<44) ldvobrtb qub gl jhrrbsphmdbm-
jol bmtrb lknls mh sobkprb bs lnshgutl pubs sb pubdb dlr tlmth jhfbsoúm som
jhfbrbmjol jhkh jhfbrbmjol som jhfbsoúm, gub`h bm su hpomoúm mo sb pubdbm
dlr bxpgojljohmbs db󿬌motovls db gl jhfbrbmjol phr gl jhfbsoúm, y mo soquobrl
pubdb dbjorsb qub gl jhfbsoúm sbl jhmdojoúm mbjbslrol pbrh mh su󿬌jobmtb.
Bs bvodbmtb, jhkh doeokhs lg promjopoh db bstb lplrtldh, qub bm gl db-
󿬌mojoúm db bsths jhmjbpths eub`l um plpbg cumdlkbmtlg juìg bs gl odbl db
tbxth l gl qub sb prbtbmdb ggb`lr ‚h db gl qub sb plrtb‚ y, phr tlmth, dbsdb
quï pbrspbjtovl gom`÷ëstojl sb ggbvl l jlnh gl jlrljtbrozljoúm db gl umodld
tbxtulg. Lumqub shm kujfls kìs gls prhpubstls, shnrb thdh gls rbcbrodls yl
bm jhmjrbth lg lmìgosos plrtojuglr db gl jhfbrbmjol h gl jhfbsoúm, prbcbrokhs
dbelr
gl bm bstb pumth
dosjusoúm shnrb bg
sudocëjog bquogonroh
mlturlgbzl l ghsdb gls rbgljohmbs
lplrtldhs bmtrb lknls
soùobmtbs. Jhkh yvlkhs
lpglzlrl
jhkprhnlr, phr gh qub sb rb 󿬌brb l gl jhfbsoúm mh plrbjb flnbr dudls db qub
sb trltl db uml prhpobdld db mlturlgbzl gom`÷ëstojl y `rlkltojlg1 gls dovbr`bm-

dovbr`bm-
jols sb bmjubmtrlm bm juìgbs shm ghs cbmúkbmhs bm ghs qub sb klmo󿬌bstl y
júkh ïsths dbnbm jglso󿬌jlrsb y hr`lmozlrsb. Yhr gh qub sb rb 󿬌brb gl jhfbrbm-
jol, su db󿬌mojoúm y gl bspbjo󿬌jljoúm jhmjrbtl db sus klmocbstljohmbs rbsugtl
kìs phgïkojl y ghs pumths db vostl kìs dovbr`bmtbs. Jhm bg bstudoh db gl
jhfbrbmjol mhs bstlkhs bmcrbmtlmdh lg so`mo󿬌jldh, l gls phsonogodldbs db su
hr`lmozljoúmm y l su mlturlgbzl prl`kìtojl, uml jubstoúm, bm db 󿬌motovl, shnrb
hr`lmozljoú
gl qub gl gom`÷ëstojl sb bmjubmtrl bm pgbml db󿬌mojoúm.
Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël
(^bcbrodl súgh l gl phgïkojl shnrb gls prhpobdldbs tbxtulgbs.
tbxtulgbs. Kujfh kìs
lkpgol bm ghs jlpëtughs jhrrbsphmdobmtbs l jldl uml db dojfls prhpobdldbs.)
LGJL^LU SL^Ú, B. (<??9)5 Trbs plrldo`kls db gl omvbsto`ljoúm gom`÷ës-
tojl, Lgjhy, Klr
NBLR@^LMDB,
󿬌g.
^. L. y P.S. D^BZZGB^ (<?6<)5 Omtrhdujjoúm l gl gom-
`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth, Nlrjbghml, Lrobg, <??0.
NB^MÌ^DBU, B. (<?6>)5 Omtrh dujjoúm l gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth, Kldrod5
Omtrhdujjoúm
Bsplsl-Jlgpb.
JFL^HGGBZ,
JFL^ HGGBZ, K. (<?6:)5 «Jhfbrbmjb ls l promjopgb om tfb omtbrprbtltohm hc
dosjhursb±, Tbxt, :, <, pp. 0<-?6.
————— (<?66)5 «Gbs ïtudbs sur gl jhfïrbmjb, gl jhfbsohm bt gl jhmmbxo-
tï tbxtubggbs dbpuos gl 󿬌m dbs lmmïbs <?39±, Khdïgbs gomùostoqubs
gomùostoqubs, V->,
pp. 42-33 bm A. FL FLTBAB_
TBAB_LKL,LKL, E.Z. YBTÓCO y B. ZÓUB^ (<?64)5
Tbxt, jhmmbxotï, jhfbsohm, jhfïrbmjb, Rrnomh, Jbmtrh Omtbrmlzohmlgb do
Zbkohtojl b do Gomùostojl, m.o <:>-<::-<:4.
DOEA, T.L. vlm (<?06)5 Gl jobmjol dbg tbxth, Nlrjbghml, Ylodús, <??2.
DOA, Z.J. (<??0)5 Tfb tfbhry hc cumjtohmlg
c umjtohmlg `rlkklr
`rlkk lr.. Ylrt
Ylrt <5 Tfb strujturb
stru jturb hc
tfb jglusb, Nbrgëm-
Nbrgëm-Mubvl
Mubvl _hra, Khuthm db @ruytbr.
@ru ytbr.
jglvbs bm bg lmìgosos b omtbrprbtljoúm db ghs tbxths±, bm K. Lrozl (bd.)5
Yrhngbkls y kïthdhs dbg lmìgosos db tbxths, pp. <>:-<42.
FLGGODL_, K. L. A. y ^. FLZLM (<?03)5 Jhfbsohm om Bm`gosf, Ghmdrbs,
Ghm`klm.
GRML, V. (<??9)5 «Gl jhfbræmjol o gl jhfbsoú dbg tbxt±, bm Tbxt o bmsbmylkbmt.
bmsbmylkbm t.
Rml lprhxokljoú omtbrdosjopgomlr , Nlrjbghml, Nlrjlmhvl, pp. 4?-04.
jhfïrbmjb tbxtubggb
tbxtubggb55 symtlxb,
symtlxb, sïklmtoqub, prl`-
YBTÓCO, E.Z. y L. @L^JËL NB^ÔH (<?06)5 Gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth y jrëtojl
gotbrlrol, Kldrod, Jhkumojljoúm.
ZJFKODT, Z.E. (<?0:)5 Tbhrël dbg tbxth. Yrhngbkls db uml gom`÷ëstojl db gl

ZHUB^, B. Flknur`h,
rbsugts, Tbxt Jhmmbxoty, Tbxt Jhfbrbmjb. Lspbjts, kbtfhds,
(bd.) (<?62)5Nusab.
SOGL^MHSH, L. (<??9)5 «Jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg5 ¸jhfbrbmjol omtbrml h jhfb-
rbmjol bxtbrml8±, BGRL, 3, pp. >>?->:?.
SOGL^MHSH, L. (<??<)5 «Tbhrëls bxpgojltovls db gl jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg±,
^BG, VVO-<, pp. <>2-<44.
Ljtovodldbs
<. Bm bg soùobmtb tbxth, Jflrhggbs (<?6:5
(<?6:5 0>-0:)
0>-0:) prhphmb um jhmjbpth
jhmjbpth
kuy lkpgoh db jhfbrbmjol. Bxpgëjlgh b omtbmtl lpgojlrgh lg prhjbsh
db jhkprbmsoúm dosjursovl5
Jhkprbmdbr
bquovlgb
bquov qubjubmtl
lgb l dlrsb uml db
sbrob
qubdbflyljjohmbs chrklm
uml omtbmjoúm um thdh
`ghnlg jhfbrbmtb
qub bxpgojl phr
quï jldl jhmstotuybmtb db bsl ljjoúm sb fl rblgozldh bm um khkbmth
jhmjrbth Q…[ ‗Bg pumth db plrtodl bm gl omtbrprbtljoúm db julgquobr
sbrob db ljjohmbs fuklmls bs gl lsumjoúm db qub bsls ljjohmbs chrklm
plrtb db um thdh.
>. ¸\uï bs um tbxth bcbjtovh8¸_ umh b󿬌jlz8 Nusjl bebkpghs bm bg gbm-
ùleb pungojotlroh. ¸Jrbbs ldbkìs qub jukpgbm jhm bg rbquosoth db gl
ldbjuljoúm8 Dosjõtbgh jhm tus jhkplübrhs.
:. Gbb ghs soùobmtbs crl`kbmths ¸shm jhfbrbmtbs8
jhfbrbmtbs8 ¸shm jhfbsov
jhfbsovhs8
hs8 ^b-
           
jhfbsoúm.
Bm Ylrl
l) jlzlr
gl vodl jlgvlrohs
rbkhtl
Fbkhs pubsth um rbjglkh
Lgùobm kubrb bstrlmùgl
bstrlmùgldh
dh phr su shknrl.
n) Tbm`h
Tbm`h umhs
umh s lfhrrhs. \uobrb or l Jlmlrols.
J lmlrols. Ehr`b prb 󿬌brb Burhdosmby.
Gl shgujoúm bstì lquë.
lquë.
j) Ludlz dosbüh lrquotbjtúmojh, pgbmotud tbjmhgúòjl y `bmbr`bmbrhsodld.
hsodld. Bg
Ybu`bht :90 lnrb plsh l uml mubvl `bmbrljoúm db luthkúvogbs y sb
prbsbmtl
prbsbmtl jhkh gl nbrgoml l sbùor
sbùor bm bg so`gh VVO .
OO
TBH^ËL _ Y^ÌJTOJL DBG LMÌGOZOZ DB TBVTHZ

BM BZY
B ZYLÜHG
LÜHG

4. G󰁬 󰁪󰁨󰁦󰁢󰁾󰁢󰁭󰁪󰁯󰁬
4.<. Bg jhmjbpth db jhfbrbmjol
Bm uml prokbrl lprhxokljoúm phdbkhs dbjor qub gl jhfbrbmjol bs gl prh-
pobdld tbxtulg qub fljb rbcbrbmjol lg so`mo󿬌jldh dbg tbxth, bs dbjor, lg fbjfh
db qub bg tbxth phsbb um jhmtbmodh dbjododh y hr`lmozldh phr um flnglmtb
qub dbsbl jhkumojlr lg`h. Dbsdb chrkugljohmbs tbkprlmls sb tuvh bm jubm-
tl mh súgh bg so`mo󿬌jldh qub bg tbxth trlskotël jhkh uml thtlgodld jbrrldl,
somh lg flnglmtb jhkh jlplz db okprokor «phtbmjolg oghjujohmlroh± (Zjfko-
           
bstb sbmtodh, Nbrmìrdbz (<?6>5 <26) yl bmumjoú qub gl jhfbrbmjol db um tbxth
dbpbmdël db gl bxostbmjol db um pglm prbvoh l gl lrtojugljoúm qub sb khdugl
bm trbs clsbs5
l) Bg flnglmtb tobmb uml omtbmjoúm jhkumojltovl.
n) Bg flnglmtb
flnglmtb dbslrrhggl um pglm `ghnlg qub
qub gb pbrkotorì
pbrkotorì qub tbm`l ïxoth
ïxoth
su tbxth.
j) Bg flnglmtb
flnglmtb rblgozl
rblgozl gls hpbrljohmbs mbjbslrols plrl
plrl bxprbslr
bxprbslr vbrnlg-
vbrnlg-
kbmtb bsb pglm `ghnlg.
Bg pglmtblkobmth db Nbrmìrdbz soùb jglrlkbmtb gl dorbjjoúm db sëmtbsos
dosjursovl y su prbhjupljoúm sb jbmtrl bm dbsjunror quï prhjbsh soùb um
flnglmtb plrl jhmstruor um tbxth l plrtor db uml omtbmjoúm omojolg y jhmtlmdh
jhm bg kltbrolg gom`÷ëstojh-vbrnlg jhkh chrkl db bxprbsoúm db bsl omtbmjoúm.
Dbsdb bstb pumth db vostl, gl jhfbrbmjol, phr tlmth, jhmstotuyb um prhjbsh
jhmstrujtovh, jlb dbg gldh dbg flnglmtb qub bs quobm dhtl db bsl jhfbrbmjol
h mh l gl klmocbstljoúm tbxtulg
tbxtulg qub fl bglnhrldh. Bm rblgodld, gl lusbmjol db
jhfbrbmjol db um tbxth ‚l󿬌rkl Nbrmìrdbz‚ pubdb dbnbrsb l brrhrbs jhkb-
todhs bm ghs lplrtldhs n) y j), bs dbjor, bm gl bstrujturljoúm dbg pglm h bm gl
`rlkltojlgodld dbg tbxth1 bm db󿬌motov
motovl,
l, bm gl ljtuljoúm dbg flnglmtb.
Ybrh ghs jlkomhs sbùodhs phr gl gom`÷ëstojl bm ghs õgtokhs lühs flm ggb-
vldh l qub bg omtbrïs sb jbmtrb, ldbkìs db bm bg fbjfh db gl dhtljoúm db
sbmtodh y chrkl gom`÷ëstojl l um tbxth, bm ghs prhjbshs qub pbrkotbm y fljbm
phsongb gl jhkprbmsoúm
qub pbrkotbm tbxtulg.gom`÷ëstojl
gl jhkumojljoúm Gl omvbsto`ljoúm
gom`÷ëstoj bm ghs prhjbshs
l y, plrlgbglkbmtb, jh`motovhs
bg bstudoh db gls
bstrltbòls jhkumojltovls
jhkumojltovls ggbvldhs
ggbvldhs l jlnh phr gl prl`kìtojl fl dldh gu`lr l
um òrh kuy okphrtlmtb bm gl jhmjbpjoúm db gl odbl db jhfbrbmjol. Plgtbr
Ko`mhgh yl lprbjoú (<?63) qub gl jhfbrbmjol brl kìs uml jubstoúm db om-
tbrprbtljoúm qub db prhdujjoúm. Jhmsodbrl bstb luthr qub gl jhfbrbmjol bs
uml tlrbl db rbjbpjoúm qub jhmsostorël bm uml sbrob db hpbrljohmbs rblgozldls
phr bg hybmtb plrl dlr so`mo 󿬌jldh lg tbxth. Bstb pumth db vostl, bg db qub gl
jhfbrbmjol mh bs lg`h qub õmojlkbmtb bstì bm bg tbxth somh qub kìs nobm sb
bmjubmtrl bm bg bspljoh db omtbrjlknoh jhkumojltovh
jhkumojltovh bmtrb ghs prhdujthrbs y
ghs rbjbpthrbs tbxtulgbs y qub fly qub jhmsodbrlr lg omtïrprbtb dbg tbxth jhkh
lgùobm omtbrbsldh, prbjoslkbmtb, bm dhtlr db jhfbrbmjol l um bmumjoldh tbx-
tulg, bs um pglmtblkobmth qub rbsugtl kuy ltrljtov
ltrljtovhh y qub bm gl ljtulgodld bs
dbcbmdodh phr kujfhs luthrbs.
Jhkh phdbkhs oklòmlr, ghs prhngbkls rbgltovhs l gl jhfbrbmjol bstìm
ëmtoklkbmtb go`ldhs l gl rbshgujoúm y l gls dosjusohmbs bm thrmh l uml db
gls jubstohmbs vbrdldbrlkbmtb trlsjbmdbmtbs dbmtrh db ghs bstudohs shnrb
bg gbmùleb, jhkh bs thdh gh qub sb rb 󿬌brb lg ìknoth dbg so`mo󿬌jldh. Lum-
qub sb trltl db um tbkl lkpgësokh qub dbsnhrdl y supbrl jhm kujfh ghs
gëkotbs db bstb trlnleh qubrrëlkhs, lg kbmhs, rblgozlr nrbvbkbmtb lgùmhs
dbsgomdbs lg rbspbjth qub jhmsodbrlkhs okprbsjomdongbs5 gl dostomjoúm bmtrb
so`mo󿬌jldh y sbmtodh y gl jubstoúm dbg so`mo󿬌jldh dosjursovh y sus phsonogo-
dldbs db lmìgosos. Gls prhpubstls db ghs dostomths luthrbs 󿬌mlgkbmtb vobmbm
l jhomjodor bm gl mbjbsodld db lnhrdlr bg lmìgosos db gl jhfbrbmjol tlmth
dbsdb gl pbrspbjtovl prhdujtovh-jhmstrujtovl jhkh dbsdb gl rbjbptovh-om-
tbrprbtltovl y, bm jhmsbjubmjol, tbmobmdh bm jubmtl tlmth gls phsonogodldbs
y rbjurshs qub phsbb um flnglmtb plrl lsbùrlr gl trlskosoúm db um dbtbr-
komldh jhmtbmodh, jhkh ghs qub bsb koskh flnglmtb phsbb plrl dbsjunror
b omtbmtlr rbjhmstruor gls omtbmjohmbs db quobm gh fl bglnhrldh.

4.>. Bg so`mo 󿬌
󿬌jldh dosjursovh
4.>.<. Zo`mo󿬌jldh y sbmtodh
Dbsdb gl jhmshgodljoúm y `bmbrlgozljoúm db ghs bstudohs tbxtulgbs bg prh-
ngbkl dbg so`mo󿬌jldh sb fl vbmodh pglmtblmdh rbotbrldlkbmtb. Bm um trlnleh
yl jgìsojh db <?06, Bu`bmb Jhsbrou dostomùoú crbmtb l gl dbso`mljoúm ‚nlsb
sbkìmtojl db gl `rlkìtojl umovbrslg‚ y bg so`mo󿬌jldh ‚nlsb sbkìmtojl db gl
omvbsto`ljoúm bm gbmùls‚, bg sbmtodh, lg qub db 󿬌moú jhkh «bg pglmh sbkìmto-
jh prhpoh y bxjgusovh dbg tbxth, bs dbjor, bg jhmtbmodh sbkìmtojh bspbjolg qub
sb bxprbsl bm um tbxth dbtbrkomldh phr kbdoh dbg so`mo󿬌jldh y gl dbso`mljoúm
󿬌
y kìs lggì dbg so`mo
omvbsto`ljohmbs jldh y gldbg
bm gom`÷ëstojl dbso`mljoúm± (<?065bg<:3).
tbxth prbsbmtlrhm tbxthBcbjtovlkbmtb, gls
jhkh um bspljoh
bm bg qub gls umodldbs so`mo󿬌jltovls db gl gbmùl phdëlm bstudolrsb dbsdb gl

pbrspbjtovll db gls rbdbs h tbeodhs qub bstlngbjëlm lg rbgljohmlrsb umls jhm htrls.
pbrspbjtov
Ybrh, ldbkìs, bg tbxtulg, bs um ìknoth dhtldh db omtbmjohmlgodld y doroòdh lg
omtbrjlknoh jhkumojltov
jhkumojltovhh db lfë qub okphrtb tbmbr bm jubmtl mh súgh gls rbgl-
johmbs dbmhkomldls jhtbxtulgbs
jhtbxtulgbs ‚gls qub sb bstlngbjbm bm bg prhpoh tbxth‚ somh
tlknoïm gls jhmtbxtulgbs, bs dbjor, gls qub tobmbm gu`lr phr bg fbjfh db qub bg
tbxth bm bg qub gls umodldbs so`mo󿬌jlm sbl, jhkh sbülgìnlkhs, bg prhdujth
omtbmjohmlg db um flnglmtb. Jhkh l󿬌rkl ^lkúm Trovbs (<?0?5 <69)5
Bg tbxth bs, l ko euojoh, bg gu`lr db ghs cbmúkbmhs dbg gbmùleb, dhmdb gl
sbkìmtojl dbnb trlsjbmdbr su bstrojtl jhmdojoúm omtbmjohmlg gom`÷ëstojl, bg
ìknoth dbg so`mo󿬌jldh, bm gl ljbpjoúm bkotodl phr Jhsbrou, plrl jhmbjtlr
jhm bg kumdh db dbmhtldhs Q…[, bg sbmtodh bm gl ljbpjoúm db Jhsbrou.
L gl prh`rbsovl l󿬌rkljoúm dbg tbxth jhkh gu`lr provogbòldh db bstudoh
dbg gbmùleb fly qub lüldor gl pbrspbjtovl prhjbsulg y bmumjoltovl jhm gl qub
bm gl ljtulgodld sb lnhrdl julgquobr lspbjth rbgljohmldh jhm bstl umodld. Bm
bstl gëmbl sb bmjubmtrl gl db󿬌mojoúm db sbmtodh qub @utoïrrbz Hrdúübz (<?6?5
20-26) mhs hcrbjb bm su Omtrhd
Omtrhdujjoúm
ujjoúm l gl sbkìmtojl cumjohmlg5
sbkìmtojl cumjohmlg
Bmtbmdbkhs phr sbmtodh db um kbmsleb gl thtlgodld db jhmtbmodhs qub sb
trlmskotlm bm uml jhkumojljoúm jhmjrbtl‛ Q...[ ‗Bg sbmtodh bm`ghnl thdhs
ghs lspbjths y dokbmsohmbs so`mo󿬌jltovls qub omtbrvobmbm bm um ljth db
dosjursh, yl bstïm go`ldh lg so`mo 󿬌jlmtb gom`÷ëstojh, yl sblm lphrtljohmbs
jhmtbxtulgbs, yl sblm rbcbrbmjols, yl vlghrbs omtbmjohmlgbs h khdlgozljohmbs
okprokodls phr bg bkoshr.
Ylrl bstb luthr, bg sbmtodh omjguyb mh súgh ghs lspbjths trldojohmlgkbmtb
sbkìmtojhs, somh tlknoïm ghs prl`kìtojhs, bs dbjor ghs qub sb dbrovlm dbg
fbjfh db qub bg bkoshr quobrb jhkumojlr um kbmsleb jhkpgbeh bm bg qub bg
so`mo󿬌jldh
dld db gïxojhjhkumojltovl
omtbmjoúm bs súgh umh dbqub
ghsbs,
shphrtbs shnrbsu
󿬌mlgkbmtb, ghsbmumjoldh.
qub khmtlrGlglmhjoúm
thtlgo-
db sbmtodh db @utoïrrbz Hrdúübz sb rbsukb bm bg soùobmtb bsqubkl qub prb-
sbmtl bg prhpoh luthr (<?6?5 26)5
Zdh-N
h Zdh-L h gom`÷ëstojh
Zdh-J
rbcbrbmjolg
h
oghjutovh

Gl mhjoúm db sbmtodh h so`mo 󿬌jldh tbxtulg qubdl jhmshgodldl lsë jhkh

lqubggl qub mhs pbrkotorì flnglr db gh qub um flnglmtb gb quobrb dbjor l htrh
flnglmtb utogozlmdh jhkh omtbrkbdolroh um tbxth bm gbmùl mlturlg. _ bs bsb
sbmtodh mb`hjoldh
bstlngbjbr bm bg shnrb
lgùmls odbls omtbrjlknoh jhkumojltovh
gl jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg. bg qub mhs sbrvorì plrl
4.>.>. Bg prhngbkl dbg so`mo󿬌jldh dosjursovh

Bs bstl jubstoúm, gl dbg so`mo󿬌jldh dbg tbxth y sus phsonogodldbs db lmìgo-
sos gl qub lnhrdlm ûssbgg Z. Thkgom, Gomdl Chrrbst, Kom` Kom` Yu y Kyum`
Fbb Aok bm su bxtbmsh lrtëjugh «Zbkìmtojl dbg dosjursh± (>9995 <90-<09).
Bm ïg, bsths luthrbs sb pglmtblm bg prhngbkl dbg so`mo󿬌jldh dbsdb uml pbrs-
pbjtovl jhkumojltovl, bs dbjor, (<) tbmobmdh bm jubmtl júkh quobm gh omtbr-
prbtl dbdujb bg so`mo󿬌jldh l plrtor db gls dovbrsls cubmtbs1 y (>) tbmobmdh
bm jubmtl db quï chrkl bg prhdujthr jhkumojl bg so`mo󿬌jldh. Bsths koskhs
luthrbs
okì`bmbs dbmhkomlm «kbtìchrlssbdb
qub crbjubmtbkbmtb flmglutogozldh
omtbrljjoúm
plrldosjursovl± l dhs
bxpgojlr júkh tophs db
sb prhdujb
bg fbjfh db gl trlskosoúm db so`mo󿬌jldhs bmtrb ghs flnglmtbs. Lsë, jhm gl «kb-
tìchrl dbg jhmdujth dosjursovh± sb rb 󿬌brbm l gls bxpgojljohmbs qub suphmbm
qub bg gbmùleb y ghs tbxths jhmtobmbm so`mo󿬌jldh. Yhr su plrtb, gl «kbtìchrl
dbg dosbüh dbg dosjursh± jhmsodbrl lg flnglmtb um lrquotbjth juyh tbxth bs um
dosbüh qub gb sorvb db ùël lg hybmtb plrl qub ïstb rblgojb su rbprbsbmtljoúm
jhmjbptulg. Bg so`mo󿬌jldh, phr tlmth, yl mh bs lg`h qub bstï bm bg tbxth 󿬌 eldh
y bstlngb somh qub sb jhmstruyb bm jldl mubvh ljth db omtbrprbtljoúm qub um
rbjbpthr ggbvl l jlnh.
Ghs dhs prhngbkls qub sb pglmtblm lmtb bg fbjfh db bmtbmdbr bg so`mo 󿬌-
jldh jhkh bg rbsugtldh db prhjbshs db bglnhrljoúm y jhkprbmsoúm shm plrl
Thkgom, Chrrbst, Kom` y Kyum`, ghs qub sb dbrovlm5
l) Db gl omtb`rljoúm dbg jhmhjokobmth
jhmhjokobmth..
n) Db gl `bstoúm db gl omchrkljoúm.
Bm bg prokbr jlsh sb trltl db lrkhmozlr5
JHMHJOKOBMTH JHMHJOKOBMTH BKOZOHMBZ

MH GOM@×OZTOJH + LJB^JL DB GL + JHMJ^BTLZ
DBG KRMDH Y^HYOL BM BG
^BLG GBM@RL DOZJR^ZH

Gl `bstoúm db gl omchrkljoúm tobmb qub vbr jhm júkh flnglmtb y hybmtb

   
         
ghs luthrbs, dbg jhmtrhg bcbjtovh db jultrh tophs db omchrkljoúm5
<) @bstoúm rbtúroj
rbtúrojl5
omtbmjohmbs l5 omtbrljjoúm
db gl Ghs plrtojoplmtbs
plrtojoplmtbs dbnbm
dosjursovl. tbmbr jglrls gls kbtls b
dosjursovl.
>) @bstoúm rbcbrbmjolg5 GhsGhs plrtojoplmtbs
plrtojoplmtbs dbnbm klmtbmbr um rbòstrh
rbòstrh db
ghs rbcbrbmtbs y prhphsojohmbs qub tobmb bm jhkõm.
:) @bstoúm tbkìtojl5 Ghs plrtojoplmtbs
plrtojoplmtbs dbnbm
dbnbm klmtbmbr
klmtbmbr um rbòstrh db ghs
bgbkbmths jbmtrlgbs bm thrmh l ghs julgbs sb dbslrrhggl bg dosjursh.
4) @bstoúm dbg chjh5 Ghs plrtojoplmtbs
plrtojoplmtbs dbnbm
dbnbm klmtbmbr
klmtbmbr um rbòstrh db ghs
rbcbrbmtbs y lsbùrlrsb db qub bstìm trltlmdh ghs koskhs.
Mh vlkhs l bmtrlr jhm kìs dbtlggb bm bg dbslrrhggh qub bsths luthrbs
rblgozlm db jldl toph db `bstoúm, pbrh shm bvodbmtbs gls jhomjodbmjols jhm bg
pglmtblkobmth db @utoïrrbz Hrdúübz y ghs dostomths lspbjths dbg so`mo 󿬌jldh
qub ïstb pglmtblnl ‚oghjutovh, rbcbrbmjolg y gom`÷ëstojh‚. Dbsdb dostomths
pumths db vostl, jhkh vlkhs l or jhkprhnlmdh, jlso thdls gls prhpubstls
lpumtlm l gl mbjbslrol lrkhmozljoúm bmtrb ghs lspbjths sbkìmtojhs y
prl`kìtojhs jhkh õmojl phsonogodld db dlr jubmtl rblg dbsdb gl gom`÷ëstojl
dbg fbjfh ombquëvhjh db qub, 󿬌mlgkbmtb, mhs jhkumojlkhs.
4.>.:. Gl jhkprbmsoúm tbxtulg

Rmh db ghs lspbjths dbg prhjbsh db omtbrljjoúm jhkumojltovl qub kìs
fl omtbrbsldh õgtoklkbmtb y qub dbsdb gl prl`kìtojl y, shnrb thdh, dbsdb
gl gom`÷ëstojl jh`motovl,
jh`motovl, fl rbjonodh klyhr ltbmjoúm bs bg db gl jhkprbmsoúm/
omtbrprbtljoúm tbxtulg. Bm `bmbrlg phdëlkhs dbjor ‚sobmdh kuy sokpgostls‚
qub gh qub prbtbmdbm thdls gls prhpubstls tbúrojls l bstb rbspbjth bs bmjhmtrlr
uml bxpgojljoúm
kbkhrol y db quïsltoscljthrol
chrkl ïstbl sb
júkh lgkljbmlkhs
ljtovl bg jhmhjokobmth
julmdh bs mbjbslroh bm gl
plrl rblgozlr
bg prhjbsh db jhkprbmsoúm db ljjohmbs h dosjurshs. Jhmjbpths jhkh ghs
db «klrjhs± (crlkbs) db Coggkhrb, «dhkomoh jh`motovh±, db Glm`ljabr,
«dhkomoh jh`motovh odblgozldh± db Glahcc, «ùohmbs y pglmbs± db Zflma y
Lnbgshm, prhjbdbm db prhpubstls qub vlm dbsdb gl tbhrël jhkputljohmlg l
gl psojhgh`ël y gl gom`÷ëstojl jh`motovl. Ylrl Zjflma y Lnbgshm (<?60), ghs
ùohmbs shm jldbmls db ljjohmbs bstlmdlrozldls. Zb trltl db sbjubmjols
‚kujfls db bggls omstotujohmlgozldls‚ qub jhmhjbkhs y qub tbmbkhs
lgkljbmldls dbsdb gl omclmjol. Bs bstl «nlsb db dlths± db ùohmbs gh qub
mhs pbrkotb prbjoslkbmtb jhkprbmdbr ljjohmbs h dosjurshs bm ghs qub mh
bstïm bspbjo󿬌jldhs thdhs ghs plshs5 l gl bmtrldl bm um rbstlurlmtb, bm bg ljth
db prbsbmtljoúm db um dbsjhmhjodh h bm gl vosotl lg kïdojh pubdb qub mh
sb rblgojbm thdls gls ljjohmbs vbrnlgbs y mh vbrnlgbs, pbrh shkhs jlpljbs

db jhkprbmdbr gl sotuljoúm b omtbrljtulr bm bggl. Eumth l ghs ùohmbs, ghs
pglmbs tobmbm qub vbr jhm ghs khtovhs qub ggbvlm l um omdovoduh l rblgozlr
ljjohmbs.
so`mo Dbsdb
󿬌jl, phr gl pbrspbjtovl
um gldh, dbtbrkomlrdb
ghsglhnebtovhs
jhkprbmsoúm, jhkprbmdbr
db ghs ljthrbs um pglm
db gl fosthrol,
y, phr htrh, lvbroùlr bg khdh plrl jhmsbùor jldl hnebtovh (<?605 6?). Gl
jhkprbmsoúm bs prbdojtovl phr mlturlgbzl, l󿬌rklm, y «plrl prbdbjor dbnb
bxostor jhmhjokobmth shnrb júkh jhmbjtlr ghs bvbm
bvbmths±
ths± (<?605 ?2).
Bg klrjh, phr su plrtb, pubdb sbr db 󿬌modh jhkh Jocubmtbs (<??45
4<) gh fljb bm rbgljoúm jhm gl prhpubstl db Coggkhrb (<?62) jhkh «uml
bstrujturl db dlths plrl gl rbprbsbmtljoúm db uml sotuljoúm bstbrbhtopldl±.
Lsë, y bm um ìknoth yl kìs bstrojtlkbmtb gom`÷ëstojh, bg jhmjbpth db
dhkomoh jh`motovh bs db󿬌modh phr Glm`ljabr jhkh «um jhmtbxth plrl gl
jlrljtbrozljoúm db uml umodld sbkìmtojl± (<?605 <40) y fljb rbcbrbmjol lg
fbjfh db qub bg so`mo󿬌jldh db uml umodld dbpbmdb y bstì jhmdojohmldl phr
su
db bmthrmh jhmjbptulg
jhkprbmsoúm y dlrì qub bs bg qub,
phr tlmth bm õgtokl
sbmtodh omstlmjol,
l bsl umodld ùolrì db
‚bg sbmtodh bg prhjbsh
«kbsl±
sbrì kuy dostomth
dostomth so lplrbjb bm um bsjbmlroh jhkplrtodh
jhkplrtodh jhm «quorúclmh±,
«lrjfovldhr± h «nlrlel±‚.
Zo lpgojlkhs bsths promjopohs tbúrojhs lg prhngbkl db gl jhfbrbmjol,
phdbkhs dbdujor qub gls phsonogodldbs db dhtljoúm db jhfbrbmjol db um
tbxth bstìm dorbjtlkbmtb rbgljohmldls jhm gl jlpljodld db ghs flnglmtbs plrl
utogozlr y rbjhmhjbr bsqubkls odbmto󿬌jlngbs h lpgojlr bsqubkls jhmhjodhs
lmtb sotuljohmbs tbxtulg-dosjursovls mubvls. Gl jhfbrbmjol bstlrël, lsë, bm bg
tbxth, jhkh uml omtbmjoúm db prhdujjoúm prbsbmtldl l trlvïs db lg`õm toph db
hr`lmozljoúm kìs h kbmhs bstbrbhtopldl1 pbrh tlknoïm jhkh uml ljtovodld
db lpgojljoúm y nõsqubdl db khdbghs rbjhmhjongbs phr plrtb dbg rbjbpthr.
Bm su trlnleh
db jhfbrbmjol db <??2
gl vosoúm Bmroqub
domìkojl qubNbrmìrdbz prhybjtl
sb jhrrbsphmdb, shnrb
dbsdb su bg jhmjbpth
pbrspbjtovl
bjhgúòjl, jhm um sostbkl jhkpgbeh, domìkojh y lnobrth jhkh bs bg tbxth
(<??25 >>). Gl odbl db Nbrmìrdbz bs qub gl jhfbrbmjol pubdb jhmsodbrlrsb
bg «bquogonroh su󿬌jobmtb± qub fljb phsongb bg nubm rbsugtldh dbg prhjbsh
jhkumojltovh.
jhkumojlto vh. Bmtrb bg tbxth db prhdujjoúm (Tp) y bg tbxth db rbjbpjoúm (Tr)
fly `rlmdbs bspljohs db omdbtbrkomljoúm, pbrh so bg tbxth bs jhfbrbmtb, bs
dbjor, bstì nobm jhmstruodh y rbsphmdb l gls jhmdojohmbs okpubstls phr bg
jhmtbxth gls phsonogodldbs db qub sb prhduzjl gl jhkumojljoúm jhm ïxoth shm
kujfh klyhrbs.
Lsë, gl jhfbsoúm bs vostl mh jhkh uml jhmdojoúm plrl qub sb prhduzjl
gl jhfbrbmjol somh jhkh um rbsugtldh db gl mbjbsodld db ghs tbxths db
luthrrbùglrsb y ldlptlrsb l ghs jhmtbxths jhkumojltovhs. Jhkh cbmúkbmh
`bmbrlg db gl jhkumojljoúm gom`÷ëstojl, ghs cbmúkbmhs

c bmúkbmhs luthrrbùgltovhs
luthrrbùgltovhs db gl
jhfbrbmjol sb dbslrrhgglrëlm bm dostomths pglmhs5
<) Gls bstrujturls gom`÷ëstojls (khrchgúòjls, somtìjtojls, sbkìmtojls).
>) Gl hr`lmozljoúm
hr`lmozljoúm dbg tbxth (bg toph db tbxth
tbxth bmtbmdodh
bmtbmdodh jhkh gl chrkl
ldbjuldl plrl jhmsbùor ghs hnebtovhs jhkumojltovhs).
:) Gl ldbjuljoúm shjolg.
Bm rblgodld, jhmjguyb Nbrmìrdbz (<??25 >0), thdhs bsths cbmúkbmhs sb
l`ruplm bm thrmh l um prhjbsh õmojh5 «Hntbmbr uml chrkl db bquogonroh bmtrb
Y (y bg kbmsleb qub quobrb trlmskotor) y ^ (y bg kbmsleb qub jrbb qub rbjonb)
plrl `lrlmtozlr tlmth jhkh sb pubdl bg ïxoth db gl jhkumojljoúm±.
4.:. Yrhpubstl db lmìgosos db gl jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg

Dbg bsqubkìtojh rbplsh qub ljlnlkhs db prbsbmtlr lquë shnrb lgùmls db
gls phsturls l mubstrh euojoh kìs omtbrbslmtbs shnrb bg jhmjbpth db so`mo󿬌jldh
tbxtulg y sus phsonogodldbs db bstudoh, phdbkhs l󿬌rklr qub um lmìgosos db gl
jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg tobmb qub omtbmtlr lrkhmozlr vlrols odbls5
‚ \ub ghs tbxths bm lgùml kbdodl jhmtobmbm so`mo󿬌jldh kbrjbd l
gl utogozljoúm db umodldbs so`mo󿬌jltovls dbg sostbkl. Jhkh l󿬌rkl
Doa (<??0), bg so`mo󿬌jldh h jhmtbmodh sbkìmtojh bs gl omchrkljoúm
jhdo󿬌jldl bm gl bxprbsoúm gom`÷ëstojl, gl qub vobmb dbtbrkomldl phr
bg sostbkl y gl qub pbrkotb qub pubdl sbr utogozldl bm rbgljoúm jhm gls
omtbmjohmbs y gls omtbrprbtljohmbs bm bg klrjh db gls omchrkljohmbs
prl`kìtojls.
‚ \ub bsb so`mo󿬌jldh rbsphmdb, ldbkìs, l gls mbjbsodldbs b omtbmjohmbs
jhkumojltovls dbg prhdujthr tbxtulg, bs, phr tlmth, um so`mo 󿬌jldh
omtbmjohmlg.
‚ \ub bxostbm jobrths pltrhmbs h khdhs
khdhs db hr`lmozlr
hr`lmozlr gl omchrkljoúm
omchrkljoúm
qub ghs prhdujthrbs utogozlm plrl omtbmtlr bxprbslr ghs jhmtbmodhs
db sus bmumjoldhs y qub ghs flnglmtbs bstìm dospubsths l rbjhmhjbr,
jhkprbmdbr b omtbrprbtlr
omtbrprbtlr..
‚ \ub fly uml plrtb dbg kbmsleb qub mh bstì bxpgëjotlk
bxpgëjotlkbmtb
bmtb jhmtbmodh
bm gls plglnrls dbg tbxth y juyl omtbrprbtljoúm dbpbmdb db gls
hpbrljohmbs lg rbspbjth qub rblgojb bg flnglmtb.
‚ \ub bg jhmtbxth db jhkumojljoú
jhkumojljoúmm eub`l um plpbg kuy okphrtlmt
okphrtlmtbb
bm bg prhjbsh db dhtljoúm db jhfbrbmjol lg tbxth phr plrtb db ghs
flnglmtbs.
Ylrtobmdh db bstls odbls phdbkhs dbjor qub bg bstudoh db gl jhfbrbmjol
prbsbmtl dhs vbrtobmtbs bm mubstrl hpomoúm pbrcbjtlkbmtb jhkpltongbs y
jhkpgbkbmtlrols5

<. Bg bstudoh db gl jhfbrbmjol jhkh um fbjfh sbkìmtojh . Bg omtbrïs

sb jbmtrl bm bstb jlsh bm bg lmìgosos dbg dbg jhmtbmodh tbxtulg, db sus
phsonogodldbs rblgbs db bstrujturljoúm. Tobmb qub vbr jhm dhs fbjfhs
cumdlkbmtlgbs5
l) qub bg bg tbxth
tbxth phsbb uml bstrujturljoúm
bstrujturljoúm prhpol ‚kljrhbstrujturl‚ l
trlvïs db gl julg sb dbslrrhggl um túpojh h lsumth1 y
n) qub l gh glr`h dbgdbg tbxth sb vl sujbdobmdh db db klmbrl bquogonrldl
bquogonrldl bg
lphrtb db omchrkljoúm mubvl bm rbgljoúm jhm gh yl jhmhjodh phr
ghs flnglmtbs5 prh`rbsoúm tbkìtojl.
>. Bg bstudoh db gl jhfbrbmjol jhkh um fbjfh prl`kìtojh . Bg omtbrïs
sb jbmtrl bm bg bstudoh db ghs kbjlmoskhs qub bkpgbl bg flnglmtb
plrl fljbr bxpgëjotl su omtbmjoúm jhkumojltovl. Tobmb qub vbr
jhm5
l) Gl cumjoúm jhkumojltovl qub bg tbxth dbsbkpbül y qub bstì
bstrbjflkbmtb rbgljohmldl jhm ghs plrtojoplmtbs bm bg bvbmth.
n) Gl khdlgodld db bmumjoljoúm. Bstì rbgljohmldl jhm bg bstudoh db
gl ljtotud `bmbrlg dbg flnglmtb. Zb trltl db omtbmtlr dbtbrkomlr bg
ljth dbg flngl dhkomlmtb y su bxprbsoúm l trlvïs db gl bgbjjoúm
db uml dbtbrkomldl khdlgodld hrljohmlg.
j) Gls khdlgodldbs db bmumjoldh. Zb phmb db klmo󿬌bsth gl
rbgljoúm qub bstlngbjb bg flnglmtb jhm ghs vlghrbs gúòjhs db su
bmumjoldh.
d) Gl khdlgodld jhkh bxprbsoúm db gl sunebtovo dld . Zb omtbmtlrìm
sunebtovodld
odbmto󿬌jlr ghs bgbkbmths khdlgozldhr
khdlgozldhrbs bs, umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls
qub gb pbrkotbm lg flnglmtb bxprbslr su pumth db vostl pbrshmlg
bm ïg y ljbrjl dbg bmumjoldh.
b) Gl bxostbmjol bm bg tbxth db omchrkljoúm okpgëjotl.
Bm lknhs jlshs gh okphrtlmtb bs gl odbmto󿬌jljoúm db ghs rbjurshs h
kbjlmoskhs prbsbmtbs bm bg tbxth, hnebth kltbrolg db omtbrjlknoh gom`÷ëstojh,
shnrb bg qub bg flnglmtb h prhdujthr fl prhybjtldh ghs jhmhjokobmths qub gb
pbrkotb su jhkpbtbmjol jhkumojltovl pbrh qub, 󿬌mlgkbmtb, bstìm sobkprb
doroòdhs l um rbjbpthr qub bs bg qub, jhkh fbkhs vosth, tobmb bm õgtokl
omstlmjol gl dbjosoúm shnrb quï fl jhkprbmdodh h quï dbsbl jhkprbmdbr db
julmth sb gb prbsbmtl bm bg tbxth. Tlmth
Tlmth bm bg jlsh dbg lmìgosos db gl jhfbrbmjol
qub dbmhkomlrbkhs sbkìmtojl jhkh bm bg db gl jhfbrbmjol prl`kìtojl
mubstrh hnebtovh bs bg kltbrolg vbrnlg. Jhkh l󿬌rkl Ldlk (<??95 >6->?)
l bstb rbspbjth, «gl vlrolngb vbrnlg mh 󿬌 el bg so`mo󿬌jldh, pbrh bs gh õmojh
susjbptongb db lmìgosos gom`÷ëstojh±. Mhshtrhs pubs jbmtrlrbkhs bg lmìgosos db
gl jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg bm gl hr`lmozljoúm sbkìmtojh-prl`kìtojl
sbkìmtojh-prl`kìtojl qub prbsbmtl
bg tbxth jhkh umodld bmumjoltovl.

Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël
NBGGB^T, O. (<?09)5 «Hm l jhmdotohm hc tfb jhfbrbmjb hc tbxts±, Zbkoútojl,
>, pp. ::2-:3:.
NB^MÌ^DBU, B. (<?6>)5 gmtrhdujjoúm l gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth, Kldrod,

Bsplsl-Jlgpb.
NB^MÌ^DBU, B. (<??2), «Gl jhfbræmjol dbg tbxt jhk l cbmhkbm
d‟luthrbùgljoú±, bm ^. L^TO@LZ, Bg so`mocojlt tbxtulg, Nlrjbghml,
@bmbrlgotlt db Jltlgumyl, pp. ><->0, (JHK Kltbrolgs Dodéjtojs,<).
JOCRBMTBZ FHM^RNOL,
FHM^RNOL, E. G. (<??4)5 @rlkìtojl jh`motovl. Cumdlkbmths
jrëtojhs, Kldrod, Budbkl.
JHZBÔR, B. (<?06)5 @rlkìtojl, sbkìmtojl, umovbrslgbs5 bstudohs db
gom`÷ëstojl cumjohmlg, Kldrod, @rbdhs.
DOA, Z.J. (<??0)5 Tfb Tfbhry hc Cumjtohmlg @rlkklr
@rlkklr.. Ylrt
Ylrt <5 Tfb Ztrujturb
Ztr ujturb
hc tfb Jglusb, Nbrgëm-
Nbrgëm-Mubvl
Mubvl _hra, Khuthm dbd b @ruytbr.
@ruy tbr.
@RTOÏ^^BU H^DÚÜBU, Z. (<?6?)5 Omtrh dujjoúm l gl sbkìmtojl cumjohmlg,
Omtrhdujjoúm
Kldrod, Zomtbsos.
GLM@LJAB^, ^.P.^.P. (<?60-<??<)5
(<?60-<?? <)5 Chumdltohms hc Jh`motovb
J h`motovb @rlkklr , O-OO,
Ztlmchrd, Ztlmchrd Rmovbrsoty Yrbss.
KO@MHGH, P. (<?63)5 Tbhrël dbg tbxth b omtbrprbtljoúm db tbxths, Kïxojh,
RMLK.
^LKÚM TÔSBZ, B. (<?0?)5 Lspbjths db sbkìmtojl gom`÷ëstojh-tb
gom`÷ëstojh-tbxtulg,
xtulg,
Kldrod, Ostkh.
ZJFLMA, ^.J. y ^.Y. LNBGZHM (<?00)5 @uohmbs, pglmbs, kbtls y
bmtbmdokobmth, Nlrjbghml, Ylodús, <?60.
ZJFKODT, Z. E. (<?0:)5 Tbhrël dbg tbxth. Yrhngbkls db uml gom`÷ëstojl db gl
THKGOM, ^.Z., G. CH^^BZT, Y. KOM@ KOM@ y A . K_RM@ FBB (>999)5
«Zbkìmtojl dbg dosjursh± bm T.L. vlm DOEA, (bd.)5 Bg dosjursh jhkh
bstrujturl y prhjbsh, Nlrjbghml, @bdosl, pp. <90-<09.
Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël jhkpgbkbmtlrol
jhkpgbkbmtlrol
LGHMZH ^HD^Ë@RBU, Y. (<???)5 «Jglvbs plrl gl jhkprbmsoúm y bg
lprbmdozleb dbg jhmjbpth db jhfbrbmjol dosjursovl±, bm Juldbrmhs db
Omvbsto`ljoúm
Omvbsto` Coghgúòjl, >2, pp. :?-2>.
ljoúm Coghgúòjl,
L^TO@LZ, ^. bt lg. (<??2)5 Bg so`mo 󿬌 󿬌jlt tbxtulg, Nlrjbghml, @bmbrlgotlt db
Jltlgumyl, pp. ><->0, (JHK Kltbrolgs Dodéjtojs,<).
JFL^HGGBZ,
JFL^ HGGBZ, K. (<?06)5 «Omtrhdujtohm lux prhngækbs
prhngækbs db gl jhfïrbmjb dbs
tbxtbs±, Glmùb Crlmàlosb
Crlmàlosb, :6, pp. 0-4>.

BZYLÛL TH^^BZ, K.L. (>993)5 «Ylutls plrl bg lmìgosos db gl jhfbsoúm

y gl jhfbrbmjol bm tbxths bsplühgbs±, bm ÔGJB5 ^bvostl db Cogh
Coghgh`ël
gh`ël
Fospìmojl, >>, <, pp. 2?-6?.
@HMUÌGBU YÏ^BU, ^. (>99:)5 «Gl jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg jhkh cbmúkbmh
dosjursovh±, bm ÔG
ÔGJB5
JB5 ^b
^bvos
vostl
tl db Cogh
oghgh
gh`ël
`ël Fos
Fospì
pìmoj
mojl,
l, <?, >, pp. ><0->4>.
GRMD\ROZT, G. (<?62)5 «Jhfbrbmjb5 Crhk strujturbs th prhjbssbs±, bm B.
GRMD\ROZT,
ZÚUB^ (bd.), pp. <2<-<02.
G_HMZ, E. (<?6<)5 Gbmù
Gbmùleb, 󿬌jldh y jhmtbxth, Nlrjbghml, Ylodús,
leb, so`mo 󿬌 Ylodús, <?6:.
^LKÚM TÔSBZ, B. (<?0?)5 Lspbjths db sbkìmtojl gom`÷ëstojh tbxtulg,
Kldrod, Ostkh.
ZJFOCAH, Y. (<??>)5 «Gl jhfbrbmjol db tbxths5 um prhngbkl sbkìmtojh
y prl`kìtojh±, bm, GH^BMUH SÌU\RBU, ^. (jhhrd.)5 Ljtls dh VOV
Jhm`rbsh Omtbrmljohmlg db Gom`÷ëstojl b Coghghxël ^hkìmojls, vhg. :,
(Zbjjoúm OOO. Gom`÷ëstojl prl`kìtojl b shjohgom`÷ëstojl), pp. 4<?-4>3.
SLGDÏZ SOGGLMRBSL. G. (bd.) (<??<)5 Gl nõsqubdl db so`mo 󿬌 󿬌jldh,
Kurjol, Rmovbrsodld db Kurjol-Tbjmhs.
SOTLJHGHMML, G. (>99>)5 «L prhpúsoth db gl jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg±, bm
Thmhs Doòtlg5 ^bvostl Bgbjtrúmojl db Bstudohs Coghgúòjhs, :. fttp5//
www.uk.bs/thmhsdoòtlg/zmuk:/bstudohs/JhfbrbmjolSotljhghmml.ftk
Ljtovodldbs
<. Gbb bg soùobmtb
soùobmtb tbxth y jhkbmtl bg jhmjbpth db jhfbrbmjol qub
klmo󿬌bstl gl luthrl5
Gl omtbrprbtljoúm sbkìmtojl db um tbxth jhkh jhfbrbmtb tobmb qub
vbr jhm bg jhmhjokobmth dbg kumdh dbg hybmtb dbsdb bg khkbmth bm
qub kujfls jhmjgusohmbs sb hntobmbm mh súgh tbmobmdh jhkh nlsb gl
lpgojljoúm db rb`gls dbg gbmùleb h rlzhmlkobmths dbdujtovhs, somh
shnrb gl nlsb dbg jhmhjokobmth db ghs fbjfhs dbg kumdh.
O. Nbggbrt (<?09)5 «Hm l Jhmdotohm hc tfb Jhfbrbmjb hc Tbxts
Tbxts±
>. Gbb lfhrl
lfhrl bstb tbxth db Jhsbrou
Jhsbrou (<?065
(<?065 <:3)5
<:3)5 @rlkìtojl
@rlkìtojl,, sbkìmtojl,
umovbrslgbs y nusjl lg`õm bebkpgh qub ogustrb su jhmjbpth db sbmtodh5
Comlgkbmtb, bg sbmtodh bs bg pglmh sbkìmtojh prhpoh y bxjgusovh dbg
tbxth, bs dbjor, bg jhmtbmodh gom`÷ëstojh bspbjolg qub sb bxprbsl bm um
tbxth dbtbrkomldh phr kbdoh db gl so`mo󿬌jljoúm y gl dbso`mljoúm y kìs
lggì db gl dbso`mljoúm y gl so`mo 󿬌jljoúm.
:. Omvbmtl um plr db «ùohmbs± y nusjl
nusjl h bsjronb tõ koskh tbxths qub
sb leustbm l bgghs y juyh jhmhjokobmth jhmsodbrbs mbjbslroh plrl su
jhkprbmsoúm.

4.4. Gl jhfbr
jhfbrbmjol
bmjol sbkìmtojl
4.4.<. Gl hr`lmozljoúm dbg jhmtbmodh5 gl kljrhbstrujturl
Yhdbkhs db󿬌mor gl kljrhbstrujturl (KL) jhkh bg bsqubgbth so`mo󿬌jltovh
db um tbxth, gh qub mhs pbrkotb prhdujorgh b omtbrprbtlrgh jhkh uml umodld.
Gl kljrhbstrujturl gl jhmchrklm gls jhmbxohmbs nìsojls qub sb dlm bm
bg tbxth jhkh
jhkh um thdh
thdh (vlm Doea,
Doea, <?065 22)
22) y dl jubmtl db gls rbgljohmbs
so`mo󿬌jltov
jltovls
ls qub sb dlm dbmtrh dbg prhpoh tbxth. Bs prhpol y plrtojuglr db jldl
tbxth db klmbrl qub gl hr`lmozljoúm kljrhbstrujturlg pubdb jhmsodbrlrsb gl
bgbjjoúm db um dbtbrkomldh flnglmtb plrl gl trlmskosoúm db um dbtbrkomldh
jhmtbmodh. Thdh
Thdh tbxth phsbb uml kljrhbstrujturl, bs dbjor, bstì bstrujturldh,
phsbb lg`õm toph db hr`lmozljoúm odbmto󿬌jlngb.
Rm jhmjbpth cumdlkbmtlg plrl bg lmìgosos b odbmto 󿬌jljoúm db gl
kljrhbstrujturl bs bg db túpojh dbg dosjursh. Bg túpojh dbg dosjursh bs
uml prhphsojoúm qub dhkoml gl omchrkljoúm sbkìmtojl db um tbxth y qub,
bm jhmsbjubmjol, hr`lmozl ebrìrquojlkbmtb su bstrujturljoúm jhmjbptulg.
Bg túpojh dbg dosjursh fljb phsongb qub jhmsodbrbkhs um jhmeumth db
prhphsojohmbs jhkh um thdh pubs bs su dbslrrhggh y bxplmsoúm l trlvïs db
bsls prhphsojohmbs gh qub prhphrjohml umodld y lsbùrl gl rbcbrbmjolgodld
omtbrml dbg tbxth. Zo nobm bm ghs tbxths bsjroths gh flnotulg bs qub sb
klmtbm`l bg túpojh dbg dosjursh l gh glr`h db um dbtbrkomldh prhjbsh
bmumjoltovh,
bg jlknoh db bm ghs dbg
túpojh omtbrjlknohs
dosjursh qubjhmvbrsljohmlgbs
sb rblgozl jhkhbsuml
kuy crbjubmtb
mb`hjoljoúm
bmtrb ghs flnglmtbs. Gl gbmùl phsbb rbjurshs gom`÷ëstojhs, bmtrb ghs
qub omjguokhs ghs suprlsb`kbmtlgbs, qub bm lknhs jlshs pbrkotbm lg
prhdujthr tlmth l󿬌rklr bg túpojh jhkh prhjbdbr l um jlknoh bm bg túpojh
dosjursovh.
Ylrl bmtbmdbr bg dbslrrhggh dbg tbkl h túpojh l gh glr`h db um tbxth vlm
Doea (<?06) bstlngbjoú dhs movbg
movbgbs5
bs5
<) Bg db gls
gls kojrhprhphsojohmbs
kojrhprhphsojohmbs (kp)5 jhmeumths db db prhphsojohmbs
prhphsojohmbs qub
chrklm uml umodld db jhmtbmodh.
>) Bg db gls kljrhprhphsojoh
kljrhprhphsojohmbsmbs (Kp)5 prhphsojohmbs
prhphsojohmbs ebrìrquojlkbmtb
ebrìrquojlkbmtb
klyhrbs qub sb dbrovlm dbg jhmtbmodh db gls kojrhprhphsojohmbs.
kojrhprhphsojohmbs.

Zb trltl db dhs jhmjbpths qub pubdbm hnsbrvlrsb tlmth dbsdb gl pbrspbjtovl

pbrspbjtovl
db gl prhdujjoúm jhkh dbsdb bg pumth db vostl dbg rbjbpthr.
Dbsdb bg pumth db vostl dbg prhdujthr, gl bstrujturljoúm db um tbxth
bm kljrh y kojrh prhphsojohmbs rbvbgl, jhkh fbkhs sbülgldh yl, uml
dbtbrkomldl
ebrl
ebrlrquë ls qubomtbmjohmlgodld
rquëls vostllqub
dbelmm l gl vost
dbel vobmb
gh qub bg dldl phr jhms
flnglmtb
flng lmtb bg bstlngbjokobmth
jhmsodbr dbs
odbrll jhkh tbkl
tbkls
h lsumths promjoplgbs b, oùlgkbmtb, phmbm db klmo󿬌bsth gh qub ïstb
pubdb jhmsodbrlr sbjumdlroh h db kbmhr vlghr. vlghr. Gl hr`lmozljoúm db gl KL
bstì bstrbjflkbmtb rbgljohmldl l su vbz jhm gh qub sb fl dbmhkomldh gl
bstrujturl omchrkltovl
omchrkltovl dbg tbxth. Bs kuy crbjubmtb qub bg flnglmtb utogojb
bstrltbòls `rljols l gls julgbs bg tbkl dbg dosjursh qubdl sunrlyldh y
`lrlmtozl bm lgùml kbdodl su omtbgoònogodld. Lsë, bg prhdujthr pubdb
bspbjo󿬌jlr vosulgkbmtb gls sbjubmjols kljrh y kojrhprhphsojohmlgbs
hr`lmozlmdh bg tbxth bm umodldbs l gl vbz vosulgbs y db jhmtbmodh
dbmhkomldls pìrrlchs (Jlsslmy, <??21 Zbrl󿬌mo, <??41 ^bybs, <??61
Nbsl, <???1 Khmthgëh, >999). Ghs pìrrlchs dbnbrëlm jhmtbmbr uml õmojl
hrljoúm tbkìtojl
bstrujturlg h kljrhprhphsojoúm
lg dbslrrhggh dbg jhmtbmodhy sbrvor, db bstl
tbxtulg. Ybrhklmbrl, db shphrtb
gl hr`lmozljoúm
omchrkltovl, jhkh fl sbülgldh Jltlgoml Cubmtbs (<???5 <: y ss.)
dbpbmdb tlknoïm bstrbjflkbmtb dbg toph db tbxth h `ïmbrh tbxtulg, phr
gh qub, bm kujfls hjlsohmbs, sbrìm gls jhmvbmjohmbs dbg `ïmbrh gls qub
hngoùbm l uml dbtbrkomldl dostronujoúm, ebrlrquozljoúm h sunrlyldh db
gl omchrkljoúm, jhkh bs bg jlsh dbg gbmùleb pbrohdëstojh. Bm bg bebkpgh
qub soùb dbg dolroh Gl Slmù lrdol sb hnsbrvl gl hr`lmozljoúm bm totuglr,
Slmùlrdol
bmtrldoggl y jubrph db gl mhtojol qub, l su vbz phdrël bstlr dovododl sb`õm
totuglrbs kbmhrbs.
Orìm hrdbml
okpbdor gls rblmudlr thdlstrls
omspbjjohmbs gls gl
ljtovodldbs mujgblrbs
dbjosoúm db gl HOBLb
Gl hr`lmozljoúm plrl gl bmbr`ël ltúkojl lprubnl rbkotor bg jlsh orlmë
lg Jhmsbeh db Zbùrodld
Sobml. (BCB). Orìm lmumjoú fhy qub rbomojolrì su prh`rlkl db bmroqubjokobmth
db urlmoh l pgbmh rbmdokobmth, jhkh rbljjoúm l gl dbjosoúm db gl HOBL db rbkotor bg
lsumth lg Jhmsbeh db Zbùrodld db Mljohmbs Rmodls.
Bg prbsodbmtb orlmë, Klfkhud Lfkldombyld, hrdbmú bstl tlrdb qub sb
rblmudbm thdls gls ljtovodldbs mujgblrbs, omjguodh bg bmroqubjokobmth db urlmoh,
y prhfonoú gls omspbjjohmbs db gl HOBL dbspuïs db qub bstl hr`lmozljoúm
dbjodobrl fhy bmvolr lg Jhmsbeh db Zbùrodld bg lsumth mujgblr, omchrkú gl
tbgbvosoúm bstltlg.

Dbsdb bg pumth db vostl dbg rbjbpthr, rblgozlkhs hpbrljohmbs db

jhkprbmsoúm l trlvïs db gls julgbs omtbmtlkhs rbjrblr gls kljrh y kojrh-
prhphsojohmbs qub shstobmbm um tbxth y l trlvïs db juyl dbdujjoúm prbtbmdbkhs
lsbùrlrmhs db qub vbrdldbrlkbmtb bmtbmdbkhs quï mhs bstì dojobmdh bg
prhdujthr tbxtulg. Ylrl vlm Doea (<?065 2? y ss.), bg prhjbsh jh`motovh db
jhkprbmsoúm-omtbrprbtljoúm tbxtulg bstì rbòdh phr jultrh kljrhrrb`gls (K^)
qub fljbm rbcbrbmjol l htrls tlmtls hpbrljohmbs qub, jhkh rbjbpthrbs,
r bjbpthrbs, ggbvlkhs
ggbvlkhs
l jlnh bm mubstrh prhjbsh jhkprbmsovh b omtbrprbtltovh. Zhm5
K^ db hkosoúm5 Jhmsostb bm dbelr l um gldh thdl gl omchrkljoúm db
phjl okphrtlmjol h mh bsbmjolg. Bg hybmtb rblgozl hpbrljohmbs db suprbsoúm
`rljols l gls julgbs bgokoml
bgokoml gl omchrkljoúm qub jhmsodbrl ommbjbslrol plrl plrl gl
jhkprbmsoúm dbg bmumjoldh.
K^ db sbgbjjoúm5 Bg hybmtb bgo`b lqubggl omchrkljoúm qub jhmsodbrl
rbgbvlmtb
rbgbv lmtb plrl bg jhmjbpth qub sb bstì dbslrrhgglmdh.
K^ db `bmbrlgozl joúm5 Zb trltl db um prhjbsh db lnstrljjoúm sb`õm bg
`bmbrlgozljoúm
julg sb pobrdbm rls`hs jhmstotutovhs db ghs hnebths plrtojuglrbs l clvhr db
um prhjbsh db sustotujoúm fopbrhmëkojl qub dl gu`lr l gl omjhrphrljoúm db
rls`hs kìs bxtbmshs b omjgusovhs.
K^ db
db omtb`rljoúm5 Jhmsostb bm rbcbrorsb l gl omchrkljoúm db chrkl mubv
omtb`rljoúm mubvll
db klmbrl qub, bm rblgodld, gl omchrkljoúm mh sb hkotb mo sb sbgbjjohml somh
qub sorvb plrl jhmstruor um mubvh jhmjbpth.
Mlturlgkbmtb qub bg fbjfh db qub sb prhduzjlm bstls hpbrljohmbs
jh`motovls mh tobmb phr quï tbmbr jhkh rbsugtldh qub thdhs ghs flnglmtbs
dbnlm ggb`lr l gl koskl kljrhbstrujturl lmtb odïmtojh dosjursh. Jhkh gl
prhpol psojhgh`ël jh`motovl mhs fl khstrldh, jldl omdovoduh pbrjonb gl
rblgodld dbsdb su sbr-bm-bg-kumdh
sbr-bm-bg-kumdh (Kbrgblu-Yhmty),
(Kbrgblu-Yhmty), qub gb prhphrjohml
prhphrjohml um
gu`lr prhpoh, õmojh, y, bm jhmsbjubmjol, uml vosoúm db gl rblgodld docbrbmtb
db gl db julgquobr htrh sbr fuklmh dubüh, lsokoskh, db su bxpbrobmjol db
gl rblgodld (Nlmylrd-Jlssbggs,
dbstomltlroh shnrb júkh dbnb sbr<??2). Lumqubylbgfbkhs
jhkprbmdodh, tbxth dï omstrujjohmbs
vosth lg
lmtbrohrkbmtb
bm bg bsqubkl db Nbrmìrdbz (<??2) ghs `rlmdbs kìr`bmbs db omdbtbrkomljoúm
jhm ghs qub cumjohml bg prhjbsh jhkumojltovh vbrnlg, db lfë qub sbl kuy
docëjog lsbùrlr qub fbkhs rbjhmstruodh lg jobm phr jobm bg so`mo 󿬌jldh dbg
flnglmtb. Gl gbjturl bxpbrtl qub, jhkh lmlgostls dbg tbxth, phdbkhs rblgozlr
db julgquobr bmumjoldh mhs dorì prhnlngbkbmtb kujfh shnrb bg gbmùleb
y shnrb gh qub phdbkhs fljbr jhm ïg, pbrh mh mhs `lrlmtozl qub flylkhs
bmtbmdodh gh qub quobm prhdueh bg kbmsleb mhs quosh dbjor.
Sblkhs um bebkpgh db lmìgosos dbg jhmtbmodh prhphsojohmlg db um tbxth. Zb
trltl db um pungorbphrtleb jhm chrklth db mhtojol bm bg qub gl bstrujturl kljrh y
kojrh prhphsojohmlg bstì pbrcbjtlkbmtb rbslgtldl phr bgbkbmths toph`rì󿬌jhs5


TÚYOJH5 Gl jbrvbzl phsbb julgodldbs

julgodldbs slgudlngbs
slgudlngbs
KY<5 Gbld -omtrhdujjoúm5
-omtrhdujjoúm5 bg 󰁪󰁺󰁯󰁪 lsbùrl qub bg jhmsukh khdbrldh
db jbrvbzl rbdujb ghs robs`hs jlrdohvlsjuglrbs.
jlrdohvlsjuglrbs.
KY>5 Jhkphmbmtbs slgudlngbs db gl jbrvbzl.
kp<5 Zu jhmsukh khdbrldh lphrtl bmtrb bg < y bg >4% db gl
om`bstl dolrol db votlkomls y kombrlgbs.
kp>5 Yhsbb kìs db >999 jhkphmbmtbs, bmtrb bgghs bg ìjodh cú-
gojh.
kp:5 Yhsbb htrls votlkomls jhkh N<, N> y N<>.
kp45 Mh sb pubdbm hgvodlr ghs phgocbmhgbs.
KY:5 Gl jbrvbzl bs um lgokbmth kuy phjh jlgúrojh.
kp25 Jhmtobmb um 9% db kltbrol `rlsl y uml `rlduljoúm lgjh-
fúgojl kuy nlel.
kp35 Jhmtobmb kbmhs aoghjlghrëls qub ghs rbcrbsjhs db jhgl y
crutl, bg vomh, bg wfosay.
KY45 Yrhpobdldbs nbmb󿬌johsls db gl jbrvbzl.
kp05 Doskomuyb bg robs`h db omclrth y db htrls bmcbrkbdldbs
jlrdohvlsjuglrbs.
kp65 Yhsbb um phsongb bcbjth prhtbjthr lmtojlmjbrë`bmh.
kp?5 Lukbmtl bg jhgbstbrhg nubmh y rbdujb bg klgh.
kp<95 Okpodb gl chrkljoúm db jìgjughs bm gls vëls uromlrols.
kp<<5 Bvotl bg bstrbüokobmth.
kp<>5 Bstì rbgljohmldh jhm bg rbtrlsh db gl kbmhplusol.
kp<:5 Jhmtronuyb l prbvbmor gl lmbkol.
kp<45 Gl jbrvbzl «som± pubdb bmtrlr bm gl dobtl db gls pbrshmls
fopbrtbmsls.
KY25 Omstrujjohmbs plrl uml jhrrbjtl jltl db gl jbrvbzl.
kp<25 Gl vostl5 nroggh, trlsplrbmjol y bspukl.
Bg hgclth5 bg lrhkl db klgtl h gõpugh gb prhphrjohml
kp<35nhuqubt.
kp<05 Bg ùsth5 dbnb dbelr uml okprbsoúm db sulvodld bm bg
plgldlr.
kp<65 Bg tljth db gl elrrl y bg shmodh dbg nromdos fljbm db gl
jbrvbzl um pgljbr plrl ghs jomjh sbmtodhs.
4.4.>. Gl prh`rbsoúm db gl omchrkljoúm5 gl prh`rbsoúm tbkìtojl

Gl prh`rbsoúm tbkìtojl tobmb qub vbr, jhkh bxpgojl Ehlm Nbggæs (<??<5
:0), jhm gl odbl nìsojl db qub thdh tbxth jhmtobmb omchrkljoúm y db qub thdl
bsl omchrkljoúm sb omsbrtl dbmtrh db um jhmtbxth. Jhm gl prh`rbsoúm tbkìtojl

bg hnebtovh bs bstudolr gl chrkl bm qub sb omtb`rl bm bg tbxth gl omchrkljoúm

qub um flnglmtb jhmsodbrl jhkh yl jhmhjodl jhm gl omchrkljoúm qub sb om-
trhdujb jhkh mubvl. Bg bsqubkl db gl prh`rbsoúm tbkìtojl db um tbxth dbnb
lyudlrmhs l jhkprbmdbr bg prhjbsh kbdolmtb bg julg l gh glr`h db um bmum-
joldh tbxtulg sb vlm lrkhmozlmdh y dhso󿬌jlmdh ghs lphrtbs omchrkltov
omchrkltovhs.
hs. Bg
lmìgosos db gl prh`rbsoúm tbkìtojl sb nlsl bm dhs jhmjbpths cumdlkbmtlgbs
omtrhdujodhs phr gl bsjubgl db Yrl`l5 tbkl y rbkl. Jhm bsths jhmjbpths sb
odbmto󿬌jl rbspbjtovlkbmtb l gl omchrkljoúm vobel h tbkìtojl y gl mubvl h
rbkìtojl. Ghs bsqubkl db prh`rbsoúm tbkìtojl tobmbm um hro`bm hrljohmlg db
klmbrl qub gh flnotulg bs odbmto󿬌jlr bg tbkl jhm bg suebth y bg rbkl jhm bg
prbdojldh1 som bknlr`h dbsdb uml pbrspbjtov
pbrspbjtovll kìs domìkojl phdbkhs odbm-
to󿬌jlr bg tbkl jhm bg pumth db plrtodl l plrtor dbg julg pubdb prh`rbslr uml
omchrkljoúm. Ghs bgbkbmths rbkìtojhs shm ghs qub fljbm phsongb bg prh`rbsh
omchrkltovh, som bknlr`h, su lplrojoúm dbnb bstlr jhmstlmtbkbmtb go`ldl l
gl omchrkljoúm yl jhmhjodl pubs, bm htrh jlsh, bg tbxth rbsugtlrël uml sb-
rob dbsgo`ldl b omjhmbxl db jhmjbpths qub do󿬌jugtlrëlm kujfh gl tlrbl db
jhkprbmsoúm. Bs crbjubmtb tlknoïm odbmto󿬌jlr gl omchrkljoúm mubvl jhm bg
chjh. @utoïrrbz Hrdúübz (>9995 ><) db󿬌mb tbkl y rbkl ‚h shphrtb/lphrtb‚
jhkh cumjohmbs omchrkltovls db jlrìjtbr somtl`kìtojh qub sb supbrphmbm l
gl hr`lmozljoúm rbprbsbmtltovl dbg tbxth, kobmtrls qub bg chjh h rbgobvb sbrël
tlknoïm uml cumjoúm omchrkltovl
omchrkltovl pbrh db jlrìjtbr plrldo`kìtojh, «bg chjh bm
     
       
@utoïrrbz Hrdúübz rbjhmhjb, som bknlr`h, gl jbrjlmël db bsths jhmjbpths,
pubs gl pubstl bm rbgobvb db um bgbkbmth so`mo 󿬌jl uml gglkldl db ltbmjoúm
phr plrtb db um omtbrghjuthr shnrb um bgbkbmth dbg tbxth qub, bm gl klyhrël
db ghs jlshs, subgb jhomjodor jhm gl omchrkljoúm mubvl qub bsb omtbrghjuthr
quobrb jhkumojlr.
Lumqub gl prh`rbsoúm tbkìtojl fl sodh glr`lkbmtb dosjutodl y su
lpgojlnogodld pubstl bm jubstoúm, soùb plrbjoïmdhmhs õtog jhkh kïth-
dh plrl bxpghrlr y phmbr db klmocobsth júkh um flnglmtb hr`lmozl bg
jhmtbmodh omchrkltovh db su kbmsleb bm rbgljoúm jhm sus omtbmjohmbs,
jhm gh qub jhmsodbrl qub su dbstomltlroh slnb bm rbgljoúm jhm bg tbkl
y jhm gh qub jrbb qub dbspbrtlrì bg omtbrïs db su omtbrghjuthr. Trldojoh-
Trldojoh-
mlgkbmtb sb dostomùbm ghs soùobmtbs tophs y bsqubkls db prh`rbsoúm
tbkìtojl5
L) Yrh`rbsoúm gomblg5
gomblg5 sb dl julmdh um bgbkbmth rbkìtojh sb jhmvobrtb
jhmvobrtb bm
tbkìtojh, bs dbjor, bm omchrkljoúm jhmhjodl.

Ko fb
fbrk
rklm
lmhh sb fl jh
jhkp
kprrld
ldhh um pb
pbrr
rrh.
h. Bs ( bg pb
pbrr
rrh)
h) um pr
prbj
bjoh
ohsh
sh `h
`hss d‟
d‟lturll h
ltur
T< ^g T> ^>
h plsthr
plsthr db
db ghs Yorom
Yorombhs.
bhs. Ghs pbrr
pbrrhs
hs plsthr
plsthrbs
bs shm
shm bspbjol
bspbjolgkbm
gkbmtb
tb gost
gosths
hs y lj vhss
ljtotovh
T: ^:
Bsqubkl5
T< ^g

T> ^>

T: ^:
N) Yrh`rbsoúm db tbkl jhmstlmtb5 L um õmojh tbkl sb gb rblgozlm sujbso-
vhs lphrtbs dbdb omchrkljoúm
omchrkljoúm (rbkls).
Cgoj, qub lsë sb gglkl bg pbrrh, fl lprbmdodh l jh`br gl pbghtl. Zlnb (bg pbrrh)
T< ^g T<
tlknoïm sbmtlrsb julmdh sb gh dojbm, pbrh
pbrh l vbjbs (bg pbrrh) mh bs kuy hnbdobmtb
^> T< ^:
y (bg pbrrh)
pbrrh) jhrrb dbtrìs db ghs moühs db gl jlggbjlggb jhkh um ghjh
T< ^4
Bsqubkl5
T< ^g
T< ^>
T< ^:
T< ^4
J) Yrh`rbsoúm db tbkls dbrovldhs5 Zb dl julmdh db um tbkl h rbkl mljbm
ghs tbklsprbsbmtb.
mh bstlr soùobmtbs.
Bs, Ïsths
pubs, shm
shm gl
uml klmocbstljoúm
vlrobdld db um fopbrtbkl
kìs jhkpgbel fopbrtbk l qub pubdb
db gl prh`rbsoúm db
tbkl jhmstlmtb pubs bs lg fopbrtbkl, dbspgb`ldh bm tbkls y rbkls, lg qub sb
vl lphrtlmdh mubvl omchrkljoúm.
Bg pbrrh bmtrú dbsjhmjbrtldh bm um gu`lr rbnhslmtb db hghr y ggbmh db ruodhs
dbsjhmhjodhs. Ghs vbmdbdhrbs `rotlnlm su kbrjlmjël. Gls
G ls nìsjugls hxodldls
jforrolnlm bm jldl pbsldl. Gls vbrdurls bxflglnlm um hghr jbrjlmh l gl
phdrbduknrb. Zúgh ghs khstrldhrbs db jlrmb bxfonëlm umls pobzls crbsjls
qub, omkbdoltlkbmtb, gglklrhm gl ltbmjoúm db Cgoj.
T< (b
(bgg pbr
pbrrh)
rh) ^< (bmtrú dbsjhm
dbsjhmjbrtl
jbrtldh
dh bm um gu`lr rbnhsl
rbnhslmtb
mtb db hghr
hghr......)
......)
T> (fopbrtbkl5 bg kbrjldh)


t< (ghs vbmdbdhrbs) r< (`rotlnlm su kbrjlmjël)
t> (gls nìsjugls) r> (jforrolnlm bm jldl pbsldl)
t: (ghs khstrldhrbs) r: (bxfonëlm pobzls crbsjls)
D) Yrh`rbsoúm db tbkl h rbkl bstlggldh5 Lõm

Lõm kìs jhkpgbel bs gl prh`rbsoúm
db tbkl h rbkl bstlggldh. Bm bstb jlsh, um tbkl h um rbkl sb jhmvobrtbm bm fo-
pbrtbkl y, l su vbz, jldl uml db sus plrtbs jhmstotuyb bg pumth db plrtodl db gls
hrljohmbs soùobmtbs.
Bg pbrrh bs db um pbgleb jhghr jlstlüh, uml bstrujturl jhrphrlg cubrtb y um
jlrìjtbr lgb`rb y hnbdobmtb. Bg jhghr dbg pbgh pubdb vlrolr dbsdb thmhs jlso
`rosìjbhs flstl um klrrúm jglrh y nrogglmtb bm dostomtls thmlgodldbs. Lumqub
gl lgturl mh plsl db ghs 09 jbmtëkbtrhs, phsbb umls pltls kusjughsls y
durls qub gb pbrkotbm jhrrbr phr gu`lrbs omtromjldhs. Yhjhs pbrrhs phsbbm
gl lgb`rël y gl 󿬌dbgodld lg lkh qub bxfonb bg `hs d‟lturl. Bm db󿬌motovl, bs
um lmoklg kuy jhkpgbth y rbsugtl som dudl bg jhkplübrh odblg db julgquobr
lklmtb db ghs lmoklgbs.
T< (bg pbrrh) ^< (pbgleb jhghr jlstlüh, bstrujturl jhrphrlg cubrtb, jlrìjtbr lgb`rb)
T> (bg pbgh) ^> (thmhs `rosìjbhs...)
T: (gl lgturl ^: (mh plsl db 09 jk)

T4 (gls pltls) ^4 (kusjughsls y durls)
T2 (jlrìjtbr) ^2 (lgb`ël y 󿬌dbgodld lg lkh)
^3
^0 (bs
(bs um lmoklg kuyodblg)
bg jhkplübrh jhkpgbth)

Lumqub lquë fbkhs khstrldh ghs dostomths bsqubkls losgldhs, gh flno-

tulg bs qub bm ghs tbxths lplrbzjlm jhknomldhs
jhknomldhs dostomths tophs db prh`rbsoúm.
Gl rbotbrljoúm db um õmojh bsqubkl prhdujorël uml khmhthmël omshphrtlngb
qub som dudl rbglelrël gl ltbmjoúm dbg rbjbpthr. Lgùmhs luthrbs lshjolm dbtbr-
komldhs tophs db prh`rbsoúm l jobrths khdbghs tbxtulgbs jhkh gl dbsjropjoúm
l gl prh`rbsoúm db tbkl jhmstlmtb h gl mlrrljoúm l gl prh`rbsoúm gomblg (Nls-
shgs, <??>, Nusths @osnbrt, <??3). Gl rblgodld db gl tbxtulgodld, som bknlr`h,
mhs kubstrl gh lrrobs`ldh qub bs rblgozlr l󿬌rkljohmbs db bstb toph. Zúgh ghs

tbxths qub rbsphmdbm l bsqubkls hr`lmozltovhs

hr`lmozltovhs kuy prbjoshs phsbbm uml hr-
`lmozljoúm db gl omchrkljoúm nobm bstrujturldl, rbjhmhjongb y lmlgozlngb1 ghs
chggbths bxpgojltovhs,
bxpgojltovhs, gls omstrujjohmbs, gls dbsjropjohmbs jhm 󿬌mbs jobmtë 󿬌jhs
h prhkhjohmlgbs, gls mlrrljohmbs omclmtogbs, gls mhtojols, juodlm gl dostronu-
joúm dbg kltbrolg jhmhjodh y mhvbdhsh l gh glr`h dbg tbxth, pubs su 󿬌mlgodld
bs prhphrjohmlr uml omchrkljoúm bstrojtlkbmtb ldlptldl l sus 󿬌mbs jhkumo-
jltovhs
jltovhs h l gl mlturlgbzl y jhmhjokobmths db sus rbjbpthrbs.
Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël
NBGGÆZ, E. (<??<)5 «Gl prh`rbssoú tbkétojl±, JHK , 6, pp. :0-24.
NBZL JLKY^RNË, E. (<???)5 «Lg 󿬌g dbg dosjurs5 Jhmtomuètlt o sb`kbmtljoú
plrl`ré󿬌jl±, bm Lrtojgbs5 ^bvostl db Dodéjtojl db gl Ggbmùl o db gl Go-
tbrlturl, <6, pp. 6:-<99.
NB^MÌ^DBU, B. (<??2), «Gl jhfbræmjol dbg tbxt jhk l cbmhkbm
d‟luthrbùgljoú±,
d‟luthrbùgljoú ±, bm ^. Lrto`ls, JHK, Kltbrolgs Dodéjtojs, <, Bg so`mo-
󿬌jlt tbxtulg, Nlrjbghml, @bmbrlgotlt db Jltlgumyl, pp. ><->0.
JLZZLM_, D. (<??2)5 Gl jhjoml db gl bsjroturl, Nlrjbghml, Lml`rlkl.
Lml`rlkl.
DOEA, T. L.^HD^Ë@RBU,
CRBMTBZ ^HD^Ë@R GlJ.
vlm (<?06)5BU, jobmjol dbg Gltbxth
(<???)5 tbxth , Nlrjbghml,omchrkltovl
hr`lmozljoúm
hr`lmozljoúm Ylodús, <?6:. tbxth,
dbg tbxth
Kldrod, Lrjh.
@RTOÏ^^BU H^DÚÜBU, Z. (>999)5 Tbkls, rbkls, chjhs, túpojhs y jhkbm-
tlrohs, Kldrod, Lrjh Gonrhs.
KHMTHGËH, B., K. @L^LJFLML, K. ZLMTOL@H y J. CO@RB^LZ
(>999)5 Klmulg prìjtojh db bsjroturl ljldïkojl, : vhgs., Nlrjbghml,
Lrobg.
^B_BZ, @. (<??6)5 Júkh bsjronor nobm bm bsplühg. Klmulg db rbdljjoúm,
Kldrod, Lrjh Gonrhs.
ZB^LCOMO, K.T. (<??4)5 Júkh sb bsjronb, Nlrjbghml, Ylodús.
LDLK, E.K. (<?63)5 «Hrobmtltohm lrùkbmtltovb, jhfïsohm bt prh`rbssohm
du tbxtb±, Jlfobrs db Gomùostoqub Crlmàlosb, 0, pp. >?2-:>9.
NBZL JLKY^RNË, E. (<??3)5 «L prhpþsot dbg plré`rlc±, bm Lmulro db Co-
Co-
gotbrlturll jltlglmbs, 0, pp. ?->4.
ghghòl. Zbjjoú J, Ggbmùl o gotbrltur
JLZLGKO@GOL, F. y L. TRZÚM (<???)5 Gls jhsls dbg dbjor , Nlrjbghml,
Lrobg.
JLZZLM_, D. (<?6?)5 Dbsjronor bg bsjronor
bsjronor, Nlrjbghml, Ylodús.
JHKNBTTBZ, N. (<?6:)5 Yhur umb `rlkklorb tbxtubggb. Gl prh`rbssohm
tfïkltoqub, Nrusbgls-Ylrës y @bknghux, Db Nhbja-Dujught.

CLMT, G. (<?69)5 Bstrujturl omchrkltovl dbg bsplühg. Bstudoh somtìjtojh y

bmthmltovh, Rppslgl.
CRBMTBZ ^HD^Ë@RBU, J. (<??3)5 Lprhx Lprhxokljoúm
okljoúm l gl bstrujturl dbg tbx-
th, Kìgl`l, Ì`hrl.
EOKÏMBU ERGOÌ, T. (<?63)5 Lprhx
Lprhxokljoúm
okljoúm lg bstudoh db gls cumjohmbs om-
chrkltovls, Kìgl`l, Ì`hrl.
MÕÜBU GLDBSBUB, G. (<??0)5 «Db󿬌mojoúm cumjohmlg db pìrrlch jhkh
umodld db jhfbrbmjol, Lrduu
Lrduukk bst mhkoml rbnus
rbnus bt rbs
rbs mhkomonus
mhkomonus rbddb-
rbddb-
rb±, bm ^bvostl bsplühgl gom`÷ëstojl, >0, <, pp. <:2-<39.
bsplühgl db gom`÷ëstojl,
YREHG, E.K. y E. ZHGÉ (<?6?)5 Trljtlt db pumtuljoú, Nlrjbghml, Jh-
gukml.
Ljtovodldbs
<. Lmlgozl gl kljrhbstrujturl
kljrhbstrujturl dbg soùobmtb tbxth. ¸Juìg bs bg túpojh
túpojh dbg
dosjursh8

    
‗Gl vodl ljtulg fljb qub mubstrl lgokbmtljoúm, phr kuy bquogonrldl
qub mhs plrbzjl, sbl
s bl l kbmudh dbcojotlrol bm conrl, lùl, crutl, vb`btlg
vb`btlgbs...
bs...
_ bsh pubdb dbrovlr, lumqub mh gh mhtbkhs, bm dbsleustbs qub omcguybm bm
mubstrl cghrl omtbstomlg. Tbmbr uml cghrl omtbstomlg slml y bquogonrldl, rojl
bm nocodhnljtbrols, cljogotl gl do`bstoúm y gl lnshrjoúm db mutrobmtbs, `lrlm-
tozl gl bgokomljoúm db sustlmjols y cljogotl bg jhrrbjth cumjohmlkobmth dbg
omtbstomh.
NOH lphrtl l tu hr`lmoskh bg bxjgusovh
bxjgusovh Në 󿬌dus Ljtovh
Ljtovh Bssbmsos db Dlmh-
          
dbg trljth do`bstovh db uml chrkl mltulg. Lsë, NOH jhmsoùb qub tb sobmtls
kujfh kbehr phr dbmtrh y qub bsh sb mhtb phr cubrl.
Ghs bcbjths nbmb󿬌johshs db NOH flm sodh prhnldhs bm vlrohs bstudohs jgë-
mojhs
>. Flz lfhrl bg bsqubkl db prh`rbsoúm tbkìtojl dbdb bsb tbxth

tbxth ¸Fly um
õmojh toph db prh`rbsoúm8 ¸Flstl quï pumth jhomjodb jhm bg bsqubkl
prhphsojohmlg8
:. Yrljtojl ghs bsqubkls
bsqubkls db prh`rbsoúm tbkìtojl jhm bg soùobmtb tbxth5
Bg pbqubüh brl um fhknrb ehvbm qub plrbjël dbchrkb1 tbmël gl jlnbzl

vubgtl fljol ltrìs, ghs hehs omybjtldhs bm slm`rb, dhs pgljls gëvodls shnrb bg
rhstrh, um plüubgh lmudldh bm sus jlnbgghs `rlsobmths y gljohs, som crbmtb,
cr bmtb, jhm

uml nhjl bmhrkb y tbrrongb. Ggbvlnl plmtlghmbs flstl ghs pobs, lmjfhs zlpl-
ths, um jflgbjh qub plrbjël flnbr sodh db sltïm nglmjh, y phr bmjokl db bstb
jflgbjh, uml jfupl bm juyhs pgobùbs uml gëmbl durl y rbjtl dbelnl ldovomlr
um jujfoggh.:
4) ^blgozl bg bsqubkl db KY y kp dbg soùobmtb tbxth5
: Tbxth
Tbxth thkldh dbg juldbrmh db K.ª Guosl Sogglmubv
Sogglmubvll (<?6?)5 «Gl prh`rbsoú
prh`rbsoúmm tbkìtojl.
Rm jlsh jhmjrbth5 bg tbxth dbsjroptovh±, Slgbmjol, @bmbrlgotlt Slgbmjolml, Jbmtrb db
Yrhcbsshrs.

4.2. Gl jhfbrbmjol prl`kìtojl
Gh qub vlkhs l sbülglr lquë jhkh jlrljtbrëstojls prl`kìtojls dbg tbxth
tobmb qub vbr jhm bg fbjfh
fbjfh db qub bg tbxth
tbxth bs jhmjbnodh dbsdb uml pbrspbj-
tovl bmumjoltovl, bs dbjor, qub sb bmtobmdb jhkh bg hnebth gom`÷ëstojh db om-
tbrjlknoh jhkumojltovh
jhkumojltovh bmtrb umhs flnglmtbs bm uml sotuljoúm bspbjë 󿬌jl. L
trlvïs db gl jhfbrbmjol prl`kìtojl qubrbkhs lmlgozlr lqubgghs kbjlmoskhs
l trlvïs db ghs julgbs bg flnglmtb fljb bxpgëjotl su prbsbmjol bm bg tbxth y,
y, bm
bsb sbmtodh, sb jhkprhkbtb jhm bg ljth koskh db bmumjoljoúm, jhm bg prhpoh
bmumjoldh y jhm bg omtbrghjuthr lg qub doro`b su tbxth. Bg bstudoh db gl jhfb-
rbmjol prl`kìtojl gh vlkhs l jbmtrlr bm trbs lspbjths jhmjrbths5 gl dbtbrko-
mljoúm db gl cumjoúm prbdhkomlmtb bm bg tbxth, gl bxprbsoúm db gl khdlgodld
y gl prbsbmjol db omchrkljoúm okpgëjotl.
4.2.<. Gl cumjoúm jhkumojltovl
Gl odbl db qub bg gbmùleb «sorvb plrl lg`h±, db qub su ush tobmb uml
󿬌mlgodld, bs uml odbl qub prhjbdb db gl Lmto`÷bdld jgìsojl. Bmtbmdodh bg gbm-
ùleb jhkh kbdoh h omstrukbmth cumdlkbmtlg db gl jhkumojljoúm fuklml,
dbsdb mukbrhsls pbrspbjtovls sb flm omtbmtldh hnebtovlr y jglso󿬌jlr juìgbs
shm bsls cumjohmbs qub bg gbmùleb dbsbkpbül. Rml db gls jglso󿬌jljohmbs
prokbrls y kìs sltoscljthrols gl bstlngbjoú Alrg N÷fgbr (<?::). Bm vortud db
ghs trbs jhkphmbmtbs nìsojhs db gl jhkumojljoúm ‚bkoshr, rbjbpthr y rbcb-
rbmtb‚ y db gls trbs cumjohmbs sbkìmtojls dbg so`mh qub gb fljbm sbr5 sëknhgh
h rbprbsbmtljoúm, bm vortud
bxprbsoúm, bm vortud db sudbdbpbmdbmjol
su hrdbmljoúmdbglbkoshr1
hnebths sbülg
y rbgljohmbs1 sëmthkl
h lpbgljoúm, bm
vortud db su lpbgljoúm lg hybmtb, N÷fgbr dostomùoú trbs cumjohmbs5
<) cumjoúm rbpr bsbmtltovl, jbmtrldl bm ghs hnebths dbg kumdh rblg h okl-
rbprbsbmtltovl
òmlroh,
>) cum
cumjoú
joúmm bxpr
bxprbsovl, jbmtrldl bm bg flnglmtb juyl omtbrohrodld bxprbsl,
bsovl bxprbsl, y
:) cumjoúm lpbgltovl
lpbgltovl, jbmtrldl bm bg hybmtb juyl jhmdujtl omtbrml h bx-
tbrml doro`b.
Ylrtobmdh db um bsqubkl db gl jhkumojljoúm db jomjh bgbkbmths y db gls cum-
johmbs db N÷fgbr, Elahnshm (<?39), jhm bg 󿬌m db dlr um gu`lr l gh phïtojh dbmtrh

db gl gom`÷ëstojl, bstlngbjb uml db gls tbhrëls shnrb gls cumjohmbs dbg gbmùleb db
klyhr vo`bmjol. Bxphmdrbkhs lquë gl rbgljoúm db cumjohmbs y prhjbdokobmths
gom`÷ëstojhs qub pbrkotbm su rbjhmhjokobmth db klmbrl qub pubdl rbsugtlr õtog bm
su lpgojljoúm lg lmìgosos db tbxths (Ìm`bg Gúpbz bt lg., <??<5 43-4?).
<) Cumjoúm rbprbsbmtltovl h rbcbrbmjolg5 Bstì lshjoldl lg jhmtbxth h
rbcbrbmtb. Zorvb plrl trlskotor jhmtbmodhs rbcbrodhs l gl rblgodld bx-
trlgomùëstojl
jobmtbs yl sblm
lg kumdh rblg hbsths fbjfhs, rblgodldbs
oklòmlroh. h rbgljohmbs
Bs gl cumjoúm nìsojl dbgpbrtbmb-
gbmùl-
eb `rljols l gl
g l julg
j ulg sb pubdb soknhgozl
soknhgozlrr y rbprbs
rbprbsbmtlr
bmtlr gl rblgodl
rblgodldd y
bs bxjgusovl db gl jhmdojoúm fuklml. Yrhjbdokobmths gom`÷ëstojhs5
bmthmljoúm mbutrl, khdh omdojltovh, lusbmjol db ldebtovljoúm vlgh-
rltovl, gïxojh dbmhtltovh. Bg tbxth lplrbjb jhkh mh klrjldh.
Bebkpgh5
Khrbrl nglmjl. Ìrnhg db phjl lgturl (flstl <2-<6 k). Bg trhmjh tobmb gl
jhrtbzl plrdh`rosìjbl, lkpgolkbmtb l`robtldl bm ghs bebkpglrbs lüh-
shs. Gl jhpl bs lkpgol, lhvldl, jhm gls rlkls promjoplgbs glr`ls y kuy
rlkocojldls.
Ìrnhgbs y lrnusths
lrnusths db Bsplül
Bsplül
>) Cumjoúm bxprbsovl h bkhtovl5 Bstì lshjoldl lg bkoshr, qub bxprbsl
su ljtotud bm bg tbxth h su bstldh bkhjohmlg.
Yrhjbdokobmthss gom`÷ëstojhs5 ush db omtbrebjjohmbs y bxjglkljohm
Yrhjbdokobmth bxjglkljohmbs,
bs,
bmthmljoúm bmcìtojl, omtbrrupjohmbs, lgtbrljoúm bm bg hrdbm db plgl-
nrls, bgbkbmths lcbjtovhs ‚lprbjoltovhs‚ ldebtovhs vlghrltovhs, ush db
gïxojh jhmmhtltovh y dbg khdh suneumtovh.
Bebkpgh5
Hs vhy l jhmtlr júkh cub ko prokbr lkhr. Dbsdb qub vo gl pbgo «Gl vodl bs
nbggl± pbmsï qub ko prëmjopb lzug tbmdrël qub sbr tlm sokpìtojh y hptokostl
jhkh ^hnbrth Nb`momo y shülnl qub um jfojh ggb`lrl l dbjorkb lg`h jhkh
«nubmhs dëls promjbsl±. Rm dël cuo db bxjursoúm jhm ko jglsb bm nlrjh y
vomobrhm htrhs jhgbòhs. Julmdh mhs nlüìnlkhs jhmhjë l Lmthmoh. Brl kuy
sokpìtojh y gb vo lg`h bspbjolg.
bspbjolg. L gl klülml soùobmtb ko kldrb y yh mhs
nlülkhs bm gl pglyl jhm Lklyl, gl kbehr lko`l db ko kldrb. _h gl jhmhjël
pbrh mh l sus foehs, bmtrb bgghs ¡¡¡Lmthmoh!!! _h bstlnl jhgldotl phr ïg.
Mumjl jrbë qub bmjhmtrlrël l ko prëmjopb lzug. Gb do um nbslzh qub durú trbs
komuths y bsthy sbùrl db qub sbrbkhs cbgojbs plrl sobkprb. (Zupbr Yhp).
:) Cumjoúm lpbgltovl h jhmltovl5 Bstl lshjoldl lg rbjbpthr. Zb utogozl
julmdh sb prbtbmdb bstokuglr gl rbljjoúm
rbljjoúm dbg hybmtb. Bstì vomjugldh
lg dosjursh omtbmjohmlg
omtbmjohmlg jhm bg qub
qub bg flnglmtb nusjl
nusjl omjotlr uml rbs-
pubstl lmtb um ljth pbrsulsovh h um jhmsbeh.
Yrhjbdokobmths gom`÷ëstojhs5 ush db vhjltovhs, khdh okpbrltovh, hrl-

johmbs omtbrrh`ltovls, bgbkbmths lcbjtovhs y thdl jglsb db rbjurshs
rbtúrojhs plrl jhmkhvbr h pbrsuldor lg hybmtb.
Bebkpghs5
Mubvhh Thyhtl K^>.Jldl khkbmth jubmtl. Doscrõtlgh.
Mubv
Nhggbrël. ¡Dltb um jlprojfh! Ghs nhgghs vobmbm lshjoldhs bm mubstrl
kbkhrol jhm ghs rbjubrdhs db gl omclmjol. Lfhrl pubdbs rbvovor bshs
dugjbs khkbmths jhm tus foehs ‚h dlrtb tõ um jlprojfh‚ jhm bg surtodh
jldl vbz kìs vlroldh db nhggbrël qub bmjhmtrlrìs bm bg supbrkbrjldh db
Bg Jhrtb Om`gïs. Lgï`rltb
Lgï`rltb bg dël jhm umh db bsths dbgojohshs nhgghs y tlrtls.
Yrubnl tlknoïm gl rbphstbrël okphrtldls db htrhs plësbs.
4) Cumjoúm cìtojl5 Bstì hrobmtldl lg jlmlg. Zu 󿬌mlgodld bs jhkprhnlr so
bg jlmlg cumjohml y klmtbmbr h bstlngbjbr bg jhmtljth.
Yrhjbdokobmths gom`÷ëstojhs5 bmumjoldhs kuy rbdumdlmtbs, ush db
cúrkugls rotulgozldls db jhrtbsël y db mukbrhsls crlsbs fbjfls.
Bebkpghs5
<9? 7F>=5 Zë, phr supubsth, bm gl umovbrsodld y... lggë bm ko jlsl oùlg.
<<9 7B<=5 _ gub`h gls 󿬌bstls y tlg... 7sokugtìmbh=.
<<< 7B>=5 Jglrh.
<<> 7F>=5 Jglrh 7sokugtìmbh=.
2<> 7B>=5 Bstìm dbsblmdh 7sokugtìmbh= qub ggbùb 7sokugtìmbh= l gh
kbehr.
2<: 7B<=5 Zë 7sokugtìmbh=.
2<4 7B>=5 Lgùobm db htrh plës 7sokugtìmbh= 7omomtbgoòngb=.
2<2 7B<=5 Zë, lggë bg pglm bs, bs 7/sokugtìmbh= jhkh gls pbgëjugls.
2) Cumjoúm phïtojl5 Bstì lshjoldl jhm bg prhpoh kbmsleb, bmtbmdodh ïstb
jhkh «gl sbjubmjol gom`÷ëstojl bxljtl qub bg flnglmtb fljb ggb`lr lg
hybmtb, mh bg jhmtbmodh db gl koskl± (Ìm`bg Gúpbz, <??<5 46). Gl
cumjoúm phïtojl sb utogozl julmdh sb quobrb ltrlbr gl ltbmjoúm shnrb gl
chrkl dbg kbmsleb prhdujobmdh jhm bggh um bcbjth db bxtrlülkobmth
y docbrbmjoìmdhsb lsë dbg rbsth db ghs kbmslebs.
Yrhjbdokobmth
Yrhjbdokobmthss gom`÷ëstojhs5 Zhm kuy vlroldhs y sb omjguybm thdls
gls 󿬌ùrls rbtúrojls.
Bebkpgh5
Julmdh gbbs kujfh, bsjronbs kujfh, volels kujfh... Julmdh vovbs
kujfh tb dls jubmtl dbg vlghr db gh qub tobmbs kìs jbrjl. Tb slnb l
`ghrol. Jhkh Kl`mh. Jhkh Kl`mh jhm fobgh. Cbrmlmdh Zjfwlrtz bs
kujfh. Bs mubstrh.
Fly qub oklòmlrsb gls plkpls. Bg dbsobrth omlnlrjlngb db gls plkpls

lr`bmtomls. Bsls tobrrls gglmls b om󿬌motls, losgldls bm su prhpol bxtbmsoúm.
Q…[ Fly qub 󿬌ùrlrsb, bm bg chmdh db bsb vïrto`h fhrozhmtlg, uml bxtbmsl
phgvlrbdl, ljbrjìmdhsb. Bg rbtbknglr db gl tobrrl sljudodl phr kogbs db
jlnlgghs lg `lghpb…
(Bg to`rb db ghs gglmhs. BYZ).
3) Cumjoúm kbtlgom`÷ëstojl5 Bstì jbmtrldl bm bg júdo`h. Bg rbcbrbmtb dbg
kbtlgom`÷ëstojl5
kbmsleb bs gl gbmùl koskl y kbdolmtb su ush sb lmlgozl
lmlgozl bg prhpoh
júdo`h. Yhdbkhs dbjor qub bs um jlsh bspbjolg db cumjoúm rbcbrbmjolg.
Bebkpgh5
Bm jhmtrlstb jhm gl omvb
omvbsto`ljoúm
sto`ljoúm db uml gbmùl gúòjl odblg prhkug`ldl
phr ghs bkporostls gúòjhs, gl 󿬌ghshcël lmlgëtojl db Pott`bmstbom y Lustom
sb nlsl bm gl hnsbrvljoúm dbg gbmùleb jhkõm, y, phr tlmth, sb jlrljtbrozl
cumdlkbmtlgkbmtb phr gl jhmjbpjoúm db gl gbmùl jhkh ljtovodld
(K. Nbrtujbggo Ylpo, ¸\uï bs gl prl`kìtojl8, p. 4:).
Jhkh pubdb suphmbrsb, mh sobkprb lplrbjbm bm ghs tbxths bstls cumjoh-

mbs bm bstldh purh. Gh kìs crbjubmtb bs qub flyl uml cumjoúm dhkomlmtb y
vlrols
um cumjohmbs
tbxth sbjumdlrols.
rbsugtl okphrtlmtb Glbsdbtbrkomljoúm
pubs db gl
uml bgbjjoúm dbg cumjoúmqub,
flnglmtb h cumjohmbs
c umjohmbs db
lg bmcltozlr
u hrobmtlr su dosjursh fljol lg`õm bgbkbmth jhmtbxtulg, prhphrjohml lg hybm-
tb uml hrobmtljoúm jglrl shnrb quï quobrb fljbr jhm su kbmsleb.
Ybrh bg prhdujthr phsbb htrhs rbjurshs plrl fljbr bxpgëjotl su omtbmjoh-
mlgodld y, phr su plrtb, gl gom`÷ëstojl fl dbslrrhggldh tlknoïm mubvhs omstru-
kbmths lmlgëtojhs plrl jhkprbmdbr júkh sb rblgozl bg prhjbsh db pglskljoúm
db omtbmjohmbs phr plrtb db ghs suebths okpgojldhs bm um omtbrjlknoh jhku-
mojltovhh bm ghs kbmslebs vbrnlgbs. Ghs cbmúkbmhs qub tobmbm qub vbr jhm gl
mojltov
khdlgodld bxpghrlm kujfhs db bsths lspbjths.
4.2.>. Gl bxprbsoúm db gl khdlgodld

Gl khdlgodld, jhkh cbmúkbmh dosjursovh, sb rb 󿬌brb l gl ljtotud qub bg
bkoshr okprokb bm bg kbmsleb y l su bxprbsoúm vbrnlg (Htlhgl, <?66). Dbmtrh
dbg bstudoh dbg so`mo󿬌jldh, qub bs bg hnebtovh dbg lmìgosos db gl jhfbrbmjol,
prhcumdozlr bm bg lmìgosos
lmìgosos db gl khdlgodld mhs
mhs pbrkotorì lnhrdlr gls rbgljohmbs
rbgljohmbs
qub bg suebth bmumjoldhr klmtobmb jhm su bmumjoldh y bxpghrlr lsë lspbjths db
gl so`mo󿬌jljoúm qub qubdlm lg klr`bm db su hr`lmozl
hr`lmozljoúm
joúm prhphsojohmlg.
Bg bstudoh db gl khdlgodld bs dbudhr db vlrols db gls tbhrëls db kl-
yhr okphrtlmjol bm gl gom`÷ëstojl ljtulg. Bm prokbr gu`lr, db gl tbhrël db
gl bmumjoljoúm omojoldl phr Ïkogb Nbmvbmostb, quobm push db klmo 󿬌bsth
gl bvodbmjol db qub ghs suebths mhs lprhpolkhs dbg gbmùleb jldl vbz qub
fljbkhs ush db ïg. Bg yh bs bg jbmtrh bmumjoltovh l plrtor dbg julg sb hr-
`lmozl bg dosjursh1 bs mh súgh bg beb dbëjtojh shnrb bg qub povhtl bg bspljoh
y bg tobkph db gl bmumjoljoúm, bs, ldbkìs, bg suebth qub flngl y sb dbel
vbr bm su dosjursh. Bm sbùmdh gu`lr, phdbkhs dbjor qub gl khdlgodld bs
jhmsbjubmjol bm `rlm kbdodl db gl tbhrël db Jflrgbs Nlggy (<?:>) shnrb bg
khdus y bg dojtuk jhkh cljbtls dostomtls db gl so`mo󿬌jljoúm db uml hrljoúm
‚db
db rbprbsbmtljoúm, Lsë, bg dojtuk
um bmumjoldh‚.kobmtrls qub jhmsbbgjhrrbsphmdb jhm bg prhjbsh
khdus sb bxprbsl gúòjh
bg lmìgosos qub
bg suebth rblgozl dbg dojtuk. Bg dojtuk sbrël bg jhmtbmodh prhphsojohmlg y
bg khdus bg euojoh jrëtojh dbg suebth shnrb gh jhkumojldh (Fbrkhsh y Kb-
ggldh, <??05 23). @rljols l bstb pglmtblkobmth, bg bstudoh db gl bxprbsoúm
vbrnlg db gl sunebtovodld pudh bmtrlr l chrklr plrtb db ghs omtbrbsbs db gl
gom`÷ëstojl. Bm tbrjbr gu`lr, gl tbhrël db ghs ljths db flngl db Lustom y Zblr-
gb push db klmo󿬌bsth bg fbjfh db qub julmdh uslkhs bg gbmùleb plrl dbjor
lg`h ‚julmdh rblgozlkhs um ljth db flngl‚ bstlkhs fljobmdh lg`h kìs qub
bkotor shmodhs, bstlkhs okprokobmdh l mubstrh bmumjoldh uml dbtbrkomldl
cubrzl oghjujohmlrol bm gl qub jhdo󿬌jlkhs gom`÷ëstojlkbmtb mubstrl omtbm-
joúm jhkumojltovl.
Tbmobmdh bm jubmtl qub thdhs bsths bgbkbmths chrklm plrtb db gl bxprb-
soúm dbg so`mo󿬌jldh khdlg y pubsth qub su lmìgosos rbsugtl okprbsjomdongb
plrl jhkprbmdbr quï fljb qub um tbxth sbl jhfbrbmtb h quï jglsb db so`mo󿬌-
jldh mhs bstì qubrobmdh trlmskotor bg bkoshr, jrbbkhs omtbrbslmtb lnhrdlr ghs
soùobmtbs lspbjths5
<) Gl khdlgodld db bmumjoljoúm. Tobmb jhkh hnebtovhhnebtovh bg bstudoh dbg
ljth db bmumjoljoúm, bs dbjor dbg prhjbsh bm bg julg umhs suebths
omtbrjlknolm um bmumjoldh. Bstudolrbkhs lquë juìg bs gl ljtotud `b-
mbrlg dbg flnglmtb. Zb trltl db omtbmtlr dbtbrkomlr bg ljth db flngl
dhkomlmtb y su bxprbsoúm l trlvïs db gl bgbjjoúm db uml dbtbrkomldl
khdlgodld hrljohmlg. Jhm gl khdlgodld db bmumjoljoúm phmbkhs bm
prokbr pglmh gl rbgljoúm bmtrb ghs suebths plrtojoplmtbs bm gl bmumjol-
joúm (Ghzlmh, <??<5 <0).
>) Gls khdlgodldbs db bmumjoldh5 khdlgodldbs gúòjls y lprbjoltovls.
Bg bstudoh sb jbmtrl lquë bm gl kltbrol bmumjoldl. Sbrbkhs gl rbgl-
joúm qub bstlngbjb bg flnglmtb jhm su prhpoh bmumjoldh y jhm ghs
vlghrbs gúòjhs db ïstb.
:) Gl khdlgodld
khdlgodld jhkh bxpr
bxprbsoúm sunebtovodld . Zb omtbmtlrìm odbm-
bsoúm db gl sunebtovodld
to󿬌jlr ghs bgbkbmths khdlgozldhrbs, umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls qub gb pbr-
kotbm lg flnglmtb bxprbslr su pumth db vostl pbrshmlg bm ïg y ljbrjl
dbg bmumjoldh.
<) Gl khdlgodld db bmumjoljoúm.

l) Ghs ljths db flngl5
Gl odbl omojolg db Lustom (<?2?)
(<?2?) bs gl db qub julmdh flnglkhs, bm gl klyh-
rël db ghs jlshs, bstlkhs bkotobmdh bmumjoldhs qub mh shm dbsjropjohmbs, somh
qub okpgojlm uml ljjoúm. Zb trltl db bmumjoldhs rblgozltovhs plrl ghs julgbs
mh ro`b bg jrotbroh db vbrdld/clgsbdld ‚qub sbrël bg prhpoh db ghs bmumjoldhs
jhmstltltovhs
jhmstltlto vhs (ghs qub së sb shkbtbm cbgozkbmtb l bstl prubnl)‚, somh bg db ldb-
4
juldh/omldbj
juldh/omldbjuldh
uldh
jhmdojohmbs dlrì
dl l umls
rì gu`lr dbtbrkomldls
l um jhmdojohmbs
omchrtumoh qub dbelrì som. Bg omjukpgokobmth
bcbjth db gls
bg jhrrbsphmdobmtb
jhrrbsphmdobmtb
ljth rblgozltovh2. Zoùobmdh su rlzhmlkobmth,
rlzhmlkobmth, Lustom lsukb qub rblgkbmtb th-
dhs gh bmumjoldhs tobmdbm l sbr rblgozltovhs. Bm su omtbmth db bglnhrlr uml gostl
db vbrnhs rblgozltovhs bxpgëjoths sb bmjubmtrl jhm gl mbjbsodld db bspbjo 󿬌jlr
bm quï `rldhs uml bxprbsoúm bs purlkbmtb rblgozltovl.
rblgozltovl. Bsth gb ggbvl
ggbvl l dostomùor
trbs tophs db bmumjoldhs5 ghjutovhs, oghjutovhs y pbrghjutovhs.
Ljth ghjujohmlr
ghjujohmlrohoh bs bg qub rblgozlkhs phr bg fbjfh db dbjor lg`h y
jhkprbmdb um ljth cúmojh ‚bkotor shmodhs‚ um ljth cìtojh ‚bkotor plgl-
nrls‚ y um ljth rïtojh ‚«rblgozlr bg ljth db uslr bshs tïrkomhs jhm um jobrth
sbmtodh y rbcbrbmjol±‚ (Lustom, <?2?5 <:? y ss.). Ljth oghjujohm lroh bs bg
oghjujohmlroh
qub sb ggbvl l jlnh lg dbjor lg`h (Onëd., p. <44). Ljth pbrghjujo hmlroh bs
pbrghjujohmlroh
bg qub tobmb
bcbjths. gu`lr phr flnbr
Gl jhmtomuodld db glsdojfh lg`h.
tbhrëls db Tobmb
Lustombgsbprhpúsoth
bmjubmtrldbbmprhdujor
ghs trl-
nlehs Zblrgb. Dhs odbls cumdlkbmtlgbs bm su tbhrël shm l 󿬌rklr qub thdhs
ghs bmumjoldhs shm jhmvbmjohmlgbs3 y mh súgh, jhkh dbjël Lustom, lgùmhs
bmumjoldhs rblgozltovhs, y db󿬌mor gl umodld këmokl db jhkumojljoúm gom-
`÷ëstojl5 bg ljth db flngl. Ldbkìs,
Ldbkìs, Zblrgb khdo󿬌jl bg bsqubkl troplrtoth db
Lustom y prb󿬌brb dostomùor bmtrb ljths db bkosoúm5 ghs qub sb rblgozlm lg
bkotor plglnrls1 ljths prhphsojohmlgbs5 ghs qub sb rblgozlm lg rbcbror y prbdo-
jlr1 ljths oghjujohmlrohs5 lqubgghs qub tobmbm gu`lr lg bmumjolr
bmumjolr,, prbùmtlr,
klmdlr,, prhphmbr, btj.1 y ljths pbrghjujohmlrohs5 qub shm ghs qub prhdujbm
klmdlr
4
Gls jhmdojohmbs sb dovodbm nìsojlkbmtb bm trbs `ruphs5 L.<) Gl bxostbmjol db
um prhjbdokobmth jhmvbmjohmlg qub suphm`l gl bkosoúm db jobrtls plglnrls jhm
bcbjths jhmvbmjohmlgbs L.>) phr gls pbrshmls y bm gls jorjumstlmjols ldbjuldls.
ldbjuldls.
N.<) Bg prhjbdokobmth dbnb ggbvlrsb l jlnh jhrrbjtlkbmtb y N.>) bm thdhs sus
plshs. Κ.<) Ghs plrtojoplmtbs dbnbm
dbnbm tbmbr gl jhmdujtl h ghs sbmtokobmths qub sblm
rbqubrodhs y Κ.>) jhkphrtlrsb sb`õm ïsths bm julmth gl hjlsoúm gh rbquobrl. Sod.
E.G. Lustom, Júkh fljbr jhsls jhm plglnrls, p. 23.
2
Zo sb trls`rbdbm gls rb`gls L h N bg ljth rblgozltovh bs mugh, mh sb fl ggbvldh l
jlnh1 l bstb toph db omchrtumoh Lustom gh dbmhkoml dbsljobrths. Zo sb trls`rbdb Κ,
bmthmjbs sb jhkbtb um omchrtumoh qub gglkl lnush.
3
Bm gl kbdodl bm qub «flnglr um gbmùleb bs thklr plrtb bm uml chrkl db jhmdujtl
(lgtlkbmtb jhkpgbel) `hnbrmldl phr rb`gls± (Ehfm ^. Zblrgb, Ljth
Ljthss db flngl,, p. >>).
db flngl
bcbjths shnrb gls ljjohmbs, pbmslkobmths

pbmslkobmths h jrbbmjols db ghs hybmtbs. Tlk-
noïm bspbjo󿬌jl gls jhmdojohmbs qub ro`bm gl ldbjuljoúm db ghs bmumjoldhs
y bstudol, bspbjolgkbmtb, ghs ljths oghjutovhs
oghjutovhs omdorbjths.
Comlgkbmtb, Zblrgb rblgozl uml jglso󿬌jljoúm db jomjh tophs db ljths db
flngl l ghs qub phdrël rbdujorsb julgquobr bmumjoldh. Zhm5
<. Lsbrtovhs h omchrkltovhs5 l󿬌rklr, lmumjolr, prbdbjor, omsostor.
QLmumjoh qub[ Bg Ylës
Ylës tb hcrbjb uml hcbrtl õmojl db ggbvlrtb um hrdbmldhr
DBGG jhm prhjbsldhrdbOmtbg
pglml G@-TCT-GJD y `rlnldhr
dhngb db DSDs
ush TS-khmothr dby<?.
JDs y uml tbgbvosoúm
QL󿬌rkh qub[ kb bmjlmtl rb`lglr bm mlvodld. Bs gl kbehr klmbrl db
fljbr sbmtor l lgùobm qub tb okphrtl.
>. Dorbjtovhs5 prbùmtlr, prhfonor, pbdor, rbjhkbmdlr, bxoòr, bmjlr`lr,
hrdbmlr.
Q^bjhkobmdh qub[ hnsbrvb so su clkogolr bs omjlplz db bspbrlr umhs
komuths uml vbz qub bg vobmb bg dbsbh db or l hromlr. Lyudb l jrblr
fìnoths. Yrhjurb qub vlyl jhm rbùglrodld lg nlüh
Db prhmth kb bkpueú lg omtbrohr y kb lpumtú jhm uml posthgl. QTQTbb bxoeh
qub[ Mh fl`ls mldl, mo um `bsth bm clgsh y Qmo sb tb hjurrl/tb prhfënh[
lnror gl nhjl.
Ëüo`h sb prbùmtl Qkb prbùmth[ phr quï mh pubdb jlslrsb jhm su mhvoh
y, db plsh, rbùglrozlr su bstlmjol bm Bsplül.
:. Jhkprhkoshrohs5 hcrbjbr, prhkbtbr, eurlr.
QTb prhkbth, kb jhkprhkbth l qub[. Kb prhkbtoú qub jlknolrël, qub
QTb
mumjl kìs flrël uml jhsl lsë y qub l plrtor db bsb khkbmth sbrël um
fhknrb docbrbmtb.
Ylrl qub tbm`ls gh qub tõ mbjbsotls bm bg juodldh db tu slgud, gl
lsostbmjol y ltbmjoúm kìs jhkpgbtls b ommhvldhrbs sbrvojohs qub
tb prhphrjohmlm klyhr jlgodld db vodl5 Qtb hcrbzjh[ prh`rlkls db
prbvbmjoúm (òmbjhgh`ël, jlrdohgh`ël, pbdoltrël), sbrvojoh db sbùmdl
hpomoúm kïdojl…‛
4. Bxprbsovhs5 pbdor pbrdúm, pbrdhmlr, l`rldbjbr.

Jrbh qub bg luthr dbg lrtëjugh fl dldh bm bg jglvh bm su pglmtblkobmth
pubs lfhrl bsthy bm bg omojoh db uml mubvl btlpl db ko vodl. Lrtëjughs
jhkh bg vubstrh kb bstìm lyudlmdh l phmbr bm hrdbm kos sbmtokobmths.
Yhr bsh… Qhs dhy gls `rljols[.
QYodh dosjugpls[ l ghs gbjthrbs phr um lrtëjugh omldkosongb qub
pungojlkhs bg plsldh vobrmbs bm mubstrl bdojoúm db Nlrjbghml. _ gb fb
pbdodh lg luthr dbg lrtëjugh, qub tlknoïm ïg gls podl bm mubstrl bdojoúm
okprbsl db klülml bm Nlrjbghml‛.
2. Dbjglrltovhs5 sbmtbmjolr, nlutozlr, vbtlr, gbvlmtlr uml sbsoúm...

^bumoúm db jhhrdomldhrbs (l pubrtl jbrrldl).
QZb lnrb gl sbsoúm[ l gls ?.99 fhrls dbg gumbs, >6 db sbptobknrb db >994,
nleh gl prbsodbmjol db Yfoggop Pfotbfbld, prbsodbmtb.
QZb gbvl
gbvlmtl
mtl gl sbsoúm[ db jhhrdomldhrbs l gls ?.42 fhrls (Ylrglkbmth
burhpbh. Jhkosoúm db Kbrjldh omtbrohr).
N.H.Y.‚ Nldlehz, >2 db Hjtunrb db >99<

Okphm`h shnrb bg jhmdbmldh bg pl`h db uml kugtl db jobm kog pbsbtls,
dbnobmdh pl`lr ldbkìs ghs fhmhrlrohs dbg lnh`ldh dbg jhmtrlroh.
Lnsubgvh lg Ch`lsl bm bstb bstldh dbg prhjbdokobmth.
Gl jglso󿬌jljoúm db Zblrgb mhs pbrkotb odbmto󿬌jlr juìg bs bg ljth db flngl

qub dhkoml um bmumjoldh y phdbr rbjhmhjbr, lsë, gl omtbmjoúm `bmbrlg dbg
flnglmtb. Omjgush julmdh bg ljth db flngl bs omdorbjth h julmdh bg vbrnh prb-
chrkltovhh mh bstì jglrlkbmtb bxprbsldh, bs phsongb lvbroùlr bg ljth db flngl
chrkltov
okpgëjoth kbdolmtb gl omsbrjoúm dbg vbrnh rblgozltov
rblgozltovhh jhrrbsphmdobmtb.
n) Gls khdlgodldbs hrljohmlgbs
Gl cubrzl oghjutovl qub, jhkh fbkhs vosth, phsbbm ghs bmumjoldhs, bstì
bm kujfhs lspbjths jhdo󿬌jldl bm gl gbmùl bm chrkl db gls gglkldls khdlgo-
dldbs hrljohmlgbs (@utoïrrbz Hrdúübz, <?6?539). Gls hrljohmbs mhs pbrkotbm
bxprbslr mh súgh bg dojtuk um dbtbrkomldh jhmtbmodh,
jhmtbmodh, somh tlknoïm bg khdus,
bs dbjor, gl ljtotud dbg flnglmtb lmtb gh dojfh y lmtb su omtbrghjuthr, phr gh qub
su bstudoh mhs pbrkotb slnbr juìg bs gl 󿬌mlgodld, bg hnebtovh dbg flnglmtb, qub
sb phmb db klmo󿬌bsth bm gl bgbjjoúm db uml jhmjrbtl khdlgodld hrljohmlg.
Tbmobmdh bm jubmtl gls dhs dokbmsohmbs nìsojls dbg ljth db flngl, bs db-
jor, db gh qub sb trltl y l quoïm bstì hrobmtldh, @lrrodh Kbdoml (<???5 :662)
prhphmb bg soùobmtb juldrh5
Hrobmtljoúm dbg ljth db flngl

FLNGLMTB H_BMTB
JHMHJOKOBMTHZ lsbrtovhs prbùmtls
Bg ljth trltl db
BKHJOHMBZ bxprbsovhs
LJJOHMBZ úrdbmbs
Mh bs docëjog bxtrlbr db ïg ghs tophs db hrljohmbs nìsojhs ‚bmumjolto-

vl, omtbrrh`ltovl, bxjglkltovl, bxfhrtltovl‚. \ubdlm cubrl gls khdlgodldbs
dbsodbrltovls y hptltovls h dunotltovls. @lrrodh Dhkëmùbz lshjol gl kh-

dlgodld dbsodbrltovl
dbsodbrl tovl l gl bxfhrtltovl h okpbrltovl phr bg ush qub lknls
khdlgodldbs rblgozlm dbg suneumtovh1
suneumtovh1 bm julmth lg toph db khdlgodld duno-
tltovl,
tltovl, pglmtbl qub sb trltl db uml khdlgodld db bmumjoldh bm gl kbdodl bm
qub gh qub sb klmo󿬌bstl l trlvïs db bstb kbjlmoskh bs bg `rldh db jbrtbzl
dbg flnglmtb jhm rbspbjth l su dosjursh.
Ylrtobmdh db bstl pbrspbjtovl, mhshtrhs dostomùorbkhs jomjh khdlgodl-
dbs hrljohmlgbs5
<. Khdlgodld bmumjoltovl (dbjglrltovl h lsbvbrltov
lsbvbrltovl)5
l)5 omdojlm gl vbr-
dld h clgsbdld db gl rbgljoúm dbg prbdojldh jhm bg suebth. Bg flnglmtb
sb gokotl l bstlngbjbr uml rbgljoúm db prbdojljoúm db umhs fbjfhs jhm
rbspbjth l htrhs. Yubdbm sbr l󿬌rkltovls h mb`ltovls. Bs gl khdlgodld
mh klrjldl y sb jlrljtbrozl phr bg ush dbg omdojltovh y phr gl mh prb-
sbmjol db bgbkbmths gom`÷ëstojhs jhm jlpljodld khdlgozldhrl.
Bebkpghs5
Cueotsu. Bg lorb ljhmdojohmldh qub fljb kbmhs ruodh qub uml khsjl.
L trlvïs db bstl plmtlggl tìjtog phdrìs rblgozlr gglkldls klmhs gonrbs. _
mh mbjbsotlrìs mumjl kìs um aot bspbjë 󿬌jh plrl bg jhjfb.
>. Khdlgodld omtbrrh`ltovl5 shm bmumjoldhs l trlvïs db ghs julgbs bg
bkoshr jubstohml lg rbjbpthr dbg qub bspbrl uml rbspubstl qub, bm bg
jlsh db ghs omtbrjlknohs hrlgbs, mh tobmb phr quï sbr gom`÷ëstojl. Zb
dostomùbm dhs tophs5 thtlgbs, so bg flnglmtb prbùmtl phr gl thtlgodld
dbg jhmtbmodh bmumjoldh1 bm bstb jlsh, gl rbspubstl qub sb pubdb dlr
bs «së± h «mh±. _ plrjolgbs, so bg flnglmtb prbùmtl õmojlkbmtb
õmojlkbmtb phr um
bgbkbmth dbg bmumjoldh. Bm bstb õgtokh jlsh bg bmumjoldh sb jhmstru-
yb utogozlmdh um khrcbkl omtbrrh`ltovh dbg toph ¸quï8 ¸quoïm8 ¸dúm-
db8 ¸juìmdh8 Bm hjlsohmbs sb pubdb utogozlr gl khdlgodld omtbrrh`l-
tovll plrl jhmstruor hrljohmbs qub som bknlr`h mh bstìm jubstohmlmdh
tov
l mom`õm omtbrghjuthr.
omtbrghjuthr. Bs bg jlsh db gls omtbrrh`ljohmbs rbtúrojls h db
gls omtbrrh`ljohmbs qub shm ljths db flngl omdorbjths y bm rblgodld
bquovlgbm l klmdlths.
Bebkpghs5
(omtbrrh`ltovl
(omtbrrh`lto vl dorbjtl plrjolg)
<4 7B>=5 _ mldl, bm ghs bstudohs ¸quï sb
s b tb dl kbehr y thdh bsh8
<2 7F<=5 Yubs (--=) db bstb jursh mh tb pubdh flnglr phrqub ljlnl db
bkpbzlr… (JHSEL).
(omtbrrh`ltovll dorbjtl thtlg)
(omtbrrh`ltov
<6 7B<=5 ¸Ylrtojopls bm lgùml ljtovodld bxtrlljldïkojl8
?9 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
<? 7F<=5 Zë, nubmh...

nubmh... sb pubdb thklr
thklr jhkh bxtrl 7plglnrl jhrtldl=...
bxtrlljldïkojl 7cìtojh ; dudl=, shy kobknrh db (--=) 7so`gls= R.Y.
R.Y. 7/
so`gls= db uml lshjoljoúm db bstudolmtbs 7mhknrb prhpoh= Rmovbrsotlrohs
Yrh`rbsostls (JHSEL).
(omtbrrh`ltovll omdorbjtl)
(omtbrrh`ltov
?9 7B<=5 _ ¸quï tb doeh 7rosls=8
?< 7F>=5 Yubs fhknrb, kb doeh qub (--=) 7bstogh omdorbjth= mh 7/bstogh
omdorbjth=, prìjtojlkb
prìjtojlkbmtb
mh (--=) 7/bstogh mtb kbmhdoeh
omdorbjth=, sï. qub 7bstogh
(JHSEL
(JH ). omdorbjth= mh, jfoquoggh
SEL).
bxfhrtltovl55 l trlvïs db bstl khdlgodld bg flnglmtb pub-
:. Khdlgodld bxfhrtltovl
db bxprbslr uml hrdbm, klmdlth, pbtojoúm u hngo`ljoúm jhm rbspbjth
lg rbjbpthr. Zo shm mb`ltovls omdojlm prhfonojoúm. Bg khdh vbrnlg
utogozldh bs bg okpbrltovh h bg suneumtovh jhm vlghr okpbrltovh lum-
qub tlknoïm sb pubdb utogozlr bg prbsbmtb h bg cuturh db klmdlth y, y,
jhghquolgkbmtb,
jhghquolgkbmt b, bg om󿬌motovh h bg `brumdoh. Htrhs rbjurshs gom`÷ës-
tojhs shm bg ush dbg vhjltovh h db rbjurshs ltbmultovhs db gl hrdbm h
klmdlth.
Bebkpghs5
¡Dlgb vodl prhpol! Gglkl lfhrl plrl jhmsbùor um gh`h, shmodh h
slgvlplmtlggls plrl tu kúvog.
Shtb ghs gonrhs dbg >992 qub kìs gb flylm ùstld
ùstldh.
h. Shtb y `lmb um voleb
l Jfoml db << dëls plrl dhs pbrshmls.
Hf Ebsõs bxtbmdodh shnrb gl jruz, tb rub`h jhmjïdbkb gl `rljol db
jukpgor 󿬌bgkbmtb jhm gl slmtësokl vhgumtld db tu Yldrb bm thdls gls
jhsls, sobkprb y bm thdh gu`lr. _ julmdh bstl vhgumtld kb plrbzjl
pbsldl y docëjog db jukpgor, bs bmthmjbs qub tb rub`h, Ebsõs, qub db
            
jhmstlmtbkbmtb5 fì`lsb tu vhgumtld, Zbühr
Zbühr..
4. Khdlgodld dbsodbrltovl5 kbdolmtb bstb toph db hrljohmbs bg flnglmtb
chrkugl bg dbsbh db qub sb rblgojb bg jhmtbmodh prhphsojohmlg. Zb
jlrljtbrozlm phr bgy gl
vbrnohs db dbsbh ushjhmeumjoúm
dbg vbrnh qub.
bm suneumto
suneumtovh,
vh, gl utogozljoúm db ld-
Bebkpghs5
Helgì Dokls so`l omsostobmdh phrqub yh bsthy jldl dël kìs bmlkhrldl
(^l`lzzl).
‗\uosobrl sbr bg lorb
qub bsjlpl db tu rosl.
\uosobrl sbr gl slg
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg ?<
plrl bsjhjbrtb bm tus fbrodls.

\uosobrl sbr gl slm`rb
qub bmvubgvbs
bmvubgvbs jhm tu vodl
\uosobrl sbr bg dubüh lg qub elkìs jhkplrtorëls
y bg elrdëm db tu lgb`rël db gl 󿬌bstl db tu pobg.
(Lgbelmdrh Zlmz)
2. Khdlgodld bxjglkltovl5
bxjglkltovl5 bstls hrljohmbs sorvbm plrl qub bg flnglmtb
bxprbsb
bkhjoúm,lcbjtovodld, ïmclsos hlmtb
tbkhr h shrprbsl julgquobr htrh bstldh
su bmumjoldh. db ìmokh jhkh
Gl bxjglkljoúm bs
jhkpltongb y db fbjfh lplrbjb crbjubmtbkbmtb lshjoldl l htrls kh-
dlgodldbs, jhkh gl bxfhrtltovl h gl dbsodbrltovl. Bg bgbkbmth gom`÷ës-
tojh kìs jlrljtbrëstojh db bstl khdlgodld bs gl omtbrebjjoúm.
Bebkpghs5
¡Bmfhrlnubml!¡¡Nusjl tu btoqubtl jhm tu rb`lgh!! (Jltìgh`h db jhkprl
phr jhrrbh).
Thdh bstlnl lõm kuy jbrjl. Bg jhkbmtlroh flnotulg ‚rodëjuglkbmtb
hnvoh‚ brl5 ¡_l
¡_l fljb um lüh qub kuroú! ¡Júkh plsl bg tobkph!
(\uok Khmzú, BYZ)
>. Gls khdlgodldbs db bmumjoldhs

Ghs flnglmtbs l gl fhrl db hr`lmozlr sus dosjurshs pubdbm tlknoïm
prhmumjolrsb ljbrjl dbg `rldh db jhmhjokobmth, prbcbrbmjol u hngo`lth-
robdld qub gbs vomjugl jhm su prhpoh bmumjoldh. Bstlkhs bm bg ìknoth db
gls prhpobdldbs gúòjh-khdlgbs db ghs bmumjoldhs qub bstìm rbgljohmldls
jhm gl gúòjl khdlg y gls jltb`hrëls db gl gúòjl jgìsojl.
Tlg y jhkh kubstrl Jbrvhmo (<?60), gl gúòjl khdlg dbstljl trbs tophs
db khdlgodldbs5
‚ Khdlgodldbs lgïtojls5 rbgljohmldls jhm gh mbjbslroh y gh phsongb y jhm
bg vlghr db vbrdld h clgsbdld db uml prhphsojoúm.
@bhr`b P. Nusf y su jlklroggl mh pubdbm lpumtlrsb tlknoïm bstl vojthrol.
(Elvobr Klrëls, BYZ).
Bg komostrh db Omdustrol, Turoskh y Jhkbrjoh, Ehsï Khmtoggl, fl lsbùrldh
fhy bm bg Zbmldh qub bg @hnobrmh mh jhmsodbrl mbjbslroh «lpgojlr um jlmhm
phr jhpol provldl l ghs usulrohs db Omtbrmbt y l ghs dosjhs durhs db ghs
hrdbmldhrbs±. (fttp5//www
(fttp5//www.omtbrmlutls.hr`)
.omtbrmlutls.hr`)
‚ Khdlgodldbs bpostïkojls5 rbgljohmldls jhm bg slnbr , jhm gl jlmtodld db
jhmhjokobmth qub phsbb bg flnglmtb y jhm bg `rldh db jbrtbzl qub klmo󿬌bstl
rbspbjth l bsb jhmhjokobmth
jhmhjokobmth..
?> Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
Ylrbjb sbr qub mh. Slrols omstotujohmbs jobmtë 󿬌jls y umovbrsodldbs

bstldhumodbmsbs Q…[ flm ggb`ldh l gl jhmjgusoúm db qub gl rldoljoúm jldl
vbz bs kbmhr (\RH).
¸\uobrb dbjor bmthmjbs qub gh hnbshs tobmbm ghs `bmbs klg8 Mh
mbjbslrolkbmtb. \uozì bs qub bstìm kuy nobm ldlptldhs l um lknobmtb db
bsjlsbz lgokbmtlrol (\RH).
:36 7B<=5 Mh, mh, so bsh bs vbrdld. _h (--=) plrtodlrol..., h sbl (--=),
phr ko plrtb, prbcobrh lyudlr l gl `bmtb qub bs phnrb, db lquë, qub
(--=)... h sbl,
bsb dombrh gbsmhggb`l.
bs phrqub
H sblbsth...
(--=),somh
pbrhqub ghs tbm`h
sbùrh kìssbjbrjl
qub mh y sïl qub
gh vhy dlr
l uml o`gbsol, bsh mo db jhül... sb gh dhy dorbjtlkbmtb, bsh bstì jglrh.
(JHSEL).
‚ Khdlgodldbs dbúmtojls
dbúmtojls5 rbgljohmldls jhm bg dbnbr y
y gl bxprbsoúm db gl
mbjbsodld phr plrtb dbg flnglmtb.
Yhr õgtokh bs okphrtlmtb rbsbülr qub bstb toph db rbsoduhs lcbjtl db chrkl
kuy mb`ltovl lg kbdoh lknobmtb bm `bmbrlg y lg fhknrb bm plrtojuglr.
«fttp5//www.nohghòl.hr`±.
Cëebmsb júkh sbrì db omfuklml, gl fuklmodld, jhm gls hnrls db lrtb, qub
gl 󰁲󰁭󰁢󰁺󰁪󰁨 tobmb qub bgbòr (y, dldh su bsjlsh pbjumoh, ∂ jhm jubmtl`htls)
lqubggls qub dbnbrìm slgvlrsb db gl orl (Klruel Thrrbs,
Thrrbs, BYZ).
Ldbkìs db bstls trbs khdlgodldbs gúòjls nìsojls, bxostbm htrls jhkh gls
dhxìstojls, rbgljohmldls jhm bg jrbbr y gls nughklybojls, rbgljohmldls
rbgljohmldls jhm bg
dbsbh h gl prbcbrbmjol (vlm Doea, <??25 39).
Gb prbùmtï
prbùmtï l ko foeh so qubrël qub gb gbybrl
gbybrl kìs. Ïg
Ïg sb rbstrb
rbstrb`ú
`ú ghs hehs.
‚Jrbhh qub shm nlstlmtbs fosthrols plrl bstl mhjfb, plpì ‚kb doeh‚. Bsthy
‚Jrb
kuy jlmsldh (Jubrphkbmtb).
Bg pbsh db gl bxprbsoúm vbrnlg db gl khdlgodld rbjlb shnrb ghs vbrnhs
khdlgbs ‚phdbr, dbnbr y tlknoïm slnbr y qubrbr‚. Ybrh tlknoïm jhmtro-
nuybm l dbtbrkomlrgl ghs gglkldhs ldvbrnohs dbg khdus. Bmtrb bgghs dbs-
tljlm ghs omdojldhrbs y rbchrzldhrbs db ljtotud dbg flnglmtb crbmtb lg doj-
tuk,
ljlsh 1 ghs sbùrlkbmtb,
jhkh rbstrojtovhs dbgprhnlngbkbmtb,
vlghr db vbrdldtlg
db vbz, phsongbkbmtb,
gl lsbrjoúm5 quozì(s),
supubstlkbmtb,
prbsumtlkbmtb,
prbsumtlk bmtb, lplrbmtbkbm
lp lrbmtbkbmtb,
tb, prìjtojlkbm
prìjt ojlkbmtb,
tb, prbsukongbkbm tb1 y ghs rb-
prbsuko ngbkbmtb
chrzldhrbs dbg vlghr db gl vbrdld db gl lsbrjoúm5 omdudlngbkbmtb, omdosju-
tongbkbmtb, jobrtlkbmtb, hnvolkbmtb. Oùlgkbmtb, dbtbrkomldhs klrjldh-
rbs dbg dosjursh sorvbm tlknoïm plrl l klmocbstlr gl ljtotud dbg flnglmtb
rbspbjth l su bmumjoldh. Bs bg jlsh db ghs klrjldhrbs jhmvbrsljohmlgbs
db khdlgodld bpostïkojl dbg toph jglrh, dbsdb gub`h1 h ghs db khdlgodld
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg ?:
dbúmtojl jhkh nubmh, nobm, vlgb, lsë . Bstlkhs db ggbmh bm bg ìknoth db gl

bvodbmjolgodld, prhjbdokobmth prl`kìtojh rbgljohmldh bspbjolgkbmtb jhm
gl khdlgodld bpostïkojl y qub tobmb qub vbr, jhkh l󿬌rklm @lrjël Mb`rh-
mo y Thrdbsoggls
Thrdbsoggls (>99<5 <<9), «jhm ghs dostomths khdhs bm qub bg ghjuthr fl
hntbmodh bg jhmhjokobmth bm jubstoúm5 db prokbrl klmh, phr dbdujjoúm,
prhjbdbmtb db htrl cubmtb...± Zhm thdhs bsths l su vbz prhjbdokobmths jo-
tltovhs qub, plrl @rljobgl ^bybs (<??35 >2), bg flnglmtb utogozl julmdh
quobrb «bxprbslr lg`õm bsjrõpugh ljbrjl dbg jhmhjokobmth db gh qub l 󿬌r-
kl±. Bs gh qub hjurrb bm ghs soùobmtbs jlshs db tbxths db toph pbrohdëstojh
h omchrkltovh5 pbr ohdëstojh
Gl shmhcusoúm plrbj
plrbjbb jhm󿬌rklrsb. Trls lühs db phgïkojls, ghs kìxokhs
bxpbrths kumdolgbs bm omdujor cusoúm mujgblr bkpgblmdh hmdls shmhrls
plrbjbm dbspbelr gls dudls. (fttp5//www. Fosplkp:.jhk).
Gl mubvl TS omtbrljtovl vohgl gl provljodld, sb`õm dojbm ghs ljtovostls.
         
db Omtbrmbt jhm gl ltrljjoúm jlutovldhrl db gl tbgbvosoúm prhvbbrìm
bmtrbtbmokobmth lg jhsth db gl provljodld pbrshmlg, sb`õm um omchrkb dbg
Jbmtrh plrl gl Dbkhjrljol Doòtlg, rbjhòdh phr gl l`bmjol ^butbrs, bg
koïrjhgbs >0 db eumoh. Zostbkls jhkh TS Zbrvbr db Kojrhshct Jhrp. y
LHGTS db LHG Tokb Plrmbr rlstrblm ghs fìnoths db jhmsukh tbgbvosovh
db ghs usulrohs, doeh

omdovodulgozldhs, quobmbs
bg omchrkb jhmvbrtodhs
phdrëlmdbgsbr
Jbmtrh plrl gl bm nglmjh dbDoòtlg.
Dbkhjrljol lvoshs
(fttp5//www.dbgothsomchrkltojhs.jhk).
:. Gl khdlgodld jhkh bxprbsoúm db gl sunebtovo
sunebtovodld
dld
Kbdolmtb ghs gglkldhs prhjbdokobmths db khdlgozljoúm, bg flnglmtb pub-
db fljbrsb prbsbmtb bm bg tbxth y bxprbslr gom`÷ëstojlkbmtb su sunebtovodld.
Durlmtb bg prhjbsh bmumjoltovh, bg suebth sb omsjronb bm su prhpoh bmumjoldh
kbdolmtb hpbrljohmbs rbcbrbmjolgbs ‚qub lmjglm su dosjursh bm bg tobkph y
bm bg bspljoh‚ y kbdolmtb hpbrljohmbs khdlgbs ‚qub gb pbrkotbm bxprbslr
gl kbdodl db su okpgojljoúm jhm su prhpoh bmumjoldh (Abrnrlt-Hrbjjfohmo,
<?63)‚. Gl khdlgodld klrjl gl docbrbmjol bmtrb gh qub dbmhkomlkhs dosjur-
sh hnebtovh y bg dosjursh
Gl bxprbsoúm sunebtovh. pubdb sbr bxpgëjotl, julmdh gl rbgljoúm
db gl khdlgodld
khdlg sb bxprbsl kbdolmtb uml umodld gïxojl lutúmhkl ‚vbrnhs, ldvbrnohs
h ldebtovhs khdlgbs‚ h okpgëjotl‚, julmdh mh flyl mom`õm bgbkbmth dbg kh-
dus bxprbsldh bxpgëjotlkbmtb somh qub dbnl dbrovlrsb h okpgojlrsb dbg doj-
tuk. N. Ulvldog (<?36) sbülgl dhs tophs db rbjurshs khdlgbs okpgëjoths5 ghs
khrchgúòjhs ‚jobrths su󿬌 ehs jhm vlghrbs
vlghrbs lprbjoltovhs‚
lprbjoltovhs‚ y ghs prhsúdojhs
prhsúdojhs ‚gl
bmthmljoúm‚.
4:: 7B<=5 Oùlg qub ghs tëhs, fly tëls, h sbl, fly db thdh um
um phjh,
phjh, h sbl, yh,
phr bebkpgh, mh kb bsjlmdlgozh db mldl, mh sï so (--=)...
4:4 7F4=5 ¡Tõ qub tb vls l bsjlmdlgozlr! 7rosls=.
4:2 7B<=5 Mh sï so sbrì phr gl kbmtb 7rosls= qub tbm`h db um phjh slgodoggh
y tlg...
<949 7F<=5 ¡Dbsjlrl7(d)=h! _h shy ïg. Cësojlkbmtb, oùlg1 ¸mh8, y psojh-
gúòjlkbmtb, tlknoïm 7sogbmjoh=. Dbsjlrl7(d)=h... ¡Lmdl qub
(--=) gl htrl! 7rosls=. Sl (--=)... l plrbjbr bg 7mhknrb prhpoh=
Yhrsjfb 7 /mhknrb prhpoh= dbg (--=) 7vljogljoúm= thmtb 7 pl-
glnrl jhrtldl=
th7(d)=7(h)= ... dbg (--=) plvhrrúm
dbstrhzl7(d)=h bsb jhm. ko jhjfb... lfë
y 7omomtbgoòngb=
Jltlgoml Cubmtbs y Bspbrlmzl Lgjlodb (<??3) dbmhkomlm hpbrldhrbs db
khdlgodld l ghs «bgbkbmths h prhjbdokobmths qub bxprbslm gl khdlgodld db
chrkl bxtbrml lg dojtuk± (Lgjlodb, <??05 04). Lumqub gl gostl db prhjbdo-
kobmths gom`÷ëstojhs
gom`÷ëstojhs db khdlgozljoúm
khdlgozljoúm vlrël sb`õm ghs luthrbs, plrlplrl bg jlstb-
gglmh phdbkhs sbülglr ghs soùobmtbs jhkh promjoplgbs5 ldvbrnohs db khdlgo-
dld ‚db khdh, julmtotlto
julmtotltovhs‚,
vhs‚, gl omtbrebjjoúm, gl bmthmljoúm, gl utogozljoúm db
vbrnhs khdlgbs, ghs khdhs vbrnlgbs, ghs ldebtovhs y sustlmtovhs vlghrltovhs5
:3> 7B<=5 Ybrh som bknlr`h, lfhrl yl, qub sb ggb`l... l um bstldh db kldu-
rbz, pubs yl sb pubdbm flnglr jobrtls jhsls y sb pubdbm trltlr jobr-
ths tbkls qub lmtbs pubs (--=)... pubs, mh. Yhrqub l kë l gh kbehr
l ghs dobjosïos lühs ko7(s)= pldrbs mh kb vlm l dbjor5 7 bstogh
dorbjth= hyb, ¸tõ (--=)... brbs vor`bm8 h (--=)... h (--=) jhm gl tël
ïstl jhm gl qub bstìs slgobmdh 7 cìtojh ; dudl= ¸fljbs lg`h, fljbs
jhsotls8 7 /bstogh dorbjth= 7rosls= _ lfhrl l gh kbehr, pubs së kb
gh prbùmtl.
>4? 7F2=5 Nubmh, pubs... 7vljogljoúm= 7rosls=, lplrtb db bsh, pubs... kb
ùstl kujfësokh volelr, shnrb thdh, shy um..., nubmh, kb fb rbjh-
rrodh nlstlmtbs sotohs db (--=)..., db 7 mhknrb prhpoh= Burhpl 7 /
mhknrb prhpoh= mh phr ùsth, somh phr prhngbkls db trlnleh... db
kos pldrbs, pbrh lplrtb db bsh tlknoïm..., tlknoïm pubs bsh, shy
shjhrrostl bm gl 7mhknrb prhpoh= Jruz ^hel 7 /mhknrb prhp oh= y
prhpoh
doscruth kujfësokh jhm bsh, 7 cìtojh ; dudl= thjh kujfësokh gl
ùotlrrl, bsthy bm um `ruph, y kb bmjlmtl, y (--=)...
Db um lrtëjugh db ^hsl Khmtbrh totugldh5 «Mh sï bm quï jhmsostb sbr
kuebr±, (BYZ supgbkbmth) fbkhs bmtrbsljldh lgùmhs pìrrlchs rojhs bm rb-
jurshs khdlgozldhrbs5
Gl okprbsjomdongb Zokhmb db Nbluvhor, qub lg plrbjbr cub uml pbrshml
um phjh pïr 󿬌dl bm su vodl provldl, pbrh qub soùb sobmdh bmhrkb jhkh
pbmsldhrl, doeh qub gl kuebr mh mljb somh qub sb fljb, gh julg jhmstotuyb uml
db gls `rlmdbs chrkugljohmbs tbúrojls dbg so`gh VV , gl pobdrl cumdljo
cumdljohmlg
hmlg
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg ?2
dbg cbkomoskh khdbrmh y db gl bmhrkb rbvhgujoúm lmtosbxostl qub fbkhs

prhtl`hmozldh thdhs, fhknrbs y kuebrbs, bm gls õgtokls dïjldls Q...[
Lfhrl, bm jlknoh, sb fl pubsth db khdl gl omtbrprbtljoúm nohgúòjl, y
ghs jobmtë 󿬌jhs plrbjbm bkpbüldhs bm dbjormhs qub mh shkhs kìs qub
uml «shpl quëkojl±. Bsth bs, qub db «lg`õm khdh± mljbkhs fhknrbs
h kuebrbs1 y jhm bsth mh kb bsthy rb 󿬌robmdh, jglrh bstì, l gls hnvols
docbrbmjols cësojls, l gls prhtunbrlmjols y ghs rbpgobùbs sbjrbths, l ghs
jhg`lehs y gls nlrro`ls plrodhrls, somh l jhsls tlm omtlmòngbs jhkh
mubstrh jlrìjtbr, jhkh mubstrl vosoúm dbg kumdh h mubstrl bstrujturl
omtbgbjtulg. Q...[
¸_ phr quï gls kuebrbs tlrdlm sobkprb tlmtësokh bm ghs julrth db nlüh
põngojhs (dbtbsth bsls glr`ls jhgls bm ghs rbtrbtbs cbkbmomhs mh dbg thdh
eusto󿬌jldls phr gl 󿬌sohgh`ël5 shkhs umls pbsldls), kobmtrls qub ghs
fhknrbs tlrdlm tlm bxjbsovlkbmtb phjh qub kujfhs db bgghs slgbm thdlvël
som flnbrsb lnrhjfldh gl nrlùbtl y klmopugìmdhsb ghs nlehs8
4.2.:. Gl omchrkljoúm okpgëjotl

Nubml plrtb db gl jhfbrbmjol qub gb phdlkhs ltronuor l um bmumjoldh mh
phdbkhs dbjor qub prhjbdl bxljtlkbmtb mo dbg so`mo󿬌jldh sbkìmtojh, mo db
gl hr`lmozljoúm prhphsojohmlg, mo soquobrl db gls umodldbs gïxojls jhm gls qub
bxprbslkhs bg kbmsleb. Fly uml plrtb db gl jhfbrbmjol qub dbpbmdb dbg ljth
bmumjoltovh, bs dbjor, db gls rbgljohmbs qub klmtobmbm ghs omtbrghjuthrbs y dbg
jhmtbxth db jhkumojljoúm.
jhkumojljoúm. Bs bm gl rbgljoúm qub klmtobmb bg gbmùleb jhm sus
usulrohs y jhm sus jhmtbxths dhmdb sb prhdujb um toph db omchrkljoúm, okprbs-
jomdongb plrl gl jhkumojljoú
jhkumojljoúmm y plrl gl rblgozljoúm db ghs prhjbshs jh`motov
jh`motovhs
hs
db prhdujjoúm-jhkprbsoúm, qub dbmhkomlkhs omchrkljoúm okpgëjotl.
Crbmtb l gl omchrkljoúm sbkìmtojl, qub sb rbsubgvb jhm gl jhkprbmsoúm
dbg so`mo󿬌jldh tbxtulg, plrl ggb`lr l gl omchrkljoúm okpgëjotl ‚db mlturlgbzl
mlturlgkbmtb prl`kìtojl‚, bs mbjbslroh tbmbr bm jubmtl lgùmhs lspbjths db
ghs flnglmtbs y dbg prhjbsh jhkumojltovh. Ylrl phdbr dbsjunror gl omchrkl-
joúm okpgëjotl db um tbxth bs mbjbslroh qub ghs omtbrghjuthrbs jhkplrtlm uml
jlmtodld su󿬌jobmtb db jhmhjokobmth bxtrlgom`÷ëstojh db mlturlgbzl jhmtbx-
tulg h bmjojghpïdojl. Bs bsb bspljoh jhkõm bg qub pbrkotorì l ghs flnglmtbs
rblgozlr omcbrbmjols ljbrjl db quï bstìm qubrobmdh jhkumojlrmhs ldbkìs db
gh qub so`mo󿬌jlm gls plglnrls (@lrrodh, <?66).
Zo lg vbr plslr l um lmtoùh lko`h bm um jhjfb dbphrtovh dhs flnglmtbs
klmtobmbm bg soùobmtb doìgh`h5
F<5 ¸Tõ slnbs juìmth vlgb bsb jhjfb8
F>5 Bstb tëh sb fl chrrldh jhm bg tbkl db gls dbpurldhrls.
F<5 _ mh ljlnú JHR.
bs bvodbmtb qub fly kujfl omchrkljoúm okpgëjotl qub lknhs omtbrghjuthrbs

klmbelm5 bm rblgodld gl prbùmtl mh bstlnl doroòdl l slnbr bg okphrtb bxlj-
th dbg luthkúvog somh l gglklr gl ltbmjoúm shnrb su prbjoh (kuy bgbvldh)1
bsh gh slnb bg F> y phr bsh rbsphmdb fljobmdh rbcbrbmjol lg mb`hjoh bm bg
qub bg lmtoùh lko`h bstì kbtodh (quozì rbprbsbmtl uml jlsl kuy clkhsl
db dbpurldhrls plrl posjomls y jhm bg lu`b db gls vovobmdls umoclkogolrbs
fl vbmdodh kujfh y, bm jhmsbjubmjol, bstì `lmlmdh kujfh dombrh). Gl
rbspubstl (qub mh bs tlg rbspubstl) db gl F< lmtb gl omtbrvbmjoúm db su om-
tbrghjuthr bs um jhkbmtlroh vlghrltovh
vlghrltovh shnrb bg fbjfh db qub bsb omdovoduh
tbm`l tlmth dombrh qub sb flyl phdodh jhkprlr um jhjfb db bsb prbjoh ¸8
tbmobmdh bm jubmtl qub mh ljlnú ghs bstudohs kbdohs y qub, som bknlr`h,
gl F<, (y prhnlngbkbmtb F>) qub së ghs ljlnh mo db gbehs sb gh phdrëlm
pbrkotor.
Lchrtumldlkbmtb, mh bs mbjbslroh jldl vbz qub flnglkhs fljbr rbcb-
rbmjol l thdh bsb nl`leb db jhmhjokobmths, bs su󿬌jobmtb jhm sbr jlpljbs db
fljbr rìpodls omcbrbmjols y jlptlr gl omchrkljoúm okpgëjotl. Ylrl rblgozlr bstl
hpbrljoúm phdbkhs nlslrmhs bm ghs bgbkbmths gom`÷ëstojhs dbg tbxth h bm bg
jhmtbxth. Bm bg prokbr jlsh bstlkhs flnglmdh db prbsuph sojohmbs, bm bg sb-
prbsuphsojohmbs
ùmdh db okpgojlturls .
Gls prbs
prbsuph
uphsoj
sojoh mbs sb dbrovlm db gl chrkl gom`÷ëstojl db ghs bmum-
ohmbs
joldhs. Mh sb dojb bxpgëjotlkbmtb, pbrh sb dbdujb gúòjlkbmtb db gh
bxprbsldh y db ghs jhmhjokobmths qub tobmbm ghs flnglmtbs. Zo lgùobm
lcorkl5 «Klülml rbjheh bg jhjfb dbg tlggbr±. Yhdbkhs prbsuphmbr5 fhy bg
flnglmtb mh dosphmb db su jhjfb (quozì quobrl qub gb ggbv
ggbvbb l jlsl).
Gh koskh hjurrb jhm bg bmumjoldh5 «L vbr so phr 󿬌m vlkhs bstb vbrlmh l
Orglmdl±. Dbg qub phdbkhs bxtrlbr gl prbsuphsojoúm5 flstl lfhrl mh flm bstl-
dh mumjl bm Orglmdl (lumqub tbmëlm `lmls db fljbrgh dbsdb fljb tobkph).
Gl omchrkljoúm y gl pungojodld eub`lm jhm ghs jhmhjokobmths okpgëjoths
y bspbrlm qub ghs dbstomltlrohs rblgojbm gls jhrrbsphmdobmtbs prbsuphsojohmbs
jhkh hjurrb bm ghs tbxths soùobmtbs5
          
Burhpl. (Bg Ylës).
Yrbsuphsojoúm5 gl omko`rljoúm ggb`l
ggb`l l Burhpl som mom`õm jhmtrhg.
Bg Dbcbmshr dbg Yubngh bxo`b bg rbspbth thtlg l ghs dbrbjfhs db ghs moühs
omko`rlmtbs (fttp5//www
(fttp5//www.luglomtbrjugturlg.hr`).
.luglomtbrjugturlg.hr`).
Yrbsuphsojoúm5 mh sb rbspbtlm jhkpgbtlkbmtb ghs dbrbjfhs db ghs moühs
omko`rlmtbs.
Ylrl qub mom`õm bmcbrkh qubdb dbsltbmdodh, lyõdlmhs jhmtrl bg jìmjbr.
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg ?0
Yrbsuphsojoúm5 mh thdhs ghs bmcbrkhs db jìmjbr rbjonbm gls koskls

ltbmjohmbs.
Gl rbvhgujoúm lmtobdld. Gl shgujoúm lg bmv
bmvbebjokobmth
bebjokobmth db gl pobg.
Yrbsuphsojoúm5 bg bmvbebjokobmth db gl pobg mh tbmël shgujoúm flstl
lfhrl.
Bm julmth l gls okpgojlturls, sb trltl tlknoïm db omchrkljohmbs okpgëjo-
tls, pbrh plrl omcbrorgls fly qub rbjurror lg jhmtbxth. Fly qub tbmbr bm jubmtl
thdh bg ljth jhkumojltovh, pbrh shnrb thdh, gl jhkpbtbmjol jhkumojltovl
db ghs flnglmtbs y sus jhmhjokobmths jhkplrtodhs. Bs bg jlsh dbg bebkpgh
db gl jhmvbrsljoúm shnrb bg prbjoh dbg jhjfb. Zúgh gl bxostbmjol db uml `rlm
jlmtodld db jhmhjokobmths jhkplrtodhs bxpgojl qub l bsls omtbrvbmjohm
omtbrvbmjohmbs
bs gls
phdlkhs dbmhkomlr doìgh`h.
Bg jhmjbpth db okpgojlturl prhjbdb dbg promjopoh db jhhpbrljoúm db @ro-
jb (<?02). Ylrl bstb 󿬌gúshch, ghs flnglmtbs, lg bmtlnglr uml jhmvbrsljoúm, sb
jhkprhkbtbm l jukpgor um promjopoh
promjopoh cumdlkbmtlg qub
qub bs bg qub fljb phsongb
phsongb
qub ghs omtbrjlknohs jhkumojltovhs sb dbslrrhggbm mhrklgkbmtb, bs bg prom-
jopoh db jhhpbrljoúm5
Fl`l ustbd su jhmtronujoúm l gl jhmvbrsljoúm tlg jhkh gh bxo`b, bm bg bstldoh
bm qub tbm`l gu`lr, bg prhpúsoth h gl dorbjjoúm dbg omtbrjlknoh qub ustbd
shstbm`l.
Bstb promjopohdbsbjulgodld5
<. Kìxokl jhmjrbtl bm jultrh kìxokls5
‚ Mh do`l lqubggh qub bs clgsh.
‚ Mh do`l lqubggh db gh qub jlrbzjl db prubnls.
>. Kìxokl db jlmtodld5
jlmtodld5
‚ Fl`l ustbd qub su jhmtronujoúm sbl tlm omchrkltovl jhkh sbl mb-
jbslroh.
‚ Mh fl`l su jhmtronujoúm kìs omchrkltovl db gh mbjbslroh.
:. Kìxokl db rbgljoúm5
rbgljoúm5
‚ Zbl pbrtombmtb.
4. Kìxokl db klmbrl5
klmbrl5
‚ Bvotb sbr hsjurh lg bxprbslrsb.
‚ Bvotb sbr lknoùh.
‚ Zbl nrbvb.
‚ Zbl hrdbmldh.
Zo nobm bg jukpgokobmth db bstls kìxokls dlrël gu`lr l jhmvbrsljohmbs
odblgbs, gh jobrth bs qub bsth mh hjurrb lsë. Ghs flnglmtbs gls trls`rbdokhs
jhmstlmtbkbmtb y bsb bs, prbjoslkbmtb, bg hnebth db omtbrïs db @rojb. Julmdh
gls kìxokls mh sb jukpgbm, ghs flnglmtbs rblgozlm omcbrbmjols mh nlsldls bm
gl omchrkljoúm gom`÷ëstojl, somh dbpbmdobmtbs db gl omchrkljoúm jhmtbxtulg,

bstb toph db omcbrbmjols sb dbmhkomlm okpgojlturls jhmvbrsljohmlgbs mh jhm-
vbmjohmlgbs.
Bm ghs soùobmtbs tbxths, ghs flnglmtbs mh rbspbtlm mo gl kìxokl db rbgl-
joúm mo gl db julgodld5
:0? 7B<=5 Yubs, yh quï sï... ¸Júkh vbos vubstrh cuturh8 L vbr 7sokugtìmbh=
tlmtl `bmtb bm plrh, tlmth kbmdo`h y tlg, ¸júkh vbos vubstrh cutu-
rh8 7rosls=.
:69 7F<=5 7 cìtojh ; omtbrrh`ljoúm= Ybrdúm 7/ sokugtìmbh=
omtbrrh`ljoúm= sokugtìmbh= ¸\uï cuturh8,
:6< 7B<=5 tëh.

Bg cuturh, pubs
pubs sb suphmb qub bs julmdh tõ tb fljbs klyhr
klyhr...
... gh qub
pubdbs sbr 7sokugtìmbh= gh qub quobrbs sbr (--=) y mh jhmsoùbs.
:6> 7F<=5 ¡Lf!, yh vhy l sbr klyhr, mh ehdls 7 /sokugtìmbh=. ¸Fly lg`h kìs
qub bstudolr8
:60 7F<=5 _h kb vhy l fljbr vbmdbdhr db plüubghs, so pubdh. Db nlrrbmdb-
rh, qub jrbh qub bs bg cuturh db ghs noúgh`hs.
:66 7B>=5 ¡Helgì tb pudobrls kbtbr db nlrrbmdbrh!
:6? 7F<=5 Korl, kb plrbjb qub lg 󿬌mlg mhs thjlrì vbmdbr mubstrh
mubstrh jubrph bm
uml bsquoml 7rosls=.
:?9 7F:=5 Bg këh, jhkh mh sbl plrl trlspglmtb, mh sï 7rosls=.
:?< 7F<=5 ¡Ehdbr! ¡\uï phjl bstokl, tëh! 7 cìtojh ; dudl=... Flnglmdh db
thdh um phjh, qub ghs prhngbkls db prìjtojls db 7 mhknrb prh-
poh= Nohgh`ël 7 /mhknrb prhpoh=, mhs vl... mhs vl l pbreudojlr
tlknoïm l gl fhrl db tbmbr uml slgodl glnhrlg, ¸mh8... Zo bs qub
fly lgùml.
Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël
LGJLODB GL^L, B. (<??0)5 «Ghs hpbrldhrbs db khdlgodld±, bm J.
CRBMTBZ
CRBM TBZ ^HD^Ë@RBU (bd.)5 Om Omtrhd
trhduj
ujjoú
joúmm tb
tbúr
úrojl
ojl l gl prl`
prl`kì-
kì-
tojl gom`÷ëstojl, Zbvoggl, Dbplrtlkbmth db Coghgh`ël bsplühgl, pp.
0:-63.
LRZTOM, E. (<?6>)5 Ylglnrls y ljjohmbs. Júkh fljbr jhsls jhm plglnrls,
Nubmhs Lorbs, Ylodús.
N×FGB^,
T.L. A.
DOEA, T.L. (<?00)5Tbhrël
vlm(<?04)5 Tbxth dbg gbmùlebZbkìmtojl
y jhmtbxth. , Kldrod, Lgolmzl.
y prl`kìtojl
prl` kìtojl dbg dosjur-
dos jur-
sh. Kldrod, Jìtbdrl, <??2.
JB^SHMO, E. (<?60)5 G‟ïmhmjol tohm, Ylrës, YRC.
G‟ïmhmjoltohm
CRBMTBZ ^HD^Ë@RBU, J. y B.^. LGJLODB GL^L (<??3)5 Gl bxprb-
soúm db gl khdlgodld bm bg flngl db Zbvoggl , Zbvoggl, Lyumtlkobmth db
Zbvoggl.
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg ??
@L^JËL MB@^HMO, K. y K. TH^DBZOGGLZ JHGLDH (>99<)5 Gl bmum- bmum-

joljoúm bm gl gbmùl, Kldrod, @rbdhs.
@L^ÔDH KBDOML,
KBDOML, E. (<???)5 «Ghs ljths db flngl. Gls hrljohmbs okpbrl-
tovls±, bm O. NHZ\RB y S. DBKHMTB (jhkps.)5 @rlkìtojl dbsjropto-
vl db gl gbmùl bsplühgl, Kldrod, Bsplsl-Jlgpb, pp. :60?-:?>6.
@L^ÔDH, E. (<?66)5 «Yrbsuphsojoúm b okpgojlturl5 gúòjl db gl jhmvbrsl-
joúm±, bm E. @L^ÔDH (bd)5 Gúòjl y gom`÷ëstojl, Kldrod, Zëmtbsos, pp.
<:0-<32.
@ÔJB, F.Y. (<?02)5 «Ghòj lmd jhmvbrsltohm±, bm Y. JHGB, y E.G. KH^-
@LM pp.Zomtlx
(bds.)5
koj Yrbss, 4<-26.lmd sbklmtojs, :5 Zpbbjf ljts, Mubvl _hra,
_hra, Ljldb-
@RTOÏ^^BU H^DÚÜBU, Z. (<?6?)5 Omtrhd
Omtrhdujjoúm
ujjoúm l gl sbkìmtojl cumjoh-
mlg, Kldrod, Zëmtbsos.
FB^KHZH, L. y D. KBGGLDH (<??0)5 «Khdlgodld y sunebtovodld±, bm
J. CRBMTBZ ^HD^Ë@RBU (bd.)5 Omtrhd Omtrhdujjoúm
ujjoúm tbúrojl
tbúrojl l gl
gl prl`kìtojl
prl`kìtojl
gom`÷ëstojl, Zbvogg
Zbvoggl,
l, Dbplrtlkbmth db Coghgh`ël bsplühgl, pp. 2:-34.
ELAHNZHM, ^. (<?39)5 Gom`÷ëstojl y phïtojl,
phïtojl, Kldrod, Jìtbdrl, <?6<.
AB^N^LT-H^BJJFOHMO, J. (<?63)5 Gl bmumjoljoúm. Db gl sunebtovodld
bm bg gbmùleb, Nubmhs Lorbs, Fljfbttb.
GÚYBU @L^JËL, L. (dor.) (<??<)5 Gbmùl bsplühgl,
bsplühgl, Slgbmjol, BJO^.
GHULMH. E., J. YBÜL. y @. LNÔG (<?6>)5 Lmìgosos dbg dosjursh
dosjursh, Kldrod,
Jìtbdrl.J. (<?66)5 «Gl khdlgodld±, bm ^CB , GVSOOO, pp. ?0-<<0.
HTLHGL,
^B_BZ, @. (<?64)5 Yhgochmël tbxtulg. Gl jotljoúm bm bg rbglth, Kldrod, @rbdhs.
ZBL^GB, E.^. (<??4)5 Ljths db flngl. Bmslyh
Bmslyh db 󿬌ghshcël dbg gbmùleb, Kl-
drod, Jìtbdrl.
ULSLDOG, N. (<?36)5 «Kbdohs bxprbsovh db gl jltb`hrël db khdlgodld bm
bsplühg±, bm Onbrh
Onbrh-lkbrojlml Yrl`bmsol, >, pp. 20-63.
-lkbrojlml Yrl`bmsol
Nongoh`rlcël
jhkpgbkbmtlrol
LGHMZH-JH^TÏZ, L. (<???)5 «Gls jhmstrujjohmbs bxjglkltovls. Gl om-
tbrebjjoúm y gls bxprbsohmbs vhjltovls±, bm O. NHZ\RB y S. DBKHMTB
pp.@rlkìtojl
(jhkps.)5
Jlgpb, :??:-4929.dbsjroptovl db gl gbmùl bsplühgl, Kldrod, Bsplsl-
NRZTHZ, B. (<?63)5 Yrl`kìtojl dbg bsplühg. Mb`ljoúm, julmto 󿬌jljoúm
jljoúm y
khdh, Kldrod, RMBD.
JL^NHMB^H JLMH, Y. (<?69)5 «L󿬌rkljoúm, mb`ljoúm, dudl±, bm ^BG,
<9-<, pp. <3<-<02.
DRJ^HT
DRJ^H T, H. (<?0>)5 Dbjor y mh dbjor , Nlrjbghml, Lml`rlkl.
————— (<?64)5 Bg dbjor y gh dojfh, Nubmhs Lorbs, Fljfbttb.

BZJLMDBGG, K.S. (<???)5 «Ghs bmumjoldhs omtbrrh`ltovhs. Lspbjths sb-
kìmtojhs y prl`kìtojhs±, bm O. NHZ\RB y S. DBKHMTB (jhkps.)5
@rlkìtojl dbsjroptovl db gl gbmùl bsplühgl, Kldrod, Bsplsl-Jlgpb,
pp. :?>?-:??>.
CRBMTBZ ^HD^Ë@RBU,
^HD^Ë@RBU, J. (<?60)5 «Bg vbrnh db bmumjoljoú
bmumjoljoúm±,
m±, bm Sbrnl,
<4, pp. <4?-<30.
————— (<??<)5 «Ldvbrnohs db khdlgodld±, bm Sbrnl, <6, pp. >02-:><.
        
bm ^BZGL, 0, pp. ?:-<96.
————— (<??4)5 «Yhgochmël y lrùkbmtljoúm5 ghs ldvbrnohs db vbrdld, jbr-
tbzl, sbùrodld y bvodbmjol bm bsplühg±, bm Gbxos, pp. 2?-6:.
Gbxos
@O^ÚM LGJHMJFBG, E.G. (<??<)5 Tobkph, khdlgodld y ldvbrnoh, Zlgl-
klmjl, Rmovbrsodld db Zlglklmjl.
@HMUÌGBU JLGSH,
JLGSH, E.K. (<?6?)5 «L prhpúsoth db ghs ldvbrnohs y ghjujoh-
ghjuj oh-
mbs db dudl±, bm Yfoghghòjl OO. Fhkbmleb l D. L. Gghrbmtb, Zlglklmjl,
pp. <4?-<3<.
AHSLJJO, H. (<?63)5 Bstudohs db `rlkìtojl bsplühgl, Nubmhs Lorbs,
Fljfbttb.
————— (<???)5 «Bg ldvbrnoh±
l dvbrnoh± bm O. NHZ\RB
NH Z\RB y S.
S. DBKHMTB (jhkps.)5
(jh kps.)5
dbsjroptovl db gl gbmùl bsplühgl, Kldrod, Bsplsl-Jlgpb, pp.
@rlkìtojl dbsjroptovl
092-063.
KL^TËM UH^^L\ROMH, K.L. (<??<)5 «Ylrtëjugls y khdlgodld±, bm Gbxo-
jhm dbr rhklmostosjfbm Gomùostoa , SO, Tunom`l, Mobkbybr, pp. <<9-<>4.
ZYB^NB^, D. y D. POGZHM (<??4)5 Gl rbgbvlmjol
rbgbvlmjol, Kldrod,
Kl drod, Soshr.
Soshr.
SLGDÏZ SOGGLMRBS
SOGG LMRBSL, L, G. (<??<)5 Gl nõsqubdl db 󿬌jldh, Rmovbrso-
db so`mo 󿬌
dld db Kurjol-Tbjmhs.
SO@L^L TLRZTB, L.K. (<??<)5 «Gl cumjohm cìtojl dbg gbmùleb±, bm Ljtls
dbg Jhm`rbsh db gl Zhjobdld Bsplühgl db Gom`÷ëstojl, VV Lmovbrslroh ,
OO, Kldrod, @rbdhs, pp. <966-<9?0.
ULSLDOG, N. (<?36)5 «Kbdohs bxprbsovhs db gl jltb`hrël db khdlgodld bm
bsplühg±, bm Onbrh
Onbrh-lkbrojlml Yrl`bmsol, >, pp. 20-63.
-lkbrojlml Yrl`bmsol
Ljtovodldbs
<) Zbülgl bm bsths tbxths
tbxths gl cumjoúm
cumjoúm h cumjohmbs
cumjohmbs gom`÷ëstojls prbdhko-
mlmtbs, bg ljth h ghs ljths db flngl y bg toph db khdlgodld hrljohmlg
qub prbdhkoml5
l) Trltlkobmth5 Mom`õm lmtonoútojh bs jlplz db vbmjbr l ghs vorus,
phr gh qub ghs cìrkljhs qub tb prbsjronl bg kïdojh (lmlg`ïsojhs y
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <9<
lmtotïrkojhs) orìm dbstomldhs l kbehrlr ghs sëmthkls,

s ëmthkls, pbrh mh l trltlr
bg rbscroldh bm së. Mh utogojbs `htls mlslgbs kìs db trbs dëls phrqub lg
dbelrgls tb prhvhjlrì klyhr hnstrujjoúm mlslg.
n) Mh sï, sobmth qub lggë fly lg`h kìs, qub gls
gls ogusohmbs mh sb crbmlm jhm
jbkbmth. Gl guz bs htrl jhsl, thdh. Tlknoïm fly lg`h omclmtog5 jheh
bg nlrjh y lg bmtrlr phr julgquobr pubrth kb sobmth nobm, kb sobmth um
fhknrb qub chrkl plrtb db gl mlturlgbzl.
j) Lumqub mldob quosobrl bdotlr ko kõsojl, l kë kë kb dlrël oùlg1 yh vhy
l sbùor y lumqub sbl gl rb`lgh. Dbg prokbr vhgukbm `ghnlg fojb >99
jhpols, y dbg qub `rlnï bm Ghmdrbs, 299. _ mh ghs vbmdë, ghs rb`lgï.
d) ^lto bs um rltúm qub ldbkìs db sbr kuy lmtopìtojh bs um lnusúm.
Sbrïos gh qub fozh lqubg dël. ^bsugtl qub gl `ltl Kozo bstlnl
prbplrlmdh um rojh trhzh db qubsh plrl kbrbmdlr, julmdh ^lto, qub
plslnl phr lggë, cub y ¡zls!, gb lrrbnltú bg qubsh y slgoú jhrrobmdh jhm
ïg ¡\uï dbsjhmshgldl sb qubdú gl phnrb Kozo! Julmdh sb gh jhmtú l
sus dhs fbrklmhs pbqubühs, ïsths sb bmcldlrhm kujfh. _ umh doeh5
‚¡^lto sb vl l ljhrdlr
ljhrdlr db bsth1 mh tb lpurbs y yl vbrìs gl qub vlkhs
l prbplrlr!
‚¡Gl vbm`lmzl sbrì tbrrongb! ‚lüldb bg htrh fbrklmh
fbrklmh - ¡Kbmudhs
¡Kbmudhs
shkhs mhshtrhs julmdh mhs bmcldlkhs!
>) Cëeltb lfhrl
lfhrl bm gl khdlgodld db bmumjoldh,
bmumjoldh, ghs prhjbdokobmths gom-
`÷ëstojhs db khdlgozljoúm y gl omchrkljoúm okpgëjotl5
b) Jhmhjë l Dlmobg julmdh yh tbmël <2 lühs. Ïg tbmël >9. Brl um jfojh
       
     
omvotlnl l jbmlr, kb shrprbmdël ggbvìmdhkb l jbmlr l sotohs prbjohshs.
Bvodbmtbkbmtb, mh tlrdï kujfh bm bmlkhrlrkb y jlbr rbmdodl l sus
pobs. Bkpbzlkhs l slgor l bsjhmdodls, kos pldrbs mh slnëlm mldl
db gh mubstrh (mh gh funobrlm bmtbmdodh). Dbspuïs db vlrohs kbsbs
hjugtlmdh mubstrl rbgljoúm y komtobmdh jhmstlmtbkbmtb, dbjodë sljlr l
gl guz mubstrl rbgljoúm. Q...[ Dhs lühs kìs tlrdb db bkpbzlr l slgor kb
qubdï bknlrlzldl. Dlmobg sb bkpbüú bm qub gh qub dbnëlkhs fljbr
brl jlslrmhs, pbrh kos pldrbs, phr htrh gldh, omtbmtlnlm jhmvbmjbrkb
db gh jhmtrlroh. Dbjëlm qub bg moüh y yh phdëlkhs vovor jhm bgghs, qub
kb lyudlrëlm l juodlrgh. Ybrh lg 󿬌mlg, Dlmobg y yh mhs jlslkhs. Q...[
_h slnël qub bg kltrokhmoh bxo`ël um sljro 󿬌joh phr plrtb db lknhs,
pbrh mh pbmsï qub ljlnlrl sobmdh tlm durh...
c) Bquogonrl tu hr`lmoskh.
hr`lmoskh. Ylrl klmtbmbr
klmtbmbr tu rotkh votlg
votlg bs mbjbslroh qub
lsokogbs thdhs ghs mutrobmtbs qub omòbrbs bm tu dobtl. _ bsh súgh bs
            
fbkhs jrbldh Kìsvotlg prbnoútojh1 phrqub ghs lgokbmths prbnoútojhs
        
<9> Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

Thklmdh jldl dël Kìsvotlg tb sbmtorìs jhkh mubvh, kìs ggbmh db
vodl.
`) Bg khmhpltëm BgbjtrojTKV> db Zflrpbr Okl`b bstì lg movbg db
gls jrbljohmbs db dosbüh b om`bmobrël kìs mhvbdhsls y clsjomlmtbs
qub fb vosth. Tobmb um bspgïmdodh jubrph db lgukomoh jhm gëmbls
bgb`lmtbs, nltbrël db fodrurh db mëqubg y um khthr phdbrhsh. Bg khthr
bs sogbmjohsh y jhkpljth ¡ghs jurohshs sb prbùmtlrìm júkh pubdb
sbr qub su khmhpltëm tbm`l sbkbelmtb bcbjth turnh! Zunl l nhrdh,
suebtb ghs klmunrohs y torb dbg ljbgbrldhr db vbghjodld. Gls rubdls db
phgourbtlmh db 2 pug`ldls sb dbsgozlrìm sulvbkbmtb shnrb jheombtbs.
Ylrl dbtbmbrsb, sokpgbkbmtb posb bg crbmh trlsbrh jhm dosphsotovh db
prhtbjjoúm.
Gl klrjfl jhm rubdl gonrb mh súgh bs dovbrtodl somh tlknoïm
tlknoïm prìjtojl5
gb pbrkotb or flstl dhmdb dbsbb y, so jhmsukb thdl gl nltbrël, mh
fly prhngbkl phrqub bg V> sb bkpuel jhm gl koskl cljogodld qub
julgquobr htrh khmhpltëm trldojohmlg l pob.
Zb jlr`l
jlr`l phr jhkpgbth
jhkpgbth bm dhs fhrls y kbdol,
kbdol, dbpbmdobmdh
dbpbmdobmdh db gl
dbsjlr`l lmtbrohr y cumjohml lprhxokldlkbmtb durlmtb 49 komuths.
Zb omjguyb um jlr`ldhr y um bmjfucb.
:) Zbülgl gls prbsuphsojohmbs qub sb om󿬌brbm db ghs soùobmtbs totuglrbs
db prbmsl5
@lzprhk vubgvb l ljuslr l Aobv db rhnlr `ls kobmtrls Otlgol lfhrrl lmtb
gl hgl db crëh.
Ghs sbjubstrldhrbs db ghs dhs bsplühgbs klmtobmbm su kutoskh l pbslr
db gl kbdoljoúm db ghs `hnobrmhs.
Ghs prhmústojhs prbvïm uml kbehrël `bmbrlgozldl dbg tobkph db jlrl lg
󿬌m db sbklml.
4) ¸Yhdrëls sbülglr quï
quï kìxokl
kìxokl sb vohgl bm jldl jlsh8
Gl rlzúm db qub gl `bmtb `hrdl sbl kìs cbgoz bs qub gl `rlsl lrrhpl sus
mbrvohs (Gujolmh Ylv
Ylvlrhtto).
lrhtto).
¸Rml dobtl bquogonrldl so`mo󿬌jl jhkbr um nhggh db jrbkl bm jldl klmh8
(Fhkbr Zokpshm).
Rml kuebr ljhkplül l su klrodh lg kïdojh. Dbspuïs dbg jfbqubh, bg dhjthr
gl
Zo gglkl l shgls
mh fljb l su dbspljfh
gh soùobmtb, y gbjldl
khrorì5 dojb5dël,
«Zuprbpìrbgb
klrodh tobmb um bstrïsslmh,
um dbslyumh fhrrongb.
uml
jhkodl bquogonrldl y uml jbml bspbjolg. Mh gb l`hnob jhm tlrbls dhkïstojls.
Mh gb jubmtb sus prhngbkls mo dosjutl phr mldl. Lmëkbgb l vbr dbphrtbs bm
gl tbgbvosoúm. Yúm`lsb rhpl omtbrohr sbxy, fl`l bg lkhr jhm ïg vlrols vbjbs l
gl sbklml y sltoscl`l sus jlprojfhs±. Db vubgtl l jlsl, bg klrodh gb prbùmtl
quï gb fl dojfh bg kïdojh. Bggl gb rbsphmdb5 \ub tb vls l khror.
2. G󰁬 󰁪󰁨󰁦󰁢󰁺󰁯ú󰁭
2.<. Bg jhmjbpth db «jhfbsoúm±
Gl jhfbsoúm bs gl prhpobdld qub fljb rbcbrbmjol l gls rbgljohmbs qub
klmtobmbm gls umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls bm bg ìknoth tbxtulg. Gl jhfbsoúm tobmb
qub vbr jhm gl jhmjrbjoúm gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth, jhm su bxostbmjol jhkh bg
prhdujth db um ljth db bmumjoljoúm phr plrtb db um flnglmtb qub, plrl su
omtbrljjoúm jhkumojltovl, dbjodb utogozlr uml gbmùl mlturlg jhkh shphrtb
nìsojh y jhkh júdo`h bm bg qub bxprbslr um dbtbrkomldh jhmtbmodh.
jhmtbmodh. Bg dbs-
junrokobmth db gl jhfbsoúm bs, l su vbz, bg prokbr plsh qub dl bg dbstomltlroh
bm su prhjbsh jhkprbmsovh-omtbrprbtlto
jhkprbmsovh-omtbrprbtltovh
vh pubs bs l plrtor db gl rbjbpjoúm
r bjbpjoúm dbg
kltbrolg vbrnlg julmdh dbnbrì phmbr bm cumjohmlkobmth thdls sus flnogodl-
dbs jhkpbtbmjolgbs plrl omtbmtlr rbjhmstruor bg so`mo󿬌jldh dbg flnglmtb.
Gl jhfbsoúm bs uml prhpobdld tbxtulg qub dl phr supubsth qub ghs flnglm-
tbs db uml gbmùl phsbbm jhmhjokobmths gom`÷ëstojh-`rlkltojlgbs
gom`÷ëstojh-`rlkltojlgbs su󿬌jobmtbs
jhkh plrlGlphdbr
mojltovl. jhdo󿬌som
jhfbsoúm, jlr bknlr`h,
vbrnlgkbmtb um rb
mh sb jhmtbmodh
󿬌brb l glsy rb`gls
uml omtbmjoúm jhku-
qub doro`bm gl
hr`lmozljoúmm db uml gbmùl l mov
hr`lmozljoú movbg
bg hrljohmlg h l movbg
movbgbs
bs omcbrohrbs. Gl jhfb-
soúm sb rb󿬌brb l thdh bg jhmeumth db kbjlmoskhs qub phsbb uml gbmùl plrl
hr`lmozlr bg movbg tbxtulg.
Bm bg tbxth cumdljohmlg db Flggodly y Flsslm Q<?03[ Jhfbsohm om Bm-
`gosf, sb dlm lgùmls db gls jglvbs qub flm sbrvodh phstbrohrkbmtb jhkh
pumth db plrtodl plrl gl db󿬌mojoúm dbg jhmjbpth db jhfbsoúm ‚jubstohmlmdh
bm kujfls hjlsohmbs bstb jhmjbpth‚ y plrl gl dbtbrkomljoúm db ghs kbjlmos-
khs jhmjrbths bm ghs qub ïstl sb klmo󿬌bstl. Ylrl bsths luthrbs, jhkh vokhs
lg flnglr db gls prhpobdldbs dbg tbxth, gl jhmdojoúm db sbr tbxth, gl tbxturl,
rldojl, prbjoslkbmtb, bm gl jhfbsoúm bmtrb sus jhkphmbmtbs. Gl jhfbsoúm
sbrël
tbxtulgbgdb
cbmúkbmh jglvb
um jhmeumth db lhrljohmbs.
plrtor dbg«Rm
julgtbxth
phdrël dbtbrkomlrsb
bs um gl mlturlgbzl
plsleb db dosjursh ‚l󿬌r-
klm Flggodly y Flsslm (<?035 >:)‚ qub bs jhfbrbmtb bm bsths dhs lspbjths5
bs jhfbrbmtb rbspbjth l së koskh y, phr tlmth, jhfbsovh. Bs jhfbrbmtb jhm
rbspbjth lg jhmtbxth db sotuljoúm y, phr tlmth, jhmsostbmtb bm julmth lg rbòs-
trh±. Gl jhfbsoúm bs, plrl bsths luthrbs, uml jhmdojoúm okprbsjomdongb plrl
gl bxostbmjol db gl jhfbrbmjol1 bs uml prhpobdld qub dbnb bstlr bm bg tbxth db

klmbrl qub gl odbmto󿬌jljoúm db gl jhfbsoúm bs dbtbrkomlmtb plrl dbjodor sh-
nrb gl mlturlgbzl dosjursovl h tbxtulg db uml sbrob db hrljohmbs. Tbmbr «tbxtu-
rl± bs gh qub docbrbmjol um tbxth db gh qub mh gh bs, y gl tbxturl sb klmo󿬌bstl
phr gl bxostbmjol bm bg tbxth db glzhs ‚tobs‚ jhfbsovhs qub fljbm phsongb gls
rbgljohmbs sbkìmtojls bmtrb umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls.
Bg prhngbkl dbg pglmtblkobmth db Flggodly y Flsslm bs gl jhmjbpjoúm
bxjbsovlkbmt
bxjbso vlkbmtbb bstìtojl qub sb dl l bstb cbmúkbmh, lsë jhkh bg fbjfh db qub
fl`l dbsjlmslr shnrb gl jhfbsoúm prìjtojlkbmtb thdl gl rbsphmslnogodld sh-
nrb gl mlturlgbzl tbxtulg db um crl`kbmth. Jhkh fbkhs phdodh jhkprhnlr lg
bstudolr gl jhfbrbmjol,
qub dbtbrkomlm mh shm súgh
gl jhkprbmsoúm cbmúkbmhs
db um tbxth. Bg db mlturlgbzl gom`÷ëstojl
jhmhjokobmth dbg kumdhghs
db
ghs omtbrghjuthrbs, gl sotuljoúm db jhkumojljoúm b omjgush bg prhpoh tbxth vlm
jhm󿬌ùrlmdh y khdbglmdh bg prhjbsh db dhtljoúm db sbmtodh phr plrtb db ghs
flnglmtbs. Rml vosoúm kìs domìkojl plrbjb okphmbrsb bm bg lmìgosos db gl
jhfbsoúm tbxtulg qub rblgozlm Nblu`rlmdb y Drbssgbr (<?6<). Ylrl bsths lu-
thrbs gl jhfbsoúm tobmb qub vbr, bm bcbjth, jhm gls dbpbmdbmjols `rlkltojlgbs
qub sb dlm bm bg tbxth, pbrh, pumtulgozlm, «mh bs dbjosovl bm së koskl bm gl
omtbrprbtljoúm db um tbxth±. Gl jhfbsoúm tobmb qub vbr jhm bg prhjbslkobmth
tbxtulg bm gl kbdodl bm gl qub ghs cbmúkbmhs bm ghs qub sb klmo󿬌bstl pbrko-
tbm bjhmhkozlr y bstlnogozlr bg tbxth y,
y, phr tlmth, cljogotlm bg lgkljbmlkobmth
db omchrkljoúm y bg prhjbslkobmth qub db ïstl tobmbm qub ggbvlr l jlnh ghs
flnglmtbs. Lsë vostl, gl jhfbsoúm dhtl lg tbxth db um tbeodh gom`÷ëstojh pbrh
mh bs gl bxostbmjol db bsb tbeodh gh qub `lrlmtozl su mlturlgbzl db tbxth mo gh
qub gb dl jhfbrbmjol. Bm rblgodld phdrëlkhs l󿬌rklr soùobmdh l Nbrmìrdbz
(<??25 >3) qub «ghs cbmúkbmhs jhfbsovhs bxostbm, pbrh bg tbxth mh bs jhfb-
rbmtb phrqub tbm`l cbmúkbmhs jhfbsovhs, somh phrqub ghs cbmúkbmhs jhfbso-
vhs lplrbjbm jhkh jhmsbjubmjol dbg jlrìjtbr jhfbrbmtb dbg tbxth±.
Yhdrëlkhs dbjor,
dbjor, pubs, qub gl jhfbsoúm bs gl prhpobdld qub fljb rbcbrbm-
jol lg tbeodh gom`÷ëstojh dbg tbxth, qub su prbsbmjol bm um tbxth mh `lrlmtozl
qub ïstb vlyl l sbr jhkprbmdodh lumqub, dbsdb gub`h, cljogotl kujfh bg jl-
komh dbg rbjbpthr, y qub bs gl thtlgodld dbg prhjbsh db omtbrjlknoh jhku-
mojltovh y gl pubstl bm eub`h db htrls prhpobdldbs tbxtulgbs ‚jhkh gl jhfb-
rbmjol h gl ldbjuljoúm jhmtbxtulg‚
jhmtbxtulg‚ gh qub 󿬌mlgkbmtb dlm jlrtl db mlturlgbzl
tbxtulg-dosjursov
tbxtulg-dosj ursovll l um dbtbrkomldh sb`kbmth db dosjursh bsjroth h flngldh.
2.>. Gls rbgljohmbs jhfbsovls5 prhpubstls
prhpubstls tbúrojls y jrotbrohs db jglso 󿬌jljoúm
Ghs prhngbkls shnrb gl jhfbsoúm y gls dovbr`bmjols sur`bm mh súgh lg
bstlngbjbr gls rbgljohmbs jhm gl jhfbrbmjol, somh l gl fhrl db jglso 󿬌jlr y
hrdbmlr juìgbs shm ghs cbmúkbmhs jhmjrbths, gls umodldbs qub bstlngbjbm
bsls rbgljohmbs l gls qub gglklkhs jhfbsovls
jhfb sovls lsë jhkh l gl fhrl db db󿬌mor gl
mlturlgbzl koskl db bsls rbgljohmbs (Tltoghm, <?69).
Flggodly y Flsslm, (<?035 4) db󿬌mobrhm gl jhfbsoúm jhkh uml prhpobdld
qub jhmsostb bm gl lplrojoúm bm um tbxth db dbtbrkomldhs bgbkbmths qub mbjbso-
tlm db htrhs plrl phdbr sbr omtbrprbtldhs. «Gl jhfbsoúm hjurrb julmdh gl omtbr-
prbtljoúm db lg`õm bgbkbmth bm bg dosjursh dbpbmdb db htrh. Rmh prbsuphmb lg
htrh db klmbrl qub mh pubdb sbr jhrrbjtlkbmtb dbsjhdo󿬌jldh so mh sb rbjurrb
l ïg±. Gl prbsbmjol bm bg tbxth db bshs bgbkbmths y gl rbgljoúm qub sb bstlngbjb
bmtrb bgghs bs gh qub sb jhmsodbrl jhfbsovh. Yhr su plrtb, ghs gom`÷ostls kìs
omtbrbsldhs bm bxpgojlr gl jhfbsoúm jhkh uml klmocbstljoúm db gl jhfbrbmjol
pusobrhm bg ljbmth bm htrh fbjfh tlknoïm okpgojldh bm gl jhfbsoúm jhkh bs
gl rbpbtojoúm. Gl rbpbtojoúm h rbjurrbmjol shm plrl Ybtó󿬌 (<?06) h Nbrmìrdbz
(<?6>) ghs cbmúkbmhs qub fljbm qub um tbxth pubdl jhmsodbrlrsb jhfbsohmldh
y jhfbrbmtb. Bg fbjfh db qub l gh glr`h db um tbxth sb rbotbrb um dbtbrkomldh
so`mo󿬌jldh tobmb kujfh qub vbr jhm bg ush db dbtbrkomldhs bgbkbmths gom-
`÷ëstojhs qub fljbm phsongb bg bstlngbjokobmth db bstls jldbmls db rbgljohmbs l
trlvïs db gls julgbs trlsjurrb bg so`mo󿬌jldh dbg tbxth.
Ybrh, ldbkìs, tlmth Flggodly y Flsslm jhkh gl klyhrël db ghs gom`÷ostls
omtbrbsldhs bm ghs cbmúkbmhs db jhfbsoúm flm sbülgldh tlknoïm gl bxostbm-
jol db htrh toph db rbgljohmbs juyh hnebtovh bs gl hr`lmozljoúm dbg prhpoh
bmumjoldh, bs dbjor, bg bstlngbjokobmth db jhrrbsphmdbmjols bmtrb dostomths
sb`kbmths dbg dosjursh kbdolmtb umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls y qub tlknoïm prh-
phrjohmlm jhfbsoúm lg tbxth. Zhm gls rbgljohmbs dbmhkomldls db jhmeumjoúm
h jhmbxoúm.
Yhr htrl plrtb, bsths koskhs luthrbs (Flggodly y Flsslm, <?035 2-3) yl
sbülglrhm qub gl rbgljoúm sbkìmtojl qub bxpgojl gl jhfbsoúm sb klmo 󿬌bstl l
trlvïs dbg sostbkl gïxojh-`rlkltojlg
gïxojh-`rlkltojlg db uml gbmùl, bsth bs, bm plrtb l trlvïs
db gl `rlkìtojl y bm plrtb l trlvïs dbg vhjlnuglroh, db lfë qub docbrbmjobm,
phr uml plrtb, gl jhfbsoúm gïxojl, phr htrl, gl jhfbsoúm `rlkltojlg y,
y, bm tbrjbr
gu`lr,, gl jhmeumjoúm, qub plrl bgghs hjuplrël um gu`lr bmtrb lknls pubs, bm su
gu`lr
hpomoúm, bs um prhjbdokobmth bm plrtb gïxojh y bm plrtb `rlkltojlg.
Gls prhpubstls db jglso󿬌jljoúm y hr`lmozljoúm db ghs cbmúkbmhs jhfbsovhs
shm kuy mukbrhsls y dovbr`bmtbs. L plrtor db gl prhpubstl db Flggodly y Fls-
slm db jglso󿬌jlr
‚sustotujoúm, ghs cbmúkbmhs
bgopsos, jhfbsovhs bmy jhfbsoúm
rbcbrbmjol, jhmeumjoúm jomjh tophs db bmgljbs
gïxojl‚ jhfbsovhs
flm sodh mukb-
rhsls gls prhpubstls y ghs jrotbrohs db jglso󿬌jljoúm. Bm bg jlsh dbg bsplühg, gls
pohmbrls cubrhm gls db Nbrmìrdbz (<?6>) y Lgnlgldbeh y @lrjël Nbrroh (<?6>)
ùoldls phr bg jrotbroh jhkõm db khstrlr ghs cbmúkbmhs jhfbsovhs jhkh gl
klmocbstljoúm bm supbr󿬌job db gl jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg prhcumdl qub jlrljtbrozl
l ghs tbxths. Kìs rbjobmtbkbmtb, trlnlehs jhkh ghs db Jltlgoml Cubmtbs (<?60),
Fuknbrth Kbdbrhs (<?66) ‚som dudl bg kìs jhkpgbth y bxflustovh shnrb gl
jhfbsoúm bm bsplühg‚, Fbrmìm Rrrutol (<??9), Lzmlr,
Lzmlr, Jrhs y \uomtlml (<??<),
Jlsldh Sbglrdb (<??:), bm bg jlsh dbg bsplühg, h ô`lu (<?6<), Guml (<??9),
Slgduvë (<??<), Jlstbggé (<??>), Jhmjl y htrhs (<??6), Nhrdhms y htrhs (<??6)
bm bg jlsh dbg jltlgìm, flm rbvosldh y rblgozldh prhpubstls shnrb bg lmìgosos db
gl jhfbsoúm tbxtulg jhm uml bmhrkb dosplrodld
dosplrodld db jrotbrohs tlmth bm gh qub sb rb-
󿬌brb lg prhpoh jhmjbpth db jhfbsoúm jhkh, bm jhmsbjubmjol, bm ghs promjopohs
jglso󿬌jlthrohs db ghs tophs db cbmúkbmhs.
Bm mubstrh jlsh, y tbmobmdh bm jubmtl thdhs ghs lspbjths qub sbülgl-
khs kìs lrronl, vlkhs l jglso󿬌jlr gls rbgljohmbs jhfbsovls bm dhs `rlm-
dbs `ruphs, tbmobmdh bm jubmtl gh qub jhmsodbrlkhs jhm htrhs luthrbs
jhkh Jlstbggé (<??>) h Jhmjl (<??6) ghs cbmúkbmhs jhfbsovhs nìsojhs5
<) ^bgljohmbs jhfbsov
jhfbsovls
ls nlsldls bm gl rbcbrbmjol y gl rbpbtojoúm.
>) ^bgljohmbs jhfbsov
jhfbsovls
ls nlsldls bm gl jhmbxoúm.
Zb trltl, phr htrl plrtb, db jhmjbpths qub flm bstldh dbsdb bg promjopoh
            
shnrb gl jhfbsoúm y bm ghs qub, bm mubstrl hpomoúm, sb rbsukbm y bm`ghnlm
ghs prhjbdokobmths qub fljbm phsongb bg tbeodh gom`÷ëstojh qub prhphrjohml
jhfbsoúm tbxtulg.
2.>.<. ^bgljohmbs jhfbsovls

jhfbsovls nlsldls bm gl rbcbrbmjol y gl rbpbtojoúm
Zo phdbkhs flnglr db rbcbrbmjol l gl fhrl db bstlngbjbr tophs db rbgljoh-
mbs bmtrb umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls bs phrqub uml db gls cumjohmbs kìs crbjubmtbs
db ghs so`mhs gom`÷ëstojhs bs gl db sbülglr, lpumtlr fljol lg`õm hnebth, sbr h
ljhmtbjokobmth db gl rblgodld bxtrlgom`÷ëstojl. Kbdolmtb gl cumjoúm rbcbrbm-
jolg h rbprbsbmtltovl
rbprbsbmtltovl jhkh yl vokhs, bg gbmùleb jbmtrl su ltbmjoúm bm bg kum-
dh rblg (N÷fgbr, Elahnshm). Zblrgb (<?695 :2) dbmhkomú «bxprbsoúm rbcbrbm-
jolg± l «julgquobr bxprbsoúm qub sorvl plrl odbmto󿬌jlr lgùml jhsl, prhjbsh,
bvbmth, ljjoúm h julgquobr htrh `ïmbrh db omdovoduh h plrtojuglr±. ^bcbrorsb
so`mo󿬌jl bm nubml kbdodl «dbpbmdbr db±, «bstlr rbgljohmldh db chrkl dorbj-
tl jhm±. Julmdh utogozlkhs gl rbcbrbmjolgodld omtbmtlkhs lsbùrlrmhs db qub
bg rbjbpthr bstì omtbrprbtlmdh bg so`mo󿬌jldh db mubstrls plglnrls súgh «bm rb-
gljoúm jhm±, lmjglmdh, phr tlmth, bg dosjursh, bm um bspljoh-tobkph mbjbslroh
plrl gl jhkprbmsoúm dbg kbmsleb. «Gl rbcbrbmjolgodld ‚l 󿬌rkl Nbmvbmostb‚
bs plrtb omtb`rlmtb db gl bmumjoljoúm (<?045 62)± phrqub mubstrhs bmumjol-
dhs sobkprb bstìm rbcbrodhs l gl rblgodld jhmtbxtulg bm gl qub sb prhdujbm y
tobmbm jhkh pumth db plrtodl bsbmjolg gl phsojoúm dbg flnglmtb. Julmdh bm um
dosjursh kìs db uml umodld gom`÷ëstojl sb rb 󿬌brb lg koskh hnebth dbg kumdh
bxtrlgomùëstojh dbjokhs qub shm jhrrbcbrbmjolgbs. Gl jhrrbcbrbmjolgodld h

odbmtodld db rbcbrbmtb yl cub sbülgldl phr Flggodly y Flsslm jhkh umh db
ghs prhjbdokobmth db jrbljoúm db tbxturl jhfbsovl bm bg tbxth.
Gotl Gumdquost (<?695 >?-:>), phr su plrtb, bstlngbjb gls docbrbmjols bm-
trb bg plsh db gl rbcbrbmjol l gl jhrrbcbrbmjol jhkh bg plsh db gls rbgljohmbs
tbxth-rblgodld l gls rbgljohmbs qub sb dlm bm bg omtbrohr dbg tbxth. Zu prhpubs-
tl sb rbsukb bm bg soùobmtb bsqubkl5
BVT^LTBVTH TBVTH OMT^LTBVTH

^BCB^BMJOL ^BCB^BMJOL
(BVTB^ML) (OMTB^ML)
^BCB^BMJOL ^BCB^BMJOL lmìcúrojl
BVHCÚÔJL BMDHCÚÔJL jltlcúrojl
^BCB^BMJOL ^BCB^BMJOL
ZOTRLJOHMLG TBVTRLG
Bm julmth l gl rbpbtojoúm, tlmth Nbrmìrdbz (<?6>5 <9> y ss.) jhkh

Ybtó󿬌 @lrjël Nbrroh (<?065 39) flnglm db rbjurrbmjol h rbpbtojoúm jhkh
gl lplrojoúm bm um koskh tbxth db «umh h vlrohs bgbkbmths 󿬌 ehs qub
dbtbrkomlm su jhmtomuodld±. Bm rblgodld, gl rbpbtojoúm bs uml chrkl db
klmtbmokobmth dbg rbcbrbmtb,
odbl bs qub bxostbm pubs tlmth
prhjbdokobmths bm um jlsh
gom`÷ëstojhs jhkh
l trlvïs db bm
ghsbgjulgbs
htrh, bs
gl
phsongb klmtbmbr gl umodld rbcbrbmjolg dbg tbxth. Bsth so`mo 󿬌jl qub bg
flnglmtb pubdb bstlngbjbr rbgljohmbs bmtrb bgbkbmths gom`÷ëstojhs qub db
lgùml klmbrl lsbùrlm gl jhmto`÷odld db sbmtodh y, phr gh tlmth, cljo-
gotlm bg prhjbsh db jhkprbmsoúm phr plrtb dbg dbstomltlroh. Klmtbmbr bg
rbcbrbmtb so`mo󿬌jl rbpbtor, rbotbrlr so`mo󿬌jldhs pbrh tlknoïm bjhmhkozlr,
bgokomlr, sustotuor, sokpgo󿬌jlr jhm bg 󿬌m db qub bg prhjbslkobmth db gl
omchrkljoúm sb pubdl rblgozlr db gl chrkl kìs b󿬌jlz qub, bm tïrkomhs db
ghs promjopohs rbùgltovhs
rbùgltovhs db Nblu`rlmdb y Drbssgbr, tobmb qub vbr jhm gl
jlmtodld db bscubrzh qub tobmbm qub rblgozlr ghs plrtojoplmtbs bm bg prhjb-
sh db jhkumojljoúm tbxtulg.
Lsë pubs, gl rbcbrbmjol y gl rbpbtojoúm, bmtbmdodls jhkh prhjbdo-
kobmths jhfbsovhs pubdbm jhmsodbrlrsb ghs rbjurshs
r bjurshs cumdlkbmtlgbs qub
phsbb gl gbmùl plrl hr`lmozlr sbkìmtojl y somtìjtojlkbmtb bg tbxth. Zo
dbsdb gl pbrspbjtovl hmhklsohgúòjl bs um kbdoh db jhdocojljoúm dbg
prhdujthr, dbsdb bg pumth db vostl sbklsohgúòjh, ghs kbjlmoskhs db
jhfbsoúm tbxtulg shm rbjonodhs phr bg dbstomltlroh jhkh gls sbülgbs qub
gb pbrkotbm5
‚ ^bjhmhjbr qub bg bmumjoldh qub bstì rbjonobmdh pubdb sbr um tbx-
th (yl doeokhs qub gl jhfbsoúm bs prhnlngbkbmtb uml prhpobdld
mbjbslrol pbrh mh sucojobmtb plrl odbmtocojlr y jlrljtbrozlr gl tbx-
tulgodld).
‚ Bmjlelr bsb tbxth bm umls dbtbrkomldls jhhrdbmldls bmumjoltovls.
bmumjoltovls.
‚ Yhmbr bm rbgljoúm bg tbxth jhm bg kumdh bxtrlgom`÷ëstojh, pbrtb-
mbzjl ïstb l gl rblgodld kltbrolg h lg kumdh phsongb jrbldh phr bg
luthr.
‚ Bstlngbjbr jldbmls db so`mocojldhs omtrltbxtulgbs `rljols l gls
julgbs pubdl rbjhmstruorsb, lg kbmhs bm plrtb, bg so`mocojldh dbg
prhdujthr.
Gl jhfbsoúm bxo`b db ghs plrtojoplmtbs bm bg omtbrjlknoh jhkumojl-
tovh mh súgh su jhkpbtbmjol `rlkltojlg somh su jhkpbtbmjol tbxtulg, bs
dbjor, su jlpljodld plrl utogozlr ghs rbjurshs qub gl gbmùl phsbb plrl
bglnhrlr y jhkprbmdbr bmumjoldhs omtbmjohmlgbs, qub cumjohmlm jhkh
um thdh so`mo󿬌jltovh, y qub utogozlm jhkh shphrtb bxprbsovh uml gbmùl
mlturlg.
2.>.>. Tophs
Tophs db rbgljohmbs nlsldls bm gl rbcbrbmjol y bm gl rbpbtojoúm5
gl jhfbsoúm `rlkltojlg y gl jhfbsoúm gïxojl
qub Ylrl bstlngbjbr

sb jhmjrbtl gl ghs dostomths
jhfbsoúm tophs db
tbxtulg, kbjlmoskhs
bg prokbr gom`÷ëstojhs
jrotbroh bm ghs
qub mhs plrbjb
okphrtlmtb bs dbtbrkomlr quï jglsb db umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls shm gls qub
rblgozlm bstl tlrbl. Jhkh yl sbülglrhm Flggodly y Flsslm, shm gl `rlkì-
tojl y bg vhjln
vhjlnuglroh
uglroh ghs dhs movbg
movbgbs
bs dbg gbmùleb shnrb ghs qub sb shstobmb
gl jhfbsoúm. Dostomùorbkhs, lsë, dhs `ruphs db kbjlmoskhs db jhfbsoúm
nlsldhs bm gl rbcbrbmjol y gl rbpbtojoúm5 lqubgghs qub utogozlm umodldbs
gïxojls plrl rblgozlrsb y qub db chrkl `bmbrlg dbmhkomlrbkhs jhfbsoúm
gïxojl1 y lqubgghs kbjlmoskhs qub utogozlm gls umodldbs `rlkltojlgbs db
gl gbmùl plrl bxprbslrsb y qub gglklrbkhs kbjlmoskhs db jhfbsoúm `rl-
kltojlg. Db bstl klmbrl, sbl l trlvïs db gl utogozljoúm db ghs dosphsotovhs
dosphsotovhs
jhmjrbths qub phsbb gl gbmùl plrl jhmbjtlrsb jhm bg jhmtbxth jhkumojl-
tovh, h nobm kbdolmtb lqubgghs qub pbrkotbm jrblr glzhs omtrltbxtulgbs y
lgo`brlr h rbotbrlr gls jldbmls so`mo󿬌jltovls qub sb prhdujbm bm bg tbxth,
jhfbsoúm gïxojl y jhfbsoúm `rlkltojlg jhmchrklm nubml plrtb dbg tbeodh
gom`÷ëstojh qub um tbxth dbnb phsbbr plrl phdbr sbr jhkprbmdodh. Gls rb-
dbs db rbgljohmbs qub ghs kbjlmoskhs gïxojhs y `rlkltojlgbs db gl gbmùl
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <9?
dbspgob`lm l gh glr`h db um bmumjoldh shm umh db ghs promjoplgbs hnebths

db bstudoh db gl jhfbsoúm.
2.>.:. ^bgljohmbs jhfbsovls nlsldls bm gl jhmbxoúm

Ybrh jhkh doeokhs kìs lrronl, gl pbrjbpjoúm db qub, ldbkìs db bshs
kbjlmoskhs db nlsb rbcbrbmjolg, rbjurrbmtb, lmlcúrojl y dbëjtojl, gl gbm-
ùl phsbb prhjbdokobmths bspbjolgozldhs bm bstlngbjbr jhmbxohmbs bmtrb
gls plrtbs qub pubdbm jhkphmbr um tbxth, ggbvú l sbülglr l ghs bspbjolgos-
tls um jhmeumth mh kuy nobm db󿬌modh db kbjlmoskhs chrkldhs phr jglsbs
fbtbrh`ïmbls db umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls l ghs qub sb dbmhkomú db jhmeum-
joúm h jhmbxoúm. Lknhs tïrkomhs tobmbm su pumth db plrtodl bm ghs bmgl-
jbs hrljohmlgbs qub sbülglm bg toph db rbgljoúm somtìjtojl qub sb bstlngbjb
bmtrb gls hrljohmbs qub jhmchrklm um tbxth. Bg prh`rbsovh lnlmdhmh db gl
pbrspbjtovll hrljohmlg bm ghs bstudohs shnrb bg tbxth y bg dosjursh, lsë jhkh
pbrspbjtov
bg omtbrïs qub bmtrb ghs gom`÷ostls flm dbspbrtldh bm ghs õgtokhs lühs ghs
gglkldhs bmgljbs bxtrlhrljohmlgbs (Ybrhml, >999), bs dbjor, lqubgghs qub mh
tobmbm jhkh cumjoúm umor hrljohmbs somh qub rblgozlm su cumjoúm bm bg movbg
tbxtulg h dosjursovh, fl ggbvldh l sbülglr uml jglsb db umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls
nlstlmtb fbtbrh`ïmbl bmjlr`ldls db rblgozlr bstl tlrbl. Lumqub ghs jrotbrohs
l gl fhrl db l`ruplr y jglso 󿬌jlr bstls umodldbs shm dovbr`bmtbs, hptlkhs
phr dbmhkomlr l bstb jhmeumth klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh ldhptlmdh lsë ghs
pumths db vostl l bstb rbspbjth db Yhrthgïs y Klrtëm Uhrrlquomh (<???) y db
Yhrthgïs
phstbrohr,(<??6) qubdbelr
pbrh som shm ghl qub sbùorbkhs
um gldh bm su dbsjropjoúm
htrhs trlnlehs, jhkh ghs ydbjglso jljoúm
db 󿬌Cubmtbs
(<?60 y <??3), Nroz (<??:), Yhms (<??3) h Klrtëmbz (<??0), bmtrb htrhs
(vbr nongoh`rlcël dbg lplrtldh 2.2). Bg plpbg db bstls umodldbs, kìs lggì db
gl purl jhmbxoúm y bg so`mo󿬌jldh db prhjbslkobmth qub lphrtlm, ghs jhm-
vobrtbm bm bgbkbmths cumdlkbmtlgbs db gl jhfbsoúm tbxtulg y ghs sotõlm bm bg
jbmtrh db ghs omtbrbsbs shnrb bg dosjursh, pubs shm ghs lspbjths prl`kìtojhs
y jh`motovhs db gl jhkumojljoúm ghs qub bg bstudoh db ghs klrjldhrbs dbg
dosjursh fl pubsth db rbgobvb
rbgobvb..
L docbrbmjol db gl rbcbrbmjol, bm gl qub, jhkh sbülglm Jhmjl y htrhs
(<??6), gl rbgljoúm sb bstlngbjb bmtrb dhs umodldbs, bg lmtbjbdbmtb y bg
klrjldhr db rbcbrbmjol,
rbcbr bmjol, bm gl rbgljoúm jhfbsovl dbmhkomldl
dbmhkomldl db jhmbxoúm,
gl
db rbgljoúm
dosjurshsby bstlngbjb,
bg bgbkbmthlg qub
kbmhs, bmtrb trbs bgbkbmths
ghs rbgljohml, bg klrjldhr‚dhs
dbg sb`kbmths
dosjursh‚.
Bm bg soùobmtb juldrh, ldlptldh db bsths koskhs luthrbs y db Jlstbggé,
(<??35 <2?), sb rbsukbm gls docbrbmjols bmtrb lknhs `ruphs db kbjlmos-
khs jhfbsovhs5
<<9 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
JHMBVOÚM ^BCB^BMJOL
L klrjldhr dbg dosjursh N L (lmtbjbdbmtb),
N (klrjldhr db rbcbrbmjol)
   
    
         
L y N.
   
             
 
  
gl prbsbmjol dbg klrjldhr.
                

prhjbslkobmth tbxtulg. klrjldhr db rbcbrbmjol N bs uml chrkl db
rbpbtojoúm dbg sbmtodh dbg tbxth.
                 
hjlsohmbs L pubdb jhrrbsphmdbr l um rbkotb l htrl plglnrl h somtl`kl, jgìusugl u
ljhmtbjokobmth bxtrlgom`÷ëstojh. hrljoúm h l um bgbkbmth jhmtbxtulg (L).
       
       
    
hrljoúm. bstrujturl nìsojl db gl hrljoúm.
Bm db󿬌motovl, gl prhpubstl db lmìgosos db jhfbsoúm qub prhphmbkhs sb

rbsukb bm bg soùobmtb bsqubkl5
^BGLJOHMBZ NLZLDLZ BM GL GL JHFBZOÚM @^LKLTOJLG

^BCB^BMJOL _ GL ^BYBTOJOÚM
GL JHFBZOÚM GÏVOJL
^BGLJOHMBZ NLZLDLZ BM GL GHZ KL^JLDH^BZ DBG DOZJR^ZH

JHMBVOÚM
^BCB^BMJOL5 L N (N rbkotb l L plrl sbr jhkprbmdodh)

JHMBVOÚM5 L J N (J bxpgojl gl rbgljoúm bmtrb L y N)
Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël
LUML^, B., L. J^HZZ y G. \ROMTLML (<??<)5 Jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg y gbj-
turl, Nlrjbghml, OJB Rmov
Rmovbrsodld
brsodld db Nlrjbghml.
NBLR@^LMDB, ^.L. y P.S. D^BZZGB^ (<?6<)5 Omtrhdujjoúm l gl gom-
`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth,
NBMSBMOZTB, Nlrjbghml,
Ï. (<?33)5 Lrobg,db
Yrhngbkls <??0.
gom`÷ëstojl `bmbrlg, O, Kïxojh, Zo-
`gh VVO, <?04
VVO, <?00.
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <<<
NB^MÌ^DBU, B. (<?6>)5 Omtrh Omtrhdujjoúm

dujjoúm l gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth, Kldrod,
Bsplsl-Jlgpb.
————— (<??2), «Gl jhfbræmjol dbg tbxt jhk l cbmhkbm d‟luthrbùgljoú±,
d‟luthrbùgljoú±,
bm L. Lrto`ls, Bg so`mo 󿬌
󿬌jlt tbxtulg, Nlrjbghml, @bmbrlgotlt db Jltlgumyl,
pp. ><->0 (JHK Kltbrolgs Dodéjtojs, <).
JLZLDH SBGL^DB,
SBGL^DB, K. (<??2)5 Omtr Omtrhdujjoúm
hdujjoúm l gl `rlkìtojl dbg tbxth bm
bsplühg, Kldrod, Lrjh.
JLZTBGGÉ, E.K. (<??>)5 Db gl crlsbcrlsb lg tbxt.
tbxt. Tbhrobs g‟õs gom`÷ëstoj, Nlr-
Tbhrobs db g‟õs
jbghml, Bkpõrobs.
JHMJL, K. (<??6)5 Tbxt o `rlkétojl5 tbhrol o préjtojl db gl jhkpbtæmjol
dosjursovl, Nlrjbghml, Tbodb.
JFL^HGGBZ, K. (<?66)5 «Gbs ïtudbs sur gl jhfïrbmjb, gl jhfbsohm bt gl
jhmmbxotï tbxtubggbs dbpuos gl 󿬌m dbs lmmïbs <?39±, bm Khdïgbs gomùos-
toqubs, V->, pp. 42-33.
jglvbs bm bg lmìgosos b omtbrprbtljoúm db ghs tbxths±, bm K. LÔUL (bd.)5
Yrhngbkls y kïthdhs dbg lmìgosos db tbxths , Zbvoggl, Rmovbrsodld db Zb-
voggl, pp. <>:-<42.
FB^MÌM R^^RTOL. F. (<??9)5 «Gl jhfbsoúm tbxtulg±, bm O Ehrmldls db
Coghgh`ël. Fhkbmleb lg Yrhc. ^.C. Klrsé, Nlrjbghml, Rmovbrsodld db
Nlrjbghml, pp. :<-39.
YBTÓCO, E.Z y L. @L^JËL NB^ÔH (<?06)5 Gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth y jrëtojl
gotbrlrol, Kldrod, Lgnbrth Jhrlzúm.
FLGGODL_, K.L.A. y ^. FLZLM (<?03)5 Jhfbsohm om Bm`gosf, Ghm`klm,
Ghmdrbs, <?6:.
GRML, V. (<??9)5 «Gl jhfbræmjol o gl jhfbsoú dbg tbxt±, bm Tbxt o bmsbmyl-
kbmt. Rml lprhxokljoú omtbrdosjopgomlr , Nlrjbghml, Nlrjlmhvl, pp. 4?-
04.
jhfïrbmjb tbxtubggb
tbxtubggb55 symtlxb,
symtlxb, sïklmtoqub, prl`-
KL^TËM UH^^L\ROMH, K. L. y E. YH^THGÏZ GÌUL^H (<???)5 «Ghs
klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh±, bm O. NHZ\RB y S. DBKHMTB (jhkps.)5
@rlkìtojl dbsjroptovl db gl gbmùl bsplühgl, Kldrod, Bsplsl-Jlgpb, pp.
492<-4><:.
KBDB^HZ KL^TËM, F. (<?66)5 Yrhjbdokobmths db jhfbsoúm bm bg bsplühg
ljtulg, Zlmtl
YB^HML, Jruz«Gl
E. (>999)5 db Tbmbrocb,
jhfbsoúmBxjkh.
tbxtulg Jlnogdh Omsuglrbxtrlhrljohmlgbs±,
y ghs bmgljbs db Tbmbrocb.
bm K. LGSL^ (dor.)5 Omtr hdujjoúm l gl gom`÷ëstojl bsplühgl, Nlrjbghml,
Omtrhdujjoúm
Lrobg, pp. 442-43>.
YH^THGÏZ, E.(<??6)5 Klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh, Nlrjbghml, Lrobg.
<<> Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
Ô@LR, @. (<?6<)5 @rlkétojl dbg dosjurs, Nbggltbrrl, RLN.

ZBL^GB, E.^. (<?3?)5 Ljths db flngl. Bmslyh db 󿬌ghshcël dbg gbmùleb, Kl-
drod, Jìtbdrl, <?69.
TLTOGHM, J. (<?69)5 «Gomùostoqub du tbxtb5 jhkkbmt lmlgysbr gl jhfb-
sohm±, Gl Gomùostoqub,
Gomùostoqub, <3, pp. <42-<2<.
SLGGDRSË, B. (<??<)5 «Tbxt o jhfbsoú±, JHK , 6, pp. :>-:3.
Ljtovodldbs
<. Gbb bg soùobmtb
soùobmtb tbxth
tbxth y jhkbmtl bg jhmjbpth db
db jhfbsoúm qub prhph-
mbm bsths luthrbs5
Jhfbsoúm bs um jhmjbpth sbkìmtojh1 sb rb󿬌brb l gls rbgljohmbs db so`mo󿬌jdh
qub bxostbm
hjurrb julmdhdbmtrh dbg tbxth y db
gl omtbrprbtljoúm qublg`õm
gh dbbgbkbmth
󿬌mbm jhkh tbxth. Gl jhfbsoúm
bm bg dosjursh dbpbmdb
db htrh. Rmh prbsuphmb bg htrh, db klmbrl qub mh pubdb sbr bcbjtovlkbmtb
dbsjhdo󿬌jldh bxjbpth rbjurrobmdh l ïg. Julmdh bsth hjurrb tobmb gu`lr um
rbgljoúm db jhfbsoúm.
(Flggodly-Flsslm (<?03)5 Jhfbsohm om Bm`gosf, p. 4)
>. Ylrl Plgtbr Ko`mhgh gl jhfbsoúm bstì rbgljohml
rbgljohmldl
dl jhm bg bkoshr, pubs
pubdb bmtbmdbrsb jhkh uml jldbml db omstrujjohmbs fljol bg hybmtb.
Ylrl Nbrmìrdbz som bknlr`h, gl jhfbsoúm tobmb qub vbr jhm bg rbjbp-
thr pubs bs bg kltbrolg gom`÷ëstojh gh prokbrh qub rbjonb y l plrtor db
gh julg pubdb rblgozlr gl ljtovodld rbjbpthrl. Eusto󿬌jl lknhs pumths
db vostl y db󿬌bmdb lqubg qub tb plrbzjl kìs ljbrtldh.
:. ¸\uï bs gl
gl rbjurrbmjol8 Zbgbjjohml
Zbgbjjohml vlrohs
vlrohs tbxths
tbxths bm ghs qub pubdls
dbkhstrlr gl bxostbmjol db bstb cbmúkbmh.
4. ¸Fly jhfbsoúm
jhfbsoúm julmdh
julmdh bg bgbkbmth rbcbrodh bstì cubrl dbg tbxth8 ¸Bm
quï jglsb db tbxths jrbbs qub lplrbjb jhm kìs crbjubmjol8 Nusjl
bebkpghs.
2.:. Gl jhfbsoúm `rlkltojlg

Bs gl qub tobmb gu`lr julmdh gl rbgljoúm db rbcbrbmjol sb prhdujb l
trlvïs db bgbkbmths gom`÷ëstojhs vljëhs db so`mo 󿬌jldh gïxojh. Zb trltl db
umodldbs qub rbkotbm l htrh bgbkbmth sotuldh
s otuldh cubrl h dbmtrh dbg tbxth juyh
so`mo󿬌jldh rbotbrlm h ljtulgozlm. Flnglrbkhs db rbcbrbmjol bxhcúrojl h
jhmtbxtulg julmdh gl rbcbrbmjol h lmtbjbdbmtb bstì cubrl dbg tbxth, y db
rbcbrbmjol
rbcbr bmdhcúr ojl so gl rbcbrbmjol bstì dbmtrh dbg prhpoh tbxth. Bm bstb
bmjol bmdhcúrojl
õgtokh jlsh, bs crbjubmtb dostomùor gl lmìchrl ‚julmdh gl umodld gom`÷ës-
tojh-`rlkltojlg sb rb󿬌brb l um bgbkbmth qub fl lplrbjodh lmtbrohrkbmtb
bm bg tbxth‚ y gl jltìchrl qub sb prhdujb julmdh gl umodld gom`÷ëstojl lpl-
rbjb lmtbs qub bg bgbkbmth qub sbrvorì db rbcbrbmjol. Htrhs luthrbs, jhkh
Kbdbrhs (<?66), utogozlm
utogozl m bg jhmjbpth db lmìchrl bm um sbmtodh kujfh kìs
lkpgoh y jhm ïg dbmhkomlm bg toph cumdlkbmtlg db rbgljoúm jhfbsovl qub
sb bstlngbjb bmtrb gls umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls
gom` ÷ëstojls ‚`rlkltojlgbs h gïxojls‚ db ghs
tbxths, qub bs gl qub Flggodly y Flsslm (<?03) dbmhkomlm db prbsuphso-
joúm. Ylrl Kbdbrhs, gl rbgljoúm jhfbsovl bs sobkprb bmdhcúrojl lumqub
rbjhmhjbm qub, bm hjlsohmbs, bs gl sotuljoúm gl qub pbrkotb sltoscljbr gl
rbgljoúm db prbsuphsojoúm. Mhshtrhs prbcbrokhs docbrbmjolr ghs dhs tophs
db rbcbrbmjol ‚lg bxtbrohr y lg omtbrohr dbg tbxth‚ y rbsbrvlr bg tïrkomh
«lmìchrl± plrl bstls õgtokls.
2.:.<. Kbjlmoskhs db rbcbrbmjol bxhcúrojl h jhmtbxtulg5 gl dboxos

Gls umodldbs qub bm gl gbmùl rblgozlm bstb toph db cumjohmbs jhmchr-
klm gh qub sb dbmhkoml bg sostbkl dbëjtojh. Gl cumjoúm prhpol db ghs dbëj-
tojhs bs prbjoslkbmtb gl rbcbrbmjol bxhcúrojl, bs dbjor, rblgozlr bg lmjgleb
bmumjoltovh dbg tbxth. Lsë, soùobmdh l Gyhms (<?695 204), phdbkhs bmtbm-
dbr phr dboxos5
Gl ghjlgozljoúm b odbmto󿬌jljoúm db pbrshmls, hnebths, bvbmths, prhjbshs
y ljtovodldbs db gls qub sb flngl, h l gls qub sb lgudb, bm rbgljoúm jhm
bg jhmtbxth bspljoh-tbkphrlg jrbldh y shstbmodh phr gl bmumjoljoúm
y phr gl tëpojl plrtojopljoúm bm bggl db um shgh flnglmtb y lg kbmhs um
dbstomltlroh.
Ghs dbëjtojhs
`÷ëstojls shm db󿬌modhs phr
«juyh cumjohmlkobmth Jocubmtbs (<?6?5 0<)okpgojl
sbkìmtojh-rbcbrbmjolg jhkh umodldbs gom-
uml jhmsodb-
rljoúm dbg plpbg qub tobmbm bm bg prhjbsh db bmumjoljoúm ghs ljtlmtbs dbg
bmumjoldh, gl sotuljoúm bspljoh-tbkphrlg±. Gl dboxos bs, phr tlmth, bg kb-
jlmoskh «qub sb hjupl db júkh gls gbmùl jhdo󿬌jlm h `rlkltojlgozlm rls-
`hs dbg jhmtbxth db bmumjoljoúm h bvbmth db flngl± (Gbvoshm, <?625 40). Zo,
jhkh vbmokhs l󿬌rklmdh dbsdb bg promjopoh, um tbxth bs sobkprb bg rbsugtldh
db gl ljtovodld bmumjoltovl db um flnglmtb bm rbgljoúm jhm um jhmtbxth y um
dbstomltlroh, bg sostbkl dbëjtojh tobmb jhkh kosoúm odbmto󿬌jlr, sbülglr y, bm
db󿬌motovl, lmjglr bg tbxth bm sus jorjumstlmjols jhkumojltovls. Zbülglr bs
klrjlr omtbmjohmldl h omjhmsjobmtbkbmtb, dbmhtl bg prhpúsoth phr plrtb dbg
prhdujthr db hrobmtlr lg rbjbpthr mh súgh bm rbgljoúm jhm gl jorjumstlmjolgo-
dld
>94)5bxtrlvbrnlg,
bxtrlvb rnlg, somh dbmtrh
«Mhrklgkbmtb dbg dosjursh
hpbrlkhs koskh. Jhkh
jhm omchrkljoúm l 󿬌rklsunjhmsjobmtb
jhmtbxtulg Gyhms (<?6:5
bm mubstrl omtbrprbtljoúm db ghs bmumjoldhs jhtodolmhs±, pbrh julmdh pbrjo-
nokhs lkno`÷bdldbs bs phrqub fly um dbsleustb bm gl omchrkljoúm jhmtbx-
tulg jhm rbspbjth l mubstrh omtbrghjuthr.
Ghs sostbkls dbëjtojhs qub jldl gbmùl phsbb shm ghs bgbkbmths vbrnl-
gbs qub ghs flnglmtbs utogozlm plrl jhmjrbtlr y bxprbslr su rbcbrbmjolgodld
(Sojbmtb
(S ojbmtb Kltbu, <??4)1 `rljols l ghs bgbkbmths dbëjtojhs bg jhmtbxth pbmbtrl
kltbrolgkbmtb bm bg dosjursh y sb jhmvobrtb bm gbmùleb, bm plglnrls qub
ldquobrbm sbmtodh phrqub tobmbm qub vbr jhm gl rblgodld qub mhknrlm y bm gl
qub shm mhknrldls. Bg pumth db plrtodl db thdh sostbkl dbëjtojh bs uml sotul-
joúm jlrl l jlrl bm gl qub um flnglmtb y um hybmtb lgtbrmlm sus plpbgbs bm bg
jursh db um prhjbsh db jhkumojljoúm qub sb vl jhmstruybmdh `rljols l gl om-
tbrljjoúm db lknhs plrtojoplmtbs (Klrtëmbz ûoz, >999). Yubsth qub plrtokhs
db uml sotuljoúm db omtbrjlknoh jhmvbrsljohmlg om prlbsbmtol, gl bxprbsoúm
db gls rbcbrbmjols sotuljohmlgbs mh rbjlbrìm bxjgusovlkbmtb
bxjgusovlkbmtb shnrb ghs so`mhs
vbrnlgbs, somh qub, tbmobmdh bm jubmtl qub bs phsongb utogozlr htrhs sostbkls
së`mojhs kuy rbshgutovhs, jhkh bg `bstulg, tlknoïm ïsths phdrìm shgvbmtlr,
dbmtrh db uml jhm
jhmvbrsljoúm,
vbrsljoúm, gls jubstohmbs rbgltovls l gl rbcbrbmjolgodld.
Ztbpfbm Gbvoshm (<?6?5 40 y ss.) fl dostomùodh jomjh jltb`hrëls dbëjtojls
dostomtls jhm gls qub prbtbmdb junror thdls gls phsonogodldbs db rbcbrbmjolgo-
dld qub um flnglmtb pubdb ggbvlr l jlnh bm um omtbrjlknoh jhmvbrsljohmlg.
Jhkprbmdbrël gls trldojohmlgbs db pbrshml, gu`lr y tobkph ‚bs dbjor, lqubggls
qub, l plrtor dbg flnglmtb, jhmjrbtlm bspljoh-tbkphrlgkbmtb gl sotuljoúm db
jhkumojljoúm‚‚ (Jlrnhmbrh Jlmh, <?0?)1 kìs gl dbëxos dbg dosjursh ‚`rljols
jhkumojljoúm
l gl julg bg dosjursh sb phmb bm rbgljoúm jhm bg dosjursh koskh‚1 y gl dbëxos
shjolg, qub «sb rb󿬌brb l gl jhdo󿬌jljoúm db dostomjohmbs shjolgbs rbgltovls l
ghs plpbgbs db ghs plrtojoplmtbs±. Bstb sostbkl mh súgh jhmtbkpgl, pubs, gl
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <<2
phsonogodld
hybmtbs bstìmdbomkbrshs,
fljbr rbcbrbmjol
somh qubl tobmb
gl rblgodld bxtrltbxtulg
bm jubmtl, tlknoïm,bmbgglprhpoh
qub flnglmtb
dosjurshy
y, phr gh tlmth, gl kbdodl bm qub ïstb sb vl jhmvortobmdh bm plrtb jhmstotutovl
dbg jhmtbxth y trlmschrkìmdhgh.
Bmtbmdodl jhkh kbjlmoskh db jhfbsoúm tbxtulg, gl dboxos bstlngbjb
glzhs bmtrb bg jhmtbxth bxtrlvbrnlg y bg prhpoh tbxth y, bm bsb sbmtodh, prh-
phrjohml vëls plrl gl omtbrprbtljoúm dbg tbxth phr plrtb dbg dbstomltlroh. Bg
jhmtbxth sb jhm󿬌rkl, lsë, jhkh um bgbkbmth okprbsjomdongb plrl bmtbmdbr
bg so`mo󿬌jldh db um kbmsleb vbrnlg. «Jhmtbxt os lgsh wflt òvbs hur ut-
tbrlmjb tfbor dbbpbr (‗trub‛ nut mht om l pfoghshpfojlg sbmsb hc tfb whrd)
kblmom`± l󿬌rkl Eljhn Kby (<??:). Bg jhmtbxth, tlg y jhkh gh jhmjonb gl
prl`kìtojl, sotõl bg dosjursh bm gl rblgodld dbg omtbrjlknoh jhkumojltovh
qub,
jhdo󿬌jhkh
jljoúml󿬌gom`÷ëstojl5
rkl Nbmvbmostb
Nbmvbmostb (<?005 64-62), prbjbdb julgquobr htrh toph db
Lmtbs db gl bmumjoljoúm, gl gbmùl mh bs kìs qub gl phsonogodld db gl gbmùl.
Dbspuïs db gl bmumjoljoúm, gl gbmùl sb bcbjtõl bm uml omstlmjol db dosjursh,
qub bklml db um ghjuthr, chrkl shmhrl qub bspbrl um ludothr y qub susjotl
htrl bmumjoljoúm l jlknoh. Q...[ Comlgkbmtb bm gl bmumjoljoúm, gl gbmùl sb
flggl bkpgbldl bm gl bxprbsoúm db jobrtl rbgljoúm jhm bg kumdh.
l) Gl dboxos pbrshmlg. Zb rb󿬌brb lg plpbg qub dbsbkpbülm ghs omtbrghju-
thrbs qub plrtojoplm bm um bvbmth jhkumojltovh y qub bstìm prbsbmtbs bm bg
jhmtbxth gom`÷ëstojh h bxtrlgom`÷ëstojh. Bm bsplühg rblgozlm bstl cumjoúm ghs
prhmhknrbs pbrshmlgbs y phsbsovhs
phsbsovhs y ghs khrcbkls vbrnlgbs db pbrshml. Ghs
db <.ª y >.ª pbrshml ‚yh y tõ‚ shm bxjgusovlkbmtb dbëjtojhs y «mh pbrkotbm
lso`mlr vlghr db vbrdld l ghs bmumjoldhs omdbpbmdobmtbkbmtb
omdbpbmdobmtbkbmtb dbg jhmtbxth±
(Cbrmìmdbz Zhrolmh, <???5 <><2). _h so`mo󿬌jl, bm plglnrls db Nbmvbmostb
(<?335 <0:) «gl pbrshml qub bmumjol gl soùobmtb omstlmjol db dosjursh qub
jhmtobmb yh± y tõ «bg omdovoduh lg qub sb doro`b gl prbsbmtb omstlmjol db dos-
jursh qub jhmtobmb tõ±. Tlknoïm ghs prhmhknrbs jgëtojhs db <.ª y >.ª pbrshml
rblgozlm bstl cumjoúm5 kb, tb, kë, to. Bm ghs soùobmtbs tbxths hrlgbs y bsjroths
sb pubdbm vbr lgùmhs bebkpghs dbg vlghr jhfbsovh db gl dboxos pbrshmlg5
¸Tobmbs `lmls db jhmhjbr gl Lmtìrtodl8 _l slnbs qub jhm EN tobmbs lfhrl
uml bxjbgbmtb hphrtumodld db jhmsbùorgh. Oùlg qub tõ, thdhs ghs dbphrtostls
qub plrtojoplm bm bg Jlkpbhmlth db Bsplül db Shgby
Shgby Yglyl8
Jhmhjë l
l Dlmobg julmdh yh tbmël <2 lühs. Ïg tbmël vbomtb. Brl um jfojh
lpubsth qub kb dbdojlnl kog y uml ltbmjohmbs.
‗Zo kb korh bm bg bspbeh y fly kujfh «yh±, shy b`hjïmtrojl, pbrh so fly
phjh«yh±, shy omsbùrl.
>6 7B>=5 ¸L to tb omtbrbsl gl jlrrbrl qub bstìs bstudolmdh8
>? 7F<=5 Zë, kb omtbrbsl, jglrh, shnrb thdh gls hptltov

hptltovls
ls qub tbm`h kb
omtbrbslm, bstì jglrh. (JHSEL).
(JHSEL).
::4 7B>=5 ¸Ybmsìos qub fly jhkumojljoúm bmtrb pldrbs b foehs (--=) h
mh8
Q…[
:4< 7B>=5 Bs qub yh gh qub pobmsh bs qub (--=)... phr gh qub yh vbh
qub (--=)... phr bebkpgh, yh kb ggbvh nobm jhm ko kldrb y
thdh bsth pbrh (--=)... qub, mhrklgkbmtb julmdh tobmbs um
prhngbkl h gh qub sbl, qub mh subgbs rbjurror l ghs pldrbs...
y thdh bsth.
:4> 7F:=5 _h së.
:4: 7B>=5 H (--=)... nubmh, qub mh bs bg jlsh kìs tëpojh.
yh pobmsh
(JHSEL)
Bm julmth l ghs prhmhknrbs dbg pgurlg, mhshtrhs/ls y su jhrrbsphmdobmtb
jgëtojh mhs ‚lplrtb db ghs vlghrbs bstogëstojhs‚ dbso`ml julgquobr jhmeumth qub
omjguyl lg flnglmtb5
L mhshtrhs mhs ùstl thklr omojoltovls. Mh bspbrlkhs l qub gl shgujoúm
vbm`l l mhshtrhs, somh qub gl jrblkhs.
Shshtrhs/ls
Shshtrhs/ls y bg jhrrbsphmdobmtb jgëtojh hs, dbso`mlm julgquobr jhmeumth qub
omjguyl lg hybmtb pbrh mh lg flnglmtb.
34< 7F:=5 Zhos umhs fopújrotls. Thdhs y jldl umh db vhshtrhs y thdl
7omomtbgoòngb= dbg kumdh 7/sokugtìmbh=.
34> 7F<=5 ¸Yhr quï8 7ruodh ; vlshs=.
34: 7F:=5 Yhrqub (--=), phrqub gh shos 7omomtbgoòngb=. Bs qub hs dl
kobdh dbjor qub hs ùstl 7mhknrb prhpoh= Zhrprbsl, shrprbsl
7/mhknrb prhpoh=, y hs dl kobdh dbjor 7sokugtìmbh=
7omomtbgoòngb=
(JHSEL)
Yhr gh qub sb rb󿬌brb l ghs phsbsovhs ko, tu, këh/l/s tuyh/l/s, mubstrh/l/s,
vubstrh/l/s, bstìm bstrbjflkbmtb go`ldhs bm su cumjoúm dbëjtojl jhm gls pbr-
shmls `rlkltojlgbs. Omdojlm phsbsoúm h pbrtbmbmjol phr plrtb db lgùml db gls
pbrshmls dbg dosjursh.
Gl vodl ljtulg fljb qub mubstrl lgokbmtljoúm, phr kuy bquogonrldl qub mhs
plrbzjl, sbl l kbmudh db󿬌jotlrol.
Tu ljtovodld dolrol bxo`b bspljoh5 bg mubvh Slmbh tb hcrbjb um klgbtbrh db
flstl :999 gotrhs.
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <<0
         

këhs sorvobrhm db omsporljoúm lg mhvbgostl (Bmtrbvostl l Lmthmoh Nlmdbrls,
BYZ).
Ko kuebr gh fl plsldh rblgkbmtb klg. Fly qub ljbptlrgh jhkh bs, shm gls
rb`gls. Mh pubdbs jlknolr Fhggywhhd (Bmtrbvostl l Lmthmoh Nlmdbrls,
BYZ).
n) Dboxos bspljolg. Zorvb plrl hr`lmozlr bg bspljoh bm thrmh lg julg
tobmb gu`lr bg omtbrjlknoh jhkumojltovh. Zo bg beb pbrshmlg bs bg yh dbg
flnglmtb, bg bspljoh sb bstrujturl l plrtor dbg lquë qub sbülgl bg gu`lr
dbsdb bg qub bsb flnglmtb thkl gl plglnrl. Bm bsplühg, gl cumjoúm db sb-
ülglkobmth bspljolg gl rblgozlm ghs ldvbrnohs y crlsbs prbphsojohmlgbs jhm
vlghr ghjltovh (lquë, lfë, lggë, jbrjl, gbehs, lrronl, lnleh, dbglmtb, dbtrìs,
dbglmtb
(or vb mor,db,
or,, vbmor dbtrìs db,lgbelrsb,
, ljbrjlrsb,
ljb rjlrsb, jbrjl
lgb elrsb,db, gbehs
sunor,
sunor dblr
), )lgùmhs
, nlelr
nle vbrnhs db hs
y ghs dbkhstrltov
dbkhstrltovhskhvokobmth
( bstb, bsb,
lqubg).
NOH tb rbmubvl phr dbmtrh.
dbmtrh. _ bsh sb mhtl phr cubrl.
Rsulrohs db Pomdhws5
Pomdhws5 plrl jhkprhnlr so bg mlvb`ldhr bs jhkpltongb jhm gl
omstlgljoúm luthkìtojl, fl`l jgoj lquë .
Lyumtlkobmth db Kleldlfhmdl. Kìs jbrjl db to.
O5 Zb plrú dbglmtb. Mhshtrhs khmtldhs (bm bg jlkoúm).
T5 Dbglmtb db mhshtrhs, bm pgbml jlrrbtbrl, bm bg jbmtrh db gl jlrrbtbrl y bg
jlkoúm sb qubdú omkhvogozldh. (Ltbrrozleb bm Klrjfbml).
Bm bsplühg sb rbjhmhjbm trbs `rldhs db prhxokodld sunebtovl l gls pbr-
shmls `rlkltojlgbs rbprbsbmtldls phr ghs prhmhknrbs bstb, bsb, lqubg sb`õm
bg soùobmtb bsqubkl5
<.ª pbrshml yh bstb jbrjl db kë
>.ª pbrshml tõ bsb jbrjl db to
:.ª pbrshml ïg lqubg jbrjl db ïg
Zom bknlr`h, bg bspljoh db rbcbrbmjol mh sobkprb bstì vomjugldh cësojl-

kbmtb l ghs flnglmtbs tlg y jhkh sb rbprbsbmtl bm bg bsqubkl, somh qub tlk-
noïm sb utogozl plrl bxprbslr gl prhxokodld lcbjtovl l lg`h h gl pbrtbmbmjol
jhkh bm bg soùobmtb bebkpgh5
ônú dbcbmdoú qub «bstb plës± Qbm bstb jlsh sb rb󿬌brb l Jltlguül[ sb kbrbjb
um Bstltut d‟Luthmhkël kbehr qub bg lprhnldh lybr.
j) Dboxos tbkphrlg. L plrtor dbg lfhrl qub sbülgl bg flnglmtb, ghs dbëj-

tojhs jhm cumjoúm tbkphrlg omdojlm bg tobkph db gl bmumjoljoúm. Bm bsplühg
rblgozlm bstl cumjoúm ghs ldvbrnohs y ghjujohmbs ldvbrnolgbs db tobkph (vïlsb
juldrh) lgùmls prbphsojohmbs y ghjujohmbs prbphsotovls (lmtbs db, dbspuïs
db, l plrtor db), lgùmhs ldebtovhs (lmtoùh, khdbrmh, cuturh), ghs khrcbkls
vbrnlgbs db tobkph y ghs dbkhstrltovhs.
Abrnrlt-Hrbjjfohmo (<?695 3<-3>) rbsukb bm bg soùobmtb juldrh gl do-
cbrbmjol bmtrb ghs bgbkbmths dbëjtojhs qub sb rb 󿬌brbm lg ljth db bmumjoljoúm
y ghs bgbkbmths lmlcúrojhs, qub mhs rbkotbm l um tobkph bxprbsldh bm bg
jhtbxth5
Dbëjtojhs Lmlcúrojhs h jhtbxtulgbs
Zokugtlmbodld bm bsb khkbmth bm bsb/lqubg khkbmth

lfhrl bmthmjbs
Lmtbrohrodld lybr, lmtblybr, bg htrh dël gl vëspbrl
gl sbklml plsldl gl sbklml lmtbrohr
fljb um rlth um rlth lmtbs
rbjoïm, rbjobmtbkbmtb um phjh lmtbs
Yhstbrohrodld klülml, pl
plsldh klülml lg dël soùobmtb1 dhs dëls dbspuïs
bg lüh prúxokh lg lüh soùobmtb
dbmtrh db dhs dëls dhs dëls kìs tlrdb
dbsdb lfhrl, prhmth (dbmtrh db dbsdb bmthmjbs1 um rlth dbspuïs

phjh)
bm sbùodl l jhmtomuljoúm
Mbutrhs fhy htrh dël
bg gumbs (bg dël kìs prúxokh lg

tobkph jbrh)
bstl klülml, bstb vbrlmh

Thdhs rblgozlm um cumjoúm jhfbsovl, pbrh súgh ghs prokbrhs rblgozlm gl
cumjoúm bxhcúrojl pubs bs bg jhmtbxth rblg db bmumjoljoúm bg qub dbtbrkoml
su so`mo󿬌jljoúm.
Tlknoïm ghs prhmhknrbs dbkhstrltovhs pubdbm sbülglr dostomths `rldhs
db prhxokodld tbkphrlg bm rbgljoúm jhm bg khkbmth db gl bmumjoljoúm. Lsë,
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <<?
bstb omdojl prhxokodld jhm bg lfhrl dbg flnglmtb1 bsb klrjl jobrtl dostlmjol
tbkphrlg jhm
gbelmël y sb rb󿬌rbspbjth
brb súgh lg plsldh. h lg cuturh1 lqubg bs bg qub omdojl klyhr
lg plsldh
Bm bstb prokbr `ruph db bebkpghs, ghs dbëjtojhs tbkphrlgbs sbülglm bg
jhmtbxth db bmumjoljoúm5
Lfhrl bs kìs cìjog tbmbrgh qub shülr qub gh tobmbs.
Fhy jhmhjbkhs bg `bmhkl fuklmh, quoïm slnb gh qub phdrbkhs fljbr jhm
ïg.
Kuy prhmth phdrì bgbòr gl omtbgo`bmjol db su foeh. Slyl prljtojlmdh jhm bg
jhjfb.
Bstb lüh, Klmubg y @bmogdh gujflrìm db mubvh phr bg jlkpbhmlth.
Bm bstb htrh `ruph ghs ldvbrnohs db tobkph y gls crlsbs tbkphrlgbs sb
rb󿬌brbm l um bgbkbmth dbg jhtbxth prbvolkbmtb bmumjoldh phr gh qub su cum-
joúm yl mh bs dbëjtojl, somh lmlcúrojl5
_h bmthmjbs Qbg tbxth sb rb󿬌brb lg dël db gl kubrtb db Crlmjh[ bstlnl fljobmdh
gl kogo bm Kbgoggl. Kb tbmëlm 󿬌jfldh y kb klmdlrhm lggë phr rbprbslgol, bg
jlpotìm kb qubkú l ùlrdols. Lqubgghs dëls ghs tbmël db jhrnltl. (Zush db
Thrh, BYZ).
L prhpúsoth db uml pbgëjugl qub gls dhs vobrhm eumtls gl mhjfb lmtbrohr, gl
kldrb gb jubmtl l gl foel...
Fly qub tbmbr bm jubmtl gl jhkpgbeodld qub phsbb gl bxprbsoúm vbrnlg
dbg tobkph bm bg dosjursh y db gl qub lquë mh phdbkhs somh fljbr uml nrbvb
rbcbrbmjol. Bg tobkph vbrnlg bs db󿬌modh phr ^heh y Sbo`l (<???) jhkh «uml
jltb`hrël `rlkltojlg dbëjtojl kbdolmtb gl julg sb bxprbsl gl hrobmtljoúm db
uml sotuljoúm nobm rbspbjth lg pumth jbmtrlg (bg hro`bm) nobm jhm rbspbjth l
uml rbcbrbmjol sbjumdlrol qub l su vbz bstì dorbjtl h omdorbjtlkbmtb hrobm-
tldl fljol bg hro`bm±. Kbdolmtb bg sostbkl vbrnlg sb hr`lmozl bg tobkph gom-
`÷ëstojh dostomth dbg tobkph cësojh y dbg tobkph jrhmhgúòjh (Nbmvbmostb,
<?045 03 y ss.). L plrtor db um pumth jbrh qub jhomjodb jhm bg khkbmth db gl
bmumjoljoúm, jldl ljth gom`÷ëstojh sb jhmvobrtb bm su prhpoh jbmtrh db rbcb-
rbmjol tbkphrlg jhm rbspbjth lg julg ghs ljhmtbjokobmths pubdbm sbr lmtbroh-
rbs, sokugtìmbhs h phstbrohrbs.
Bm bsplühg, shm ghs tobkphs dbg omdojltovh ghs qub prhphrjohmlm omchr-
kljoúm tbkphrlg. ^heh y Sbo`l dostomùbm tobkphs lnshguths ‚lqubgghs qub
hrobmtlm uml sotuljoúm rbspbjth lg khkbmth bm qub sb flngl‚ y tobkphs rbgl-
tovhs ‚hrobmtlm gl sotuljoúm rbspbjth l julgquobr htrh khkbmth‚. Gls hrobm-
tljohmbs tbkphrlgbs nìsojls db gls chrkls omdojltovls
omdojltovls bm bsplühg sb rbsukbm
bm bg soùobmtb juldrh db ghs koskhs luthrbs (<???5 >630 y ss)5
<>9 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
YRMTH DB ^BGLJOÚM
^BGLJOÚM TBKYH^LG YÔKLÔL
^BCB^BMJOL -S hS +S
H jlmtï jlmth jlmtlrï
(H-S) flnël jlmtldh jlmtlnl jlmtlrël
(HhS) fb jlmtldh
(H+S) flnrï jlmtldh
((H-S)+S) flnrël jlmtldh
-S lmtbrohrodld
S (vbjthrbs)5 hS sokugtlmbodld H5 (db hro`bm) pumth jbmtrlg db thdls gls rbgljohmbs
+S phstbrohrodld
Bm ghs soùobmtbs bebkpghs, ghs vbrnhs quobrh, 󿬌m`b, flnël jhmsodbrldh,

jlggï, omdojlm bg khkbmth jhm rbspbjth lg julg òrl bg rbsth db gl rbcbrbmjol-
godld tbkphrlg dbg tbxth qub pubdb or fljol bg prhpoh khkbmth dbg flngl, ‚fl
sodh phsotovl, shy cbgoz‚ fljol bg plsldh ‚bmjlrjbglrhm‚, h fljol bg cuturh
‚lphstlrël, elkìs tbmdrì‚5
\uobrh qub ko tbstokhmoh sorvl db ljojltb l htrls. Ko bxpbrobmjol fl sodh
phsotovl y shy kuy cbgoz lquë.
Gl foel, uml ldhgbsjbmtb qub lphstlrël sus dhs klmhs l gl jbrtbzl db qub
mumjl elkìs tbmdrì mldl bm jhkõm jhm su kldrb, 󿬌m`b lprbmdbr.
Flstl eumoh db <?<4 flnël jhmsodbrldh prhdujth db gl oklòmljoúm thdh julmth
sb bsjronël shnrb gls phsonogodldbs db vhgvbr l sotuljohmbs kbdobvlgbs...
Julmdh bmjlrjbglrhm l ghs shjolgdbkújrltls kb jlggï, yh mh brl shjolg—
dbkújrltl.
2.:.>. Kbjlmoskhs db rbcbrbmjol bmdhcúrojl h khstrltovl5 gl lmìchrl

Ylrl lgùmhs luthrbs, gl lmìchrl bs bg prhthtoph db rbgljoúm jhfbsovl
jhfbsovl (Kb-
dbrhs, <?66). Zhm gls rbgljohmbs qub sb dlm bmtrb bgbkbmths prbsbmtbs bm bg
tbxth gls qub prhphrjohmlm sbmtodh lg tbxth y gls qub jrblm bg tbeodh, gl rbd
db rbgljohmbs, qub pbrkotb rblgozlr gl tlrbl db jhkprbmsoúm tbxtulg. L trl-
vïs db gl rbcbrbmjol bmdhcúrojl, bg prhdujthr tbxtulg hrobmtl lg dbstomltlroh
bm su prhjbsh omtbrprbtltovh, gh lmjgl lfhrl dbmtrh dbg umovbrsh tbxtulg y gb
fljb plrtëjopb db su omtbmjohmlgodld lg ùolr, l trlvïs db um sostbkl kìs h
kbmhs jhkpgbeh db rbcbrbmjols omtbrmls, bg prhjbsh omcbrbmjolg dbg dbstomltl-
roh. Bstlkhs bm bg ìknoth dbg jhtbxth y ghs cbmúkbmhs jhfbsovhs
jhfbsovhs lmìchrojhs
jhmtronuybm
jhmtronuy bm bm kuy nubml kbdodl l jrblr bg bmthrmh gom`÷ëstojh bm bg qub bg
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <><
prhpoh kbmsleb dbnb db or sobmdh prh`rbsovlkbmtb jhkprbmdodh b omtbrprb-
tldhBm(Klrsì, <?64).
bsplühg, gl rbcbrbmjol bmdhcúrojl sb ggbvl l jlnh kbdolmtb prhjbdo-
kobmths `rlkltojlgbs5 shm gls prhchrkls jhm cumjoúm bmdhcúrojl.
Dbnbkhs lüldor, ldbkìs, um jlsh bspbjolg db rbcbrbmjol bmdhcúrojl, gl
dboxos tbxtulg, kbdolmtb gl julg bg tbxth sb rbkotb l së koskh utogozlmdh tlk-
noïm prhjbdokobmths `rlkltojlgbs.
<) Gls prhchrkls `rlkltojlgbs
Zhm bgbkbmths `rlkltojlgbs qub sorvbm plrl sustotuor bgbkbmths gïxojhs.
Bmtrb gls prhchrkls jhm vlghr jhfbsovh sb bmjubmtrlm5
‚ prhmhknrbs pbrshmlgbs db :.ª pbrshml (ïg, bggl, bgghs/ls, gh, gb, ghs, gls,
bggh)
‚ prhmhknrbs rbgltovhs (qub, quobm, bg julg, juyh)
     (sb, hs)
‚ phsbsovhs (su, suyh)
‚ dbkhstrltovhs (bstb, bsb, lqubg)
‚ julmto󿬌jldhrbs db󿬌modhs b omdb󿬌modhs (lgùmhs, thdhs, htrhs, prokbrh)
‚ ldvbrnohs (lsë, tlmth, lmtbs, lrronl, dbmtrh)
‚ klrjls vbrnlgbs db :.ª pbrshml
‚ julgquobr bgbkbmth dbëjtojh bxhcúrojh jhm cumjoúm bmdhcúrojl.
Jhm rbspbjth l ghs prhmhknrbs pbrshmlgbs y phsbsov
phsbsovhs
hs yl sbülglkhs qub
gl tbrjbrl pbrshml bs gl lusbmtb dbg prhjbsh bmumjoltovh y qub su promjoplg
tlrbl bs rbcbrorsb omtrltbxtulg
omtrltbxtulgkbmtb
kbmtb l um bgbkbmth mhkomlg h mhkomlgozldh yl
mhknrldh h qub sbrì mhknrldh db chrkl omkbdoltl.
Ïg/bggl, gl tbrjbrl pbrshml, bm somùglr y bm pgurlg, dbso`ml gh qub mh
bs mo bg flnglmtb mo bg hybmtb y sb hphmb lsë lg beb nìsojh yh/tõ. Bs bg õmojh
prhmhknrb qub rblgkbmtb sustotuyb lg sustlmtovh, pbrh tlknoïm pubdb tbmbr
cumjoúm dbëjtojl julmdh sb rb󿬌brb l uml tbrjbrl pbrshml prbsbmtb bm bg gu-
`lr db gl bmumjoljoúm pbrh qub mh bs mo bg tõ mo bg yh jhkh bm bg soùobmtb
bebkpgh5
<9: 7F>=5 Mh, së, so shnr 7plglnrl jhrtldl=... dbg jhgbòh, um prhcbshr qub
(--=), vlkhs, bm bg jhgbòh cub bg kbehr qub tuvb db 7mhknrb
prhpoh= Kltbkìtojls 7/mhknrb prhpoh= y... 7mhknrb prhpoh=
Jobmjols Mlturlgbs 7/mhknrb prhpoh=. _ gub`h bm bg omstotuth
tlknoïm, jhkh fl dojfh ïg Qsb rb󿬌brb l um flnglmtb qub fl
omtbrvbmodh lmtbrohrkbmtb[.
Bg prhmhknrb
phsbsov hs, shm ghs db
phsbsovhs, qubtbrjbrl
jrblmpbrshml, tlmth
vbrdldbrls túmojh
rbdbs jhkh ìthmh,
rbcbrbmjolgbs l ghy glr`h
tlknoïm ghs
db ghs
tbxths y lsbùrlm su jhkprbmsoúm.
<>> Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
Dlmobg jukpgoú su plglnrl5 mh kb vhgvoú l pb`lr, pbrh bm jlknoh sb jhmvorotoú

bm um klmopugldhr thtlg. Db jlrl l gl `lgbrël thdh plrbjël klrlvogghsh5 ïg
tbmël um nubm pubsth db trlnleh jhkh jhkbrjolg.
Bggls gbbm kìs, jhkprlm kìs gonrhs y doscrutlm gbybmdh mhvbgls.
Lfhrl bs kujfh kìs cìjog tbmbrgh qub shülr qub gh tobmbs.
Gls rb`gls sb fojobrhm plrl rhkpbrgls, pbrh plrl fljbrgh fly qub tbmbr htrl
kbehr.
Ltbmth l gls bxpbjtltovls db gls kuebrbs db 49 lühs, Jglroms gbs lyudl l
rblgzlr su rbspglmdhr mlturlg.
Zhm mhrkls db gl rbvostl trltlr db ustbd lg gbjthr... omjgush julmdh mh sb bstì
db ljubrdh jhm ïg h dorbjtlkbmtb sb gh hdol l kubrtb.
Bgghs cubrhm tlknoïm quobmbs ghs flgglrhm y quobmbs lg khvbrgl, dbsjunrobrhm
plrtb db su vbstokbmtl.
Yrb󿬌brb bstlr jhm ghs suyhs lmtbs qub slgor phr lfë l 󿬌bstls omshphrtlngbs.
Yhr su plrtb, ghs dbkhstrltovhs
dbkhstrltovhs y bg rbsth db bgbkbmths dbëjtojhs ldquob-
rbm jlrìjtbr lmlcúrojh julmdh sbülglm bgbkbmths dbmtrh dbg dosjursh, rbchr-
zlmdh lsë su vlghr jhfbsovh.
Rm bstudoh rblgozldh bm lnbels phr um `ruph db jobmtë 󿬌jhs fl dbkhstrldh
qub ïstls pubdbm bmtbmdbr jhmjbpths tlm bglnhrldhs jhkh sokogotud y
docbrbmjol.
Tb jubmth qub julmdh brl pbqubül (4 lühs), ko kldrb lgquogú uml pobzl
(Jlsls db Lgquogbr)1 bm bsl jlsl plslnlm jhsls kuy bxtrlüls bm gls
mhjfbs.
Zo quobrbs sbùor
jhpljgun.jhk. thdhs ghs plrtodhs
jhmhjbrìs
jhmhjbrìs
Lggë somchrklm
quoïmbs pbrdbrtbjldl
dbtlggb, pubdbs jhmbjtlrtb l
plrbel...
:?3 7F2=5 ¸Dbg jhgbòh8... ¸Db 7so`gls= N.R.Y. 7/so`gls= h (--=)... db
(--=) 7so`gls= B.@.N. 7/so`gls=8... 7sokugtìmbh= Nubmh.
:?0 7B>=5 Bm `bmbrlg 7/sokugtìmbh=.
:?6 7F2=5 Db ko btlpl jhkh jhkh (--=)... bm 7so`gls= B.@.N. 7/so`gls=...
vlkhs, gl rbjubrdh (--=)... tbm`h kuy... vl`hs rbjubrdhs
ljbrjl db bstl btlpl (JHSEL).
Bm julmth l ghs julmto󿬌jldhrbs, su jlpljodld rbcbrbmjolg mh tobmb qub
vbr jhm gl odbmto󿬌jljoúm db um rbcbrbmtb, somh jhm uml omchrkljoúm db
mõkbrh h tlklüh dbsvomjugldh db gls pbrshmls `rlkltojlgbs. Zu vlghr jh-
fbsovh bs, som
umovbrslgbs bknlr`h,
y mh okphrtlmtb. Lsë, ghs‚thdhs,
umovbrslgbs-bxostbmjolgbs julmto 󿬌julgquobrl,
jldhrbs omdb 󿬌modhs
lgùobm,
lgùmhs, mldob, htrhs‚ sb utogozlm jhm crbjubmjol bm cumjoúm jltlcúrojl.
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <>:
Ghs bsjlglrbs ‚kujfhs, nlstlmtbs, dbklsoldhs, phjhs‚ y ghs `rldltovhs

‚ phjh, kujfh, lg`h, kìs, kbmhs
kbmhs‚‚ jrblm rbdbs rbcbrbmjolgbs jhm kujfl
cubrzl jhfbsovl.
Lgùmhs bebkpghs db omtbrljtovodld5 bsths shm ghs bmgljbs db ghs bebkpghs db
omtbrljtovodld khstrldhs bm jglsb db Dosbüh Ludohvosulg.
Zom dudl l kujfhs gbs plrbjb klg bg lnhrth Q…[, pbrh jlso momùmh jrbb hnrlr klg
phr utogozlr um jhmdúm. _ ph jhss hnebtlm mh yl l gl fhkhsbxulgodld, somh l qub
phjh
quobmbs gl prhcbslm sb umlm db klmbrl gb`lg Q…[ (Elvobr Klrëls, BYZ).
Mumjl flrbkhs nlstlmtb phr trlnlelr bm gl soknohsos umovbrsodld-bkprbsl.
Ybrh phmbr dbklsoldh bg ljbmth bm bstl jubstoúm pubdb fljbrmhs hgvodlr
htrls. Gl jrbljoúm dbg Bspljoh Burhpbh db Bdujljoúm Zupbrohr (BBBZ) pbjl
db bsl dbnogodld. (fttp5//www.Bdujlwbn.jhk).
(fttp5//www.Bdujlwbn.jhk).
Rm khthr. Jultrh rubdls y uml db rbpubsth. Rm vhglmtb. ¸Tlmth
¸Tlmth sb docbrbmjol
um NKPshnrb
bstïrogbs db julgquobr
so mubstrhshtrh jhjfb8
jhjfbs Yrbcbrokhs
shm pbhrbs mh bmtrlr
h kbehrbs bm dosjusohmbs
qub htrhs.
Htrls prhchrkls jhm vlghr jhfbsovh shm bg ldebtovh klrjldhr db odbmto-
dld koskh, h gl bxprbsoúm julmto󿬌jltovl ghs dbkìs pubs rbcubrzlm gl odbl db
odbmtodld rbcbrbmjolg jhm htrh bgbkbmth dbg tbxth.
Zb suphmb qub bstl rbhrdbmljoúm rbsphmdb l uml supubstl ‖rljohmlgozljoúm‟,
y som bknlr`h bs bvodbmtb gl orrljohmlgodld db gl koskl y gl clgtl db jhmbxoúm
bmtrb bstl prhpubstl y ghs hnebtov
hnebtovhs
hs gom`÷ëstojhs db gl prhpol Rmoúm Burhpbl
(fttp5//www.Bdujlwbn.jhk).
Yhr su plrtb, ghs julmto󿬌jldhrbs chjlgbs omjguybmtbs ‚tlknoïm, tlkphjh,
omjgush, flstl, mo soquobrl‚ y bxjguybmtbs ‚súgh, lg kbmhs‚ bxo`bm, phr su
mlturlgbzl, rbkotorsb
bg qub prhybjtlm l um rbcbrbmtb
jlpljodld mhknrldh jhm lmtbrohrodld, qub bs shnrb
ghjlgozldhrl.
Thdhs ghs jubrphs, phr bg fbjfh db bstlr l uml jobrtl tbkpbrlturl supbrohr lg
jbrh lnshguth, bkotbm uml dbtbrkomldl jlmtodld db rldoljoúm bgbjtrhkl`mïtojl
(vïlsb jubrph mb`rh), jhm gh julg pobrdbm bmbr`ël, bmcroìmdhsb y jlgbmtlmdh
htrhs jubrphs. Tlknoïm shm jlpljbs db lnshrnbr rldoljoúm db um jubrph qub
bstï l tbkpbrlturl klyhr, jlgbmtìmdhsb.
Trls um okpljth su󿬌jobmtbkbmtb phdbrhsh gl ltkúscbrl jlknolrël
rìpodlkbmtb, lg oùlg qub gl ljtovodld `bhgúòjl dbg pglmbtl b, omjgush, sus
jlrljtbrëstojls hrnotlgbs.
>) Ghs lrtëjughs

Rm jlsh plrtojuglr db rbcbrbmjolgodld bmdhcúrojl gh jhmstotuybm ghs lrtëju-
ghs. Rmh db ghs prhjbdokobmths qub kìs crbjubmtbkbmtb utogozlm ghs flnglmtbs
plrl sbülglr gl docbrbmjol bmtrb bg ush db omchrkljoúm jhmhjodl y gl omtrhduj-

joúm db omchrkljoúm mubvl bs l trlvïs dbg ush lgtbrmltovh dbg lrtëjugh db 󿬌modh
y dbg lrtëjugh omdb 󿬌modh. Lsë, jhkh vbkhs bm ghs bebkpghs soùobmtbs, lplrbjb
um mhknrb prbjbdodh h mh db um lrtëjugh omdb󿬌modh db klmbrl qub l jhmtomul-
joúm yl sb gb pubdb trltlr jhkh um hnebth jhmhjodh.
Rm ltbmtldh suojodl jlusl lg kbmhs <2 kubrths bm Osrlbg. Gl bxpghsoúm sb
prhdueh bm uml dosjhtbjl jbrj
jbrjll db Tbg Lvov.
Lvov. Q...[ Gl dosjhtbjl, sotuldl jbrjl
db…
Rmh db ghs sbjrbths kbehr ùlrdldhs qub rbvbglkhs lfhrl plrl to. Bg sbjrbth
db gl btbrml euvbmtud.
Zom bknlr`h, bg lsumth bs kujfh kìs jhkpgbeh y tobmb qub vbr jhm cljth-
rbs jhkh gl mlturlgbzl db ghs mhknrbs h bg jlrìjtbr db gl rbcbrbmjol (Gbhmbtto,
( Gbhmbtto,
<??9 y <???).
Bm ghs jlshs lmtbrohrbs, bg lrtëjugh db󿬌modh okpgojl uml rbcbrbmjol bm-
dhcúrojl lmlcúrojl jglrl dhmdb ghs bgbkbmths, so mh shm odïmtojhs ‚ sbjrbth,
dosjhtbjl‚, shm jhrrbcbrbmjolgbs ‚bxpghsoúm, ltbmtldh‚. Bm htrls hjlsohmbs,
gls odbmto󿬌jljohmbs tobmbm jlrìjtbr okpgëjoth y sb nlslm bm gl suphsojoúm db
umhs jhmhjokobmths jhkplrtodhs phr plrtb db ghs omtbrghjuthrbs. Bs bg jlsh
db ghs ushs lmlcúrojhs lshjoltovhs bm ghs qub gl bxprbsoúm db󿬌modl sb rb󿬌brb
l htrl jhm gl qub phsbb lg`õm toph db vëmjugh jhmjbptulg5
Thdh bkpbzú jhm lqubggl tbrrongb thrkbmtl qub kb bkpueú l lqubg nlrrlmjh,
pbrdë bg bquopleb, uml nhtl... uml jlëdl trls htrl, klùggldurls, `hgpbs, um
dobmtb kbmhs... ¡y kos `lcls!
Gl khmturl mh gh rbsostoú, kbmhs klg qub kos gbmtbs Lorwblr sbùëlm
omtljtls plrl prhtb`brkb.
Bgo`b Lorwblr y hgvodl qub ggbv
ggbvls
ls gbmtbs.
Yb`h ljh`b yl bmtrb sus kurhs bg rbtlngh db gl
Gl O`gbsol db gl Lsumjoúm db Yb`h
Sor`bm db gl Bspbrlmzl..‛
Gl okphrtlmjol db gl dostomjoúm db󿬌modh/omdb󿬌modh bm gl jhkumojljoúm bs
kuy `rlmdb. Jhkh l󿬌rkl Klrë (<??<5 23), `rljols l bggl phdbkhs sotulr ghs
hnebths db ghs qub flnglkhs bm sotuljohmbs kìs h kbmhs prhkombmtbs bm bg
umovbrsh dbg dosjursh. Bg lrtëjugh db󿬌modh bg bs bg odbmto󿬌jldhr, qub pbrkotb
fljbr rbcbrbmjol l bmtodldbs qub yl bstìm prbsbmtbs bm bg umov
umovbrsh
brsh dbg dosjursh.
Zu ush prbsuphmb qub bg hnebth fl sodh yl kbmjohmldh h qub bg hybmtb jhmhjb
su bxostbmjol. Bm bg prokbr jlsh, bg lrtëjugh ljtõl jhkh rbjhmhjbdhr db dosjur-
sh, bm bg sbùmdh, jhkh rbjhmhjbdhr db bxostbmjol. Zb trltl db um bgbkbmth db
`rlm vlghr jhfbsovh, pubs su lplrojoúm okpugsl lg dbstomltlroh l nusjlr dbmtrh
h cubrl dbg dosjursh bg bgbkbmth mhknrldh y l odbmto󿬌jlrgh jhkh jhmhjodh.
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <>2
Yhr su plrtb, um suphmb gl lusbmjol db omdojljohmbs plrl ghjlgozlr lg rbcbrbmtb,

omtrhdujb um bgbkbmth mubvh phr gh qub mh phsbb omtbrprbtljoúm lmìchrojl. Rm
ljtõl
y qub jhkh
mh sb prbsbmtldhr db dosjursh,
dl phr jhmhjodh. Julmdh omtrhdujb um hnebth
sb kbmjohml mh kbmjohmldh
db mubvh lmtbs
dojfh hnebth sb
fljb jhm bg lrtëjugh bg.
:. Gl dboxos tbxtulg h dosjursovl

Gl dboxos dbg dosjursh tobmb qub vbr jhm gl phsonogodld qub tobmb bg
flnglmtb db rbcbrorsb lg prhpoh dosjursh. Gl omjguokhs dbmtrh db gl dboxos
bmdhcúrojl bm gl kbdodl bm qub bg tbxth chrkl plrtb db gh yl dojfh h db gh
qub sb mhknrlrì bm bg omtbrjlknoh jhkumojltovh
jhkumojltovh y, phr tlmth, bs susjbp-
tongb db jhmvbrtorsb bm hnebth db rbcbrbmjol. Gl dboxos tbxtulg phdrì sbr
lmlcúrojl h jltlcúrojl sb`õm sb fl`l rbcbrbmjol l gh yl dojfh h l gh qub
vobmb l jhmtomuljoúm.
ths dbëjtojhs jhm vlghrZubgbm utogozlrsb
bspljolg plrl rblgozlr
h tbkphrlg bstl cumjoúm
(lmtbs, dbspuïs, kìsbgbkbm-
lrronl,
kìs lnleh).
Jhkh sbülgìnlkhs kìs lrronl, bs docëjog jhkprbmdbr gls jhrrobmtbs ko`rl-
throls som nlrlelr cljthrbs phgëtojhs y bjhmúkojhs, jhkh gl okphsonogodld db
ghs `hnobrmhs db hro`bm db lsukor julgquobr toph db prbstljoúm.
Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël
NBMSBMOZTB, Ï. (<?33)5 Yrhngbkls db gom`÷ëstojl `bmbrlg, O, Kïxojh, Zo-
`gh VVO, <?04.
VVO, <?00. JLMH, Y. (<?0?)5 Dbëxos bspljolg y tbkphrlg bm bg sostbkl
JL^NHMB^H
gom`÷ëstojh, Zbvoggl, Rmovbrsodld db Zbvoggl.
JOCRBMTBZ FHM^RNOL, E.G. (<?6?)5 Gbmùl y bspljoh. Omtrhdujjoúm lg
prhngbkl
prhn dbëxos bm bsplühg, Lgojlmtb, Rmovbrsodld db Lgojlmtb.
gbkl db gl dbëxos
CB^MÌMDBU ZHÔLMH, H. (<???)5 «Bg prhmhknrb pbrshmlg. Chrkls y
dostronujohmbs. Yrhmhknrbs ìthmhs y túmojhs±, bm O. NHZ\RB y S. DB-
KHMTB (jhhrds.)5 @rlkìtojl dbsjroptovl db gl gbmùl bsplühgl, Kl-
drod, Bsplsl-Jlgpb, pp. <>9?-<>04.
FLGGODL_, K.L.A. y ^. FLZLM (<?03)5 Jhfbsohm om Bm`gosf, Ghmdrbs,
Ghm`klm, <?6:.
AB^N^LT-H^BJJFOHMO, J. (<?69)5 Gl bmumjoljoúm. Db gl sunebtovodld
bm bg gbmùleb, Nubmhs Lorbs, Fljfbttb, <?63.
GBHMBTTO ERM@G, K. (<??9)5 Bg lrtëjugh y gl rbcbrbmjol, Kldrod, Tlurus.
————— (<???)5 «Bg lrtëjugh±,

lr tëjugh±, bm O.
O . NHZ\RB y S.
S. DBKHMTB (jhkps.)5
(j hkps.)5
060-6?9. (<?6?)5 Yrl`kìtojl, Nlrjbghml, Tbodb.
GBSOMZHM
G_HMZ, E. (<?6:)5 Gbmùleb, so`mo
so`mo 󿬌 jhmtbxth,, Nlrjbghml, Ylodús.
󿬌jldh y jhmtbxth
KL^Ë, O. (<??<)5 «Gl dbtbrkomljoú±, bm JHK, 6, pp. 22-26.
KL^ZÌ, C. (<?64)5 «Dbtbrkomljoúm, prhmhkomlgodld, lmìchrl y dboxos±, bm
Jubstohmbs db somtlxos bsplühgl, Nlrjbghml, Lrobg, pp. ?>-<93.
KL^TËMBU ^ROU, ^. (>999)5 «Gl dboxos±, bm L. NÔU y @ruph SLG.
BZ.JH ¸Júkh sb jhkbmtl um tbxth jhghquolg8, Nlrjbghml, Lrobg, pp.
>4:->3>.
KBDB^HZ KL^TËM, F. (<?66)5 Yrhj Yrhjbdokobmths
bdokobmths db jhfbsoúm bm bg bsplühg
ljtulg, Zlmtl Jruz db Tbmbrocb, Bxjkh. Jlnogdh Omsuglr db Tbmbrocb.
KB_, E.G. (<??:)5 Yrl`kltojs. Lm omtrhdujtohm, Hxchrd, Ngljawbgg.
^HEH, @. y L. SBO@L (<???)5 «Bg tobkph vbrnlg. Ghs tobkphs sokpgbs±,
bm O. NHZ\RB y S. DBKHMTB (jhhrds.)5 @rlkìtojl dbsjroptovl db gl
gbmùl bsplühgl, Kldrod, Bsplsl-Jlgpb, pp. >630->?:4.
SOJBMTB KLTBR, E.L. (<??4)5 Gl dboxos. B`hjbmtroskh y sunebtovodld bm
bg gbmùleb, Kurjol, Rmov
Rmovbrsodld
brsodld db Kurjol.
Nongoh`rlcël
jhkpgbkbmtlrol
LGHMZH, L. (<?30)5 «Bstogëstojl y `rlkìtojl dbg lrtëjugh bm bsplühg±, bm
Bstudohs gom`÷ëstojhs. Tbkls bsplühgbs, Kldrod, @rbdhs, pp. <>2-<39.
B@R^BM, G.E. (<???)5 «Yrhmhknrbs y ldvbrnohs dbkhstrltovhs. Gls rbgl-
johmbs dbëjtojls±, bm O. NHZ\RB y S. DBKHMTB (jhkps.)5 @rlkìtojl
dbsjroptovl db
FB^MÌMDBU gl gbmùl bsplühgl
ZLJÔZTÌM, , Kldrod,
J. (<??2)5 Bsplsl-Jlgpb,
«Dbëxos pp. ?>?-?0>.
shjolg y jhrtbsël bm tbxths
jobmtë 󿬌jhs5 um bstudoh jhmtrlstovh±, Sbrnl, >>, pp. 400-299.
KHGFH, K. (<??>)5 «Gl dboxos bsplühgl. Gbjturl dbg so`mo 󿬌jlmtb±, bm B.
GRML T^LOGG (bd.)5 Zjroptl Yfoghghòjl om fhmhrbk Eulm K. Ghpb
Nglmjf, Kïxojh, RMLK, pp. >9:-><0.
KH^BG, K.L. y G. DLMHM-NHOGBLR (bds.) (<??>)5 Gl dboxos, Ylrës,
YRC.
         
y S. DBKHMTB (jhkps.)5 @rlkìtojl dbsjroptovl db gl gbmùl bsplüh-
gl, Kldrod, Bsplsl-Jlgpb, pp. <4>0-<2<0.
^HD^Ë@RBU OU\ROB^DH y @LSLGL, C. (<?03)5 «Gl dboxos lmlcúrojl bm
bg lrtëjugh bsplühg. Jhkplrljoúm db tbxths db phbsël y jhmvbrsljoúm±,
^BG, 3-<, pp. <<:-<:<.
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <>0
ZLGÚ, K.E. (<??:)5 «Gl dboxos bm bg jlkph khstrltovh y prbsbmtltovh±,

prbsbmtltovh±, ^b-
vostl db Coghgh`ël Crlmjbsl, 4, pp. >:<->42.
SB^L GREÌM, L. (<?0?)5 «Gl bstrujturl dbg jlkph dbëjtojh-pbrshmlg bm
bsplühg5 bg prhmhknrb±, Lmlgbjtl Klgljotlml
Klgljotlml, OO-<, pp. :->2.
————— (<?6<)5 «Ghs ldebtovhs dbëjtojhs bm bsplühg±, Lmlgbs Rmovbrso-
dld db Kurjol, VVVSOOO-<, pp. <2?-<03.
Ljtovodldbs
<. Bxpgojl bm ghs soùobmtbs
soùobmtbs tbxths
tbxths gl cumjoúm db gl dboxos
dboxos bxhcúrojl.
bxhcúrojl.
Dovoïrtbtb thdh gh qub quobrls jrblmdh um pbomldh mubvh.
Bxprïsltb. Zo tõ brbs õmojh ¸mh dbnbrël tu tbgïchmh sbrgh tlknoïm8
Fhy l gls dhjb db gl klülml bm gl Ylrrhquol db Zlm Ylngh tbmdrì gu`lr
bg cumbrlg phr gl kuebr lsbsomldl lybr bm su dhkojogoh phr su jhkplübrh
sbmtokbmtlg. Gub`htbmsoúm.
bsjbmls db kujfl gl jhkotovl
jhkotovl sb doroòrì
(Dolroh lg jbkbmtbroh y lggë sb bspbrlm
Omchrkljoúm).
>. Zbülgl gls prhchrkls
prhchrkls qub lplrbjbm bm bg soùobmtb tbxth y eusto󿬌jl su
cumjoúm jhfbsovl.
l) Bsth bs gh qub mhs hjurrb l vbjbs l gls pbrshmls, qub mh mhs thklkhs
ghs lsumths bm sbroh y gub`h mhs ggbvlkhs shrprbsls y dbjokhs5 «Bs
qub yh jrbël qub cuglmoth mh flnglnl bm sbroh±, y së, cuglmoth gh tbmël
jglrësokh y tõ mh tb bmtbrlnls dbg tbkl bm lnshguth.‛
n) ¸Bstì rbscroldh y sb sobmtb cltlg8¡Jhrtb phr gh slmh y mh sb phm`l
pbhr! ZLKNRJHG… phrqub gl kbehr dbcbmsl bs um nubm ltlqub.
Yrubnb jhm ZLKNRJHG, bg prhdujth mlturlg l nlsb db slujh, qub gb
lyudlrì l ljlnlr jhm su klgbstlr kujfh lmtbs db gh qub bspbrl.
j) Yhr thdh bggh, julmdh sb jhrtb gl jhgbtl, phdrì dbjor qub phjls vbjbs
tuvh gëmbls bstõpodls bm sus doìgh`hs. _ bsh bs uml chrkl db mh qubdlrsb
kudh plrl sobkprb.
:. ¸\uï cumjoúm
cumjoúm rblgozl gl dbtbrkomljoúm
dbtbrkomljoúm bm ghs soùobmtbs crl`kbmths
tbxtulgbs8
Rm lrtbcljth jlr`ldh jhm lkhslg bxpghsohmú lybr crbmtb l gl sbdb dbg YY
db Nognlh. Bg lrtbcljth, qub phr gh vosth cub ljtovldh
ljtovldh l dostlmjol...
Gl Tobrrl phsbb um õmojh sltïgotb mlturlg, gl Guml.
4. Lmlgozl thdhs ghs kbjlmoskhs
kbjlmoskhs db jhfbsoúm
jhfbsoúm `rlkltojlg qub lplrbzjlm
bm bg soùobmtb tbxth5
Bg
kìsprhybjth «Rm lüh bmphr
glr`l bkprbmdodl gl @rbbmpbljb.
vodl db mubstrhs
Jhmhjïlmhs± bs gl voleb
bstb omjrbëngb bxpbdojoúm
db um
lüh db durljoúm jhmhjbrìs gl fosthrol db gl jrosos l gl qub sb bmcrbmtlm

mubstrhs hjïlmhs, dbsdb gls Lzhrbs flstl gl Lmtìrtodl. Tb ggbvlrì l
gu`lrbs dhmdb súgh lgùmhs flm ggb`ldh, dbsbmklsjlrlrbkhs l ghs
rbsphmslngbs db ljjohmbs ogb`lgbs y prhphmdrbkhs shgujohmbs5 y tõ
pubdbs umortb l mhshtrhs.
Bs jobrth qub ghs hjïlmhs shm kuy ltrljtovhs plrl kujfl `bmtb,
pbrh phjhs shkhs jhmsjobmtbs db gh qub bstì plslmdh kìs lggì db
mubstrls pglyls y dbg `rldh db dbstrujjoúm y bg okpljth qub sucrbm
mubstrhs klrbs. Solelmdh l gl klyhrël db ghs hjïlmhs dbg kumdh,
ïsth bs gh qub prbtbmdb gl gl bxpbdojoúm5 fljbr vosongb gh omvosongb.
Jlso jldl vbz qub rbsporls, bg hxë`bmh prhvobmb db ghs hjïlmhs.
Ghs hjïlmhs dlm vodl lg pglmbtl, y l jlknoh, gh bstlkhs lfh`lmdh1
l`htlmdh gl pbsjl, phmobmdh bm pbgo`rh bg sustbmth db gls jhkumodldbs
pbsqubrls, kltlmdh omdosjrokomldlkbmtb l kogbs db jrolturls,
omjguybmdh nlggbmls, thrtu`ls, lvbs klromls y jhrlgbs kogbmlrohs,
fbkhs jhmtlkomldh ghs hjïlmhs y fbkhs prhvhjldh su jlgbmtlkobmth
phr jlusl dbg jlknoh jgokìtojh. Durlmtb bstb voleb qubrbkhs qub tb
umls l mhshtrhs. Dhmdbquobrl qub bstïs, pubdbs lyudlr l dbcbmdbr tus
hjïlmhs. ¡Jhmvoïrtbtb bm um dbcbmshr db ghs hjïlmhs!
Mubstrhh hnebtovh5 gls rbsbrvls
Mubstr rbsbrvls klromls
klromls
Bg jhkbtodh promjoplg db gl bxpbdojoúm sbrì gl jrbljoúm db uml rbd
`ghnlg db plrqubs klromhs gglkldhs rbsbrvls klromls. Lg oùlg qub ghs
          
bsbmjolgbs plrl rbstlurlr gl dovbrsodld qub jlrljtbrozlnl mubstrhs klrbs.
Mukbrhshs `hnobrmhs pobmslm lg oùlg qub mhshtrhs qub sb trltl db uml
rbd db votlg okphrtlmjol. Gls Mljohmbs
Mljohmbs Rmodls sb flmflm jhkprhkbtodh l
bstudolr ghs pumths dhmdb dbnbrìm sotulrsb bstls rbsbrvls plrl 󿬌mlgbs db
>993. Ybrh bsth okpgojl jbrrlr ìrbls l gl pbsjl y kujfhs `hnobrmhs sb
rbsostbm. Lsë qub gbs cljogotlrbkhs bg trlnleh. Lg 󿬌mlg dbg voleb tbmdrbkhs
odbmto󿬌jldhs bm mubstrh klpl @hh`gb ghs pumths dhmdb dbnbrìm sotulrsb
bstls rbsbrvls klromls, y gls rlzhmbs plrl bggh.

2.4. Gl jhfbsoúm gïxojl bm bsplühg

2.4.<. Gl dokbmsoúm somtl`kìtojl dbg so`mo󿬌jldh gïxojh
Julmdh gl rbgljoúm bmtrb umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls db um tbxth sb prhdujb
bmtrb bgbkbmths jhm so`mo󿬌jldh gïxojh, bg toph db jhfbsoúm qub sb bstlngbjb
sb pubdb dbmhkomlr jhfbsoúm gïxojl. Lg oùlg qub gl jhfbsoúm `rlkltojlg, l
trlvïs db ghs kbjlmoskhs db jhfbsoúm gïxojl bg prhdujthr db um tbxth omtbmtl
klmtbmbr gl bstlnogodld rbcbrbmjolg. Bm bstb jlsh, som bknlr`h, bg hnebtovh
dbg klmtbmokobmth
gh glr`h dbg tbxth, dbdbglfërbcbrbmtb bs lsbùrlr
qub phdlkhs flnglrgldbjhmto`÷odld
kbjlmoskhs dbdb
so`mo 󿬌jldh l
rbotbrljoúm
h rbpbtojoúm. Gl rbjurrbmjol qub, jhkh yl slnbkhs, bs plrl kujfhs gom`÷os-
tls bg prhjbsh kìs so`mo󿬌jltovh plrl db󿬌mor gl tbxtulgodld, bmjubmtrl bm ghs
prhjbdokobmths gïxojhs su bxprbsoúm kìs bvodbmtb. Bm bstb sbmtodh, gl jhfb-
soúm gïxojl bstì dorbjtlkbmtb rbgljohmldl jhm gl jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg pubs bm
rblgodld nubml plrtb dbg jhmtbmodh tbxtulg sb shstobmb shnrb gls pobzls gïxojls
jlr`ldls db so`mo󿬌jldh qub, l su vbz, prhphrjohmlm jhfbsoúm lg tbxth.
Ybrh gl jhfbsoúm gïxojl mh bs súgh um cbmúkbmh sbkìmtojh mo sb bxpgojl
õmojlkbmtb l trlvïs dbg toph db rbgljohmbs bmtrb so`mo 󿬌jldhs qub bstl dosjo-
pgoml fl db󿬌modh (lumqub, bvodbmtbkbmtb, jhmstotuybm uml plrtb okphrtlmtb
db ghs cbmúkbmhs jhfbsovhs). Gl jhfbsoúm gïxojl bs tlknoïm um cbmúkbmh
prl`kìtojh, bs dbjor, rbgljohmldh jhm ghs usulrohs y jhm ghs jhmtbxths db ush
bm ghs qub umls dbtbrkomldls umodldbs gïxojls ldquobrbm su sbmtodh tbxtulg h
dosjursovhh (Jlnrï y Lrto`ls,
dosjursov Lrto`ls, <?6?). Lg oùlg qub hjurrël bm gl jhfbrbmjol, ph-
dbkhs tlknoïm lquë l󿬌rklr qub gls rbgljohmbs qub pubdb bstlngbjbrsb bmtrb
uml sbrob db umodldbs gïxojls l trlvïs db gls julgbs trlmsjurrb bg so`mo󿬌jldh
tbxtulg mh bs sobkprb mo mbjbslrolkbmtb uml rbgljoúm db toph bstrujturlg bmtrb
so`mo󿬌jldhs1 bm bg klmtbmokobmth dbg sbmtodh dbg tbxth bstìm dorbjtlkbmtb
okpgojldls gls rbgljohmbs prl`kìtojls qub sb trldujbm tlmth bm gl odbmto󿬌jl-
joúm db ghs kbjlmoskhs jh`motovhs
jh`motovhs qub pbrkotbm bg bstlngbjokobmt
bstlngbjokobmthh db klr-
jhs y ùohmbs kbmtlgbs, jhkh bm gl bxostbmjol db jhmhjokobmths jhkplrtodhs
phr ghs flnglmtbs qub pbrkotbm bstlngbjbr rbgljohmbs bmtrb umodldbs qub, bm
promjopoh, mh phsbbm mom`õm toph db rbgljoúm dbmtrh dbg sostbkl db gl gbmùl
(Nbgomjfúm, <???).
<:9 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
Jhkh bm jlso thdhs ghs lspbjths qub fbkhs vosth flstl lfhrl, bm gl jgl-
so󿬌jljoúm db ghs kbjlmoskhs db jhfbsoúm gïxojl tlkphjh ghs jrotbrohs bstìm
umo󿬌jldhs. Flggodly y Flsslm (<?03) sbülglrhm gl jhfbsoúm gïxojl jhkh umh
db ghs jomjh tophs db glzhs jhfbsovhs qub prhphrjohmlnlm tbxturl lg tbxth y
dostomùobrhm dhs tophs db prhjbdokobmths, gl jhghjljoúm y gl rbotbrljoúm, qub
sb klmo󿬌bstlm bm gl rbpbtojoúm dbg koskh tïrkomh h db htrh lshjoldh l ïg.
Yhr htrh gldh, gl sustotujoúm, plrl bsths luthrbs, omjguyb cbmúkbmhs bm ghs
qub bstìm okpgojldhs bgbkbmths gïxojhs jhkh bs bg jlsh dbg ush db prhchrkls
mhkomlgbs h vbrnlgbs. Yrhnlngbkbmtb
Yrhnlngbkbmtb bstl bs gl rlzúm phr gl qub htrhs luthrbs
(Nbrmìrdbz, <?6>) jhmsodbrlm qub gl rbpbtojoúm h rbotbrljoúm dbg so`mo 󿬌jldh
‚qub bs gh db󿬌mothroh db gl jhfbsoúm gïxojl‚ sb rblgozl l trlvïs db prhjbdo-
kobmths db sustotujoúm db umls umodldbs phr htrls sb`õm jrotbrohs bstlngbjo-
dhs phr gls rbgljohmbs sbkìmtojls. Bm rblgodld, bg tïrkomh sustotujoúm rbsugtl
nlstlmtb ldbjuldh pubs bm ïg sb bmjobrrlm tlmth gl odbl db rbotbrljoúm db um
so`mo󿬌jldh (so pubdh sustotuor um bgbkbmth phr htrh bs phrqub bmtrb bgghs
bxostb lg`õm toph db rbgljoúm qub ghs lprhxokl sbkìmtojlkbmtb) jhkh gl odbl
db vlroljoúm, bs dbjor, jhm gl mbjbsodld db mh rbpbtor odïmtojl umodld gïxojl mo
jrblr um movbg db rbdumdlmjol qub fl`l kuy docëjog su jhkprbmsoúm.
Bm mubstrh jlsh vlkhs l docbrbmjolr trbs tophs db prhjbdokobmths
jhfbsovhs5
l) Jhfbsoúm nlsldl bm gl rbpbtojoúm dbg koskh gbxbkl.
n) Jhfbsoúm nlsldl bm gl rbotbrljoúm dbg so`mo
so`mo󿬌jldh.
j) Bquov
Bquovlgbmjols
lgbmjols rbcbrbmjolgbs nlsldls bm gls rbgljohmbs
rbgljohmbs prl`kìtojls.
prl`kìtojls.
Ghs kbjlmoskhs qub vlkhs l l`ruplr bm l) y n) tobmbm qub vbr jhm gls
rbgljohmbs bstrujturlgbs qub sb bstlngbjbm bmtrb ghs so`mo 󿬌jldhs dbmtrh dbg
sostbkl db gl gbmùl5 somhmokol, lmthmokol, fophmokol b fopbrhmokol y ush
db prh
prhchrkls
chrkls gïxojls. Bm julmth l j) sb trltl db dbtbrkomlr phr um gldh quï
kbjlmoskhs jh`motovhs phmbm bm cumjohmlkobmth ghs usulrohs db gl gbmùl
bm um omtbrjlknoh jhkumojltovh qub gbs pbrkotbm bstlngbjbr rbgljohmbs bmtrb
umodldbs gïxojls, y, phr htrh, juìg bs bg plpbg db ghs jhmhjokobmths jhkplr-
todhs bmtrb ghs omtbrghjuthrbs y bm quï kbdodl ïsths pbrkotbm tlknoïm vom-
juglr so`mo󿬌jldhs bm promjopoh mh rbgljohmldhs phr bg sostbkl db gl gbmùl.
Omjguokhs lquë gls rbgljohmbs trhphgúòjls, pubs bg trltlkobmth qub bm ghs
õgtokhs lühs flm rbjonodh gl kbtìchrl y gl kbthmokol dbsdb gl gom`÷ëstojl
sb doro`b, shnrb thdh, fljol ghs lspbjths jh`motovhs
jh`motovhs y prl`kìtojhs qub fljbm
phsongb gls rbgljohmbs db sbkbelmzl y jhmto`÷odld bm gls qub sb jhmjrbtlm
bsths cbmúkbmhs.
Fbkhs sbplrldh gl rbpbtojoúm db gl rbotbrljoúm, pubs, bm bg prokbr jlsh, sb
trltl db gl hjurrbmjol kìs h kbmhs kltozldl dbg koskh gbxbkl bm um koskh
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <:<
dosjursh, kobmtrls qub gl rbotbrljoúm db um koskh so`mo󿬌jldh sb jhmjrbtl l

trlvïs db uml sbrob db kbjlmoskhs qub pbrkotbm utogozlr gbxbkls dostomths
plrl omsostor bm um koskh so`mo󿬌jldh tbxtulg. Tlkphjh bs lrnotrlrol gl sb-
jubmjol bmdb
bm bg toph gl qub fbkhs gúòjls
rbgljohmbs sotuldh qub
ghs cbmúkbmhs
sb dlm bmtrby mhs fbkhs(Gumdquost,
gbxbkls nlsldh plrl<?695
bggh
4:). Zomhkomol y lmthmokol klmtobmbm rbgljohmbs db omtbrsbjjoúm. Tlmth plrl
qub phdlkhs bstlngbjbr uml rbgljoúm db sbkbelmzl db so`mo 󿬌jldh jhkh plrl
bstlngbjbr uml rbgljoúm db hphsojoúm, bs mbjbslroh qub ghs gbxbkls okpgojldhs
phsblm lg`õm sbkl bm jhkõm, bs dbjor, flyl uml nlsb sbkìmtojl qub fl`l
phsongb bsl rbgljoúm. Yhdbkhs dosjutor so kljbtl y tobsth shm somúmokhs, pbrh,
dbsdb gub`h, mh fly phsonogodld db bstlngbjbr dojfl rbgljoúm bmtrb kljbtl y
brhh, phr bebkpgh, lg mh jhkplrtor mom`õm sbkl. Yhr htrl plrtb, gl foph-
chmtlmbr
chmtlm
mokol y gl fopbrhmokol sb nlslm bm rbgljohmbs omjgusovls, db pbrtbmbmjol l uml
koskl jglsb. Gl prhchrkls gïxojls sbrëlm bg jlsh kìs bvodbmtb db gbxbkls
jlpljbs db lnlrjlr ‚dldl gl lkpgotud db su so`mo 󿬌jljoúm‚ um mõkbrh klyhr
db bgbkbmths supbrhrdomldhs.
Gl jlrljtbrozljoúm sbkìmtojl db ghs gbxbkls lsë jhkh gls rbgljohmbs sb-
kìmtojls qub klmtobmbm chrklm som dudl umh db ghs jlpëtughs kìs jhkpgbehs
db ghs bstudohs gom`÷ëstojhs (Yhrtobr,
(Yhrtobr, >999). Mhshtrhs bstlkhs omtbrbsldhs bm
gl chrkl bm qub bshs gbxbkls bstlngbjbm bm bg mov
movbg
bg tbxtulg rbdbs jhmjbptul-
gbs y tbkìtojls qub mhs pbrkotbm tlmth jhkumojlr um dbtbrkomldh jhmtbmodh
jhkh jhkprbmdbr um kbmsleb tbxtulg bm uml dbtbrkomldl sotuljoúm jhku-
mojltovl.
@utoïrrbz Hrdúübz (<?6?5 60-?9) db󿬌mb ghs somtl`kls h bsqubkls som-
tl`kìtojhs jhkh so`mhs qub bstlngbjbm rbgljohmbs somtìjtojls. Ghs somtl`kls
bstlrëlm jhkpubsths db bgbkbmths kbmhrbs jhm cumjoúm so`mo󿬌jltovl5
Zomtl`kl; +/- so`mh gïxojh +/-so`mh `rlkltojlg +/-so`mh somtbkìtojh
Bg so`mo󿬌jldh dbg so`mh gïxojh, dbmhkomldh gbxbkl (Jhsbrou) h sbkb-

kl (Yhttobr) pubdb hnsbrvlrsb bm su dokbmsoúm plrldo`kìtojl h bm dokbm-
soúm somtl`kìtojl. Bm bg prokbr jlsh tbmdrëlkhs qub dostomùor bg sbklm-
tbkl jhkh bg «jhmeumth db rls`hs pbrtombmtbs db so`mo 󿬌jljoúm qub hphmbm
um sbkbkl l thdhs ghs dbkìs kobknrhs db su sostbkl±, pbrh dbsdb gl
dokbmsoúm somtl`kìtojl bstlrëlkhs omtbrbsldhs bm bg jglsbkl, «umh h vl-
rohs rls`hs db so`mo󿬌jljoúm qub db󿬌mbm gls phsonogodldbs jhknomlthrols db
mlturlgbzl sbkìmtojl db um so`mh gïxojh±. \ub gls umodldbs gïxojls phsblm
phs blm
jglsbkls, h sbl, rls`hs qub pbrkotlm gl jhknomlthrol somtl`kìtojl, bs gh
qub fljb phsongb prbjoslkbmtb qub bm um tbxth sb pubdlm tbebr rbgljohmbs
<:> Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl
oshtúpojls h rbdbs db jldbmls mhkomltovls shnrb gls qub sb shstobmb bg so`-

mo󿬌jldh. Gl jglso󿬌jljoúm y bspbjo󿬌jljoúm db gls vlgbmjols somtl`kìtojls
mh bs tlrbl db bstb trlnleh, pbrh bg bstudoh db gl jhfbsoúm qub sb prhdujb
bm uml tbxth
dudl `rljols
lnumdlr shnrbl gls
glslphrtljohmbs
rbgljohmbs bmtrb
qub glumodldbs gïxojls
pbrspbjtovl jhglnhrl
tbxtulg som
y dosjur-
sovl shnrb bg so`mo󿬌jldh pubdb fljbr l gl sbkìmtojl.
2.4.>. Gl jhfbsoúm nlsldl bm gl rbpbtojoúm dbg koskh gbxbkl

Jhmsostb bm gl prbsbmjol dbg koskh gbxbkl bm um koskh tbxth. Gl rb-
pbtojoúm pubdb hnbdbjbr l uml khtovljoúm jhmjrbtl phr plrtb dbg flnglmtb
‚omsostbmjol bm gl odbl bxljtl‚ h phr gl omjlpljodld db ïstb plrl utogozlr htrhs
tïrkomhs. Zo bg gbxbkl bs odïmtojh dorbkhs qub gl rbpbtojoúm bs thtlg. Zbrì
plrjolg bm bg jlsh db trlmsjltb`hrozljohmbs dbvbrnlgbs h dbmhkomlgbs (Kb-
dbrhs, <?665 <<6).
Thdhs ghs moühs dbg kumdh, kbmhs umh, jrbjbm. _ mh súgh jrbjbm, somh
qub bmsbùodl slnbm qub fly qub jrbjbr (Klruel
(Klruel Thrrbs, BYZ).
Gl nbggbzl dbg pbgh bkpobzl phr um pbgh slmh.
Rml vbz qub fl sodh rbstlurldh bm Slgbmjol phr bg Jbmtrh Tïjmojh
db ^bstlurljoúm db gl Jhmsbggbrol db Jugturl. Gl rbstlurljoúm fl
dbvubgth...‛
2.4.:. Gl jhfbsoúm nlsldl bm gl rbotbrljoúm dbg koskh so`mo󿬌jldh

Zb ggbvl l jlnh kbdolmtb bg ush db ghs soùobmtbs prhjbdokobmths5
<) Zomhmokol h julso somhmokol. L gh glr`h dbg tbxth sb utogozlm gbxbkls h
umodldbs kìs jhkpgbels jhm so`mo󿬌jldhs qub bg flnglmtb jhmsodbrl bquovl-
gbmtbs. Zo nobm gl odbmtodld lnshgutl db so`mo󿬌jldhs bmtrb gbxbkls bs docëjog db
bmjhmtrlr,, bs jobrth qub bxostbm rbgljohmbs somhmëkojls omjhkpgbtls ‚ghs julso
bmjhmtrlr
somúmokhs‚ y qub shm kuy crbjubmtbs bm ghs omtbrjlknohs jhkumojltovhs.
jhkumojltovhs.
Bg lsbsomh mh tuvh pobdld1 brl um jrokomlg prhnldh, um dbgomjubmtb kìs
lggì db gh oklòmlngb.
Bm bstb sbmtodh, lgùmhs luthrbs jhkh @. Zlgvldhr y @utoïrrbz Hrdúübz,
flnglm db gl phsonogodld db uml rbgljoúm db somhmokol cumjohmlg bm bg ìknoth
dbg odohgbjth db um koskh omdovoduh. Zo ïstb pbrjonb y usl jhkh somúmokhs
umodldbs gïxojls db dostomths movbgbs db gbmùl ïsths pubdbm jhmsodbrlrsb
jhkh somúmokhs.
Yhjls jhsls ùstlm tlmth jhkh «fljbrsb bg bmtbrldh±, flnbr prbsbmjoldh
bm bxjgusovl fbjfhs omsúgoths, «phsbbr gl jglvb± db lg`h h bstlr lg tlmth db
sbjrbths.
Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <::
Gl somhmokol (julso somhmokol) sb pubdb dlr tlknoïm julmdh ghs dhs tïr-
komhs mh jhkplrtbm gl koskl jltb`hrël `rlkltojlg ‚mh shm mhknrbs- pbrh
bmtrb bgghs kbdol uml rbgljoúm db mhkomlgozljoú
mhkomlgozljoúmm y uml rbgljoúm somhmëkojl.
Bstb jlsh bs bg qub Kbdbrhs (<?665 <<3) dbmhkoml «rbotbrljoúm mhkomlgozl-
dhrl± y sb dlrël bm plrbs dbg toph lkbmlzlr-ldvbrtbmjol (S-M) jhmvbmjodh-
jbrtoduknrb (LDE.M).
Yhrqub bg tëh ^bkoòh cub rhühsh flstl gëkotbs omshspbjfldhs. Q...[ Gl
tljlübrël db ^bkoòh sb cub l`rlvlmdh jhm ghs lühs.
Jhkh cbmúkbmh jhfbsovh
jhfbsovh phdbkhs dbjor qub gl somhmokol rblgozl gl ok-
phrtlmtb tlrbl db rbotbrlr bg so`mo󿬌jldh tbxtulg, dbsjlr`lr db rbdumdlmjol bx-
prbsovll lg tbxth b omtrhdujor kltozljohmbs bstogëstojls qub dbebm bm bvodbmjo
prbsov bvodbmjoll
gl omtbmjohmlgodld db quobm gls usl, jhkh vbkhs bm bg soùobmtb bebkpgh5
Flgglm bg jldìvbr db um ehvbm klrrhquë bm gl jlsl dbg dorbjthr db gl
nongohtbjl dbg Omstotuth Jbrvlmtbs bm Tìm`br.
Gl phgojël db Tìm`br fl dbsjunobrth bg jubrph som vodl db um ehvbm
klrrhquë db
db >4 lühs bm bg dhkojogoh db Elukb Nhvbr Yuehg, dorbjthr db
gl nongohtbjl dbg Omstotuth Jbrvlmtbs bm gl jotldl ghjlgodld dbg mhrtb db
Klrrubjhs.
Zb`õm gl KLY, bg jrokbm bstlrël rbgljohmldh jhm «um hsjurh jlsh
khrlg±, lg tobkph qub vlrohs vbjomhs jhomjodobrhm bm rbgltlr qub gl
vëjtokl crbjubmtlnl dbsdb fljb kbsbs bg posh dbg cumjohmlroh bsplühg.
(7fttp5//www. omchrkltovhs Tbgbjomjh.jhk=).
>) Lmthmokol
Lmthmokol. Zb prhdujb julmdh bmtrb dhs h kìs plglnrls sb bxprbslm
odbls hpubstls. Gls rbgljohmbs db hphsojoúm pubdbm sbr db dostomth toph. Zo-
ùobmdh l Gyhms (<?6?) phdbkhs dostomùor5
Lmtúmokhs prhpolkbmtb dojfhs5 shm tïrkomhs hpubsths bmtrb ghs julgbs
sb ldkotb `rldljoúm5 ùlph/cbh, gokpoh/sujoh, crëh/jlgobmtb
crëh/jlgobmtb..
¸Dbklsoldh prhmth plrl uml lmto-lrru`ls8 Movbl lgcl lyudl l rbtrlslr
gl chrkljoúm db lrru`ls.
Jhkpgbkbmtlrohs5 bmtrb lknhs tïrkomhs mh bxostb momùml htrl phso-
nogodld5 fhknrb/kuebr, vovh/kubrth, shgh/ljhkplüldh.
¸Zhkhs db vbrdld tlm dostomths fhknrbs y kuebrbs8
^bjëprhjhs5 lknhs tïrkomhs sb okpgojlm kutulkbmtb5 pldrb/foeh,
jhkprlr/vbmdbr, lm󿬌troúm/omvotldh.
Jldl vbz kìs kldrbs sb lpumtlm l tbmbr foehs kìs lggì db ghs julrbmtl
lühs.
Bg plpbg db gl lmthmokol jhkh bgbkbmth jhfbsovh bs kuy dbstljldh pubs
bstlngbjb rbgljohmbs qub hngo`lm lg dbstomltlroh l rblgozlr bg rbjhrrodh lmlcúrojh

l trlvïs dbg tbxth flstl rbjupbrlr bg so`mo󿬌jldh lmtúmokh db gl umodld gïxojl

okpgojldl. Gl lmtëtbsos y bg zbu`kl shm hpbrljohmbs l gls qub gl rbtúrojl jgìsojl
dlnl `rlm vlghr prbjoslkbmtb phr su jlpljodld dbsluthkltozldhrl
dbsluthkltozldhrl y gl cubrzl
bxprbsovl qub okprokbm lg dosjursh.
:) Fophmokol-fopbrhmokol. Gyhms (<??25 <>2-<>6) db󿬌mb gl fophmokol
jhkh uml rbgljoúm plrldo`kìtojl db sbmtodh, sb`õm gl julg, bg sbmtodh dbg
tïrkomh fopúmokh omjguyb bg sbmtodh dbg tïrkomh fopbrúmokh. Bs gl rbgl-
joúm qub klmtobmbm dhs tïrkomhs db ghs julgbs umh bs kìs bspbjë 󿬌jh y bg
htrh kìs `bmbrlg. Bm `bmbrlg sb fl trltldh jhkh uml rbgljoúm db omjgusoúm
dhmdb bg tïrkomh supbrohr bs bg fopbrúmokh y bg omcbrohr bg tïrkomh fopúmo-
kh. Zom bknlr`h, @utoïrrbz Hrdúübz (<?6?5 <>0-<>?) ldvobrtb db qub gls
rbgljohmbs db omjgusoúm qub sb dlm bm bg fopbrúmokh shm omvbrsls sb`õm bg
pumth db vostl ldhptldh. Dbsdb um pumth db vostl bxtbmsohmlg, gl jglsb db-
so`mltovll dbg fopbrúmokh bs kìs lkpgol qub gl db ghs fopúmokhs omjguodhs
so`mltov
(gl jglsb lvbs omjguyb ruosbühr, plghkl). Dbsdb bg pumth db vostl omtbmsoh-
󿬌
mlgjhmtbmodh
db bg jhmeumth
qubdbjlrljtbrozlm
rls`hs qub db mbm lg fopúmokh
lg fopbrúmokh ( plth gls prhpobdldbs
plth omjguyb thdhs ghs rls`hs
qub dbgokotlm l plgkëpbdhs kìs ghs qub gb docbrbmjolm db hjl, ìmldb).
Hrh, pgltl, nhmjb. Ghs dosbüldhrbs prhphmbm kbtlgbs prbjohshs plrl gl
mhjfb.
Bg jlkph lplrbjb bm bstl ïphjl junobrth db fobrnls lrhkìtojls.
Jlmtubsh, thkoggh, bspgob`h
bspgob`h…
…
Gl rbgljoúm db fopbrhmokol pubdb tbmbr gu`lr kbdolmtb gh qub Kbdbrhs
(<?665 <<>) dbmhkoml «lmìchrl chrzldl± qub bs gl qub sb dl bmtrb um ldeb-
tovhh y um mhknrb sobmdh bstb õgtokh fopbrúmokh db um mhknrb lusbmtb db gl
tov
koskl rlëz qub bg ldebtovh. Bs bg jlsh db5
Gls mlrlmels osrlbgës # bstb plës, gls fopútbsos jgoklthgúòjls# bsl

jobmjol.
Gls jbrbzls bxtrbkbüls shm gls kìs jhtozldls bm ghs kbrjldhs bsplühgbs
y burhpbhs. Bstl jhklrjl prhdujb kìs dbg 69% db gl prhdujjoúm db
jbrbzls dbg plës...
4) Rsh db prhchrkls gïxojls. Rm toph db rbgljoúm db fopbrhmokol bs gl qub
sb bstlngbjb julmdh sb utogozlm gls gglkldls prh chrkls. Zhm bgbkbmths gïxo-
prhchrkls.
jhs db so`mo󿬌jldh kuy lkpgoh qub sb utogozlm jhm kujfl crbjubmjol bm ghs
tbxths jhm 󿬌mlgodld `bmbrlgozldhrl. Bstls prhchrkls pubdbm sbr mhkomlgbs,
julmdh bm`ghnlm «jhmeumths lkpgohs db jglsbs somtìjtojls dbg mhknrb± (Fl-
ggodly y Flsslm, <?03) jhkh bm bsplühg pbrshml, gu`lr
gu`lr,, jhsl, lmoklg, fbjfh,
prhpobdld,
prhpobdld, julgodld,
julgodld, h vbrnlgbs jhkh fljb
fljbrr, flnb
flnbrr, tbmb
tbmbrr, sbr
sbr,, jh`br
j h`br..

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <:2
Mh sb lyudl l um pubngh ljhrrlgìmdhgb y losgìmdhgb. _ mh sb fljb, dbsdb

gub`h, bm mhknrb db gl umòdl jrostolmdld. (Klruel Thrrbs, BYZ).
Db fbjfh, y bm cumjoúm dbg mõkbrh db flnotlmtbs phr aogúkbtrh
juldrldh, gl prhvomjol bstì jhmsodbrldl «tïjmojlkbmtb± jhkh zhml
dbsïrtojl. _, jglrh bstì, mhvbmtl kog vhths shm kuy phjhs plrl qub ghs
phgëtojhs db julgquobr plrtodh sb prbhjupbm Q…[1 bs dbjor, qub ghs gu`lrbs
phjh flnotldhs, y phr tlmth phjh rbmtlngbs bgbjthrlgkbmtb, pldbzjlm
uml btbrml sotuljoúm db omcbrohrodld, uml kbrkl db sus dbrbjfhs y
lsporljohmbs, um lnshguth dbsdïm omstotujohmlg. (Elvobr Klrëls, BYZ).
60 7F>=5 Q…[ Zë jrbh qub bst 7plglnrl jhrtldl= bs docëjog bmjhmtrlrbmjhmtrlr
trlnleh (--=)… l gh kbehr... uml tbkphrldl bm vbrlmh, pubs
pobmsh qub mh phrqub fly kujf 7plglnrl jhrtldl= so tb
kubvbs fly kujfhs sotohs dhmdb fly lmumjohs, pbrh bs bsh
um kbs... bm l`hsth... Zhnrb thdh bs 7plglnrl jhrtldl= bsthy
flnglmdh db jlklrbrh (--=)... db (--=)... db jfojh db uml
nlrrl (--=)... h jhsls lsë, rbgljohmbs... Trlnlehs db vbrlmh, së.
Jrbh qub bs kìs cìjog. (JHSEL).
Bm um jlsh plrbjodh sb bmjubmtrl gh qub Kbdbrhs dbmhkoml «lmìchrl do-
cusl± qub bs gl qub sb dl julmdh bg lmìchrh bs bg rbsugtldh db uml bglnhrljoúm
jhmjbptulg, db um rbsukbm h omtbrprbtljoúm jhm bg qub sb bm`ghnl bm um shgh
tïrkomh gh dojfh lmtbrohrkbmtb. Bsth, bstb fbjfh, bshs ljhmtbjokobmths.
Gl gëmbl db «lvlmjb/dbsjbmsh± fl jlëdh jhm cubrzl durlmtb bg eubvbs y
bg vobrmbs. Bstb fbjfh phmb db klmo󿬌bsth bg dbtbrohrh db gl tbmdbmjol
lgjostl.
Flnël um plës ìrlnb, Orla, rbòdh phr um jrubg dïsphtl. Trls dhjb lühs
db slmjohmbs mh tbmël lrkls. Jlrbjël db jlpljodld plrl clnrojlrgls y
dbslrrhgglrgls db mubvh. _ bsth bs tlm sbùrh qub flstl yh ‚ bg ugtokú
khmh‚ gh slnël h omtuël. (Elvobr Klrëls, BYZ).
Sbrbkhs, som bknlr`h, qub gl lmìchrl docusl sb bmjubmtrl kuy prúxokl
l gl jlgo󿬌jljoúm vlghrltovl
vlghrltovl pubs bsl omtbrprbtljoúm bs, bm kujfls hjlsohmbs bg
rbsugtldh dbg pumth db vostl sunebtovh db quobm gl rblgozl.
2.4.4. Gl bgopsos jhfbsovl

Bm db󿬌mojoúm db Flggodly y Flsslm (<?03), phdbkhs flnglr db bgopsos
jhfbsovl julmdh «mhs rbcbrokhs jhmjrbtlkbmtb l hrljohmbs, jgìusugls, btj.,
juyl bstrujturl bs tlg qub prbsuphmb lgùml pobzl lmtbrohr qub sorvb, l su vbz,
db cubmtb db gl omchrkljoúm qub clgtl. Rml pobzl bgëptojl bs gl qub, phr lsë
dbjorgh, dbel qub dbtbrkomldls jlsoggls bstrujturlgbs sb jhkpgbtbm l plrtor db
lg`õm htrh gu`lr±. Gl bgopsos bs um cbmúkbmh gom`÷ëstojh lkpgoh y rbjhmhjodh

qub jhmsostb bm gl «mh rblgozljoúm cúmojl db lgùmh db ghs jhmstotuybmtbs

mbjbslrohs plrl omtbrprbtlr ldbjuldlkbmtb bm bmumjoldh±. (Nrujlrt, <???5
>06?). Zom bknlr`h, so flnglkhs db bgopsos y mh db julgquobr htrh jlsh db
lusbmjol gom`÷ëstojl bs phrqub phdbkhs ljjbdbr lg jhmtbmodh db gl umodld
bgododl l trlvïs dbg jhmtbxth dosjursovh h sotuljohmlg (Nrujlrt, <???5 >06?).
Jhkh prhjbdokobmth jhfbsovh, gl bgopsos fl sodh bxflustovlkbmtb bstudol-
dl phr Kbdbrhs (<?66). Bstb luthr jhmsodbrl jhfbsovl õmojlkbmtb gl bgopsos
lmlcúrojl, bs dbjor, gl qub rbkotb l um lmtbjbdbmtb rbjupbrlngb dbg jhmtbxth
gom`÷ëstojh.
Bm julmth l gl jglso󿬌jljoúm bm mhkomlg, jhkplrltovl y vbrnlg, soùb bstb
luthr l Flggodly y Flsslm qub rblgozlm odïmtojl dostomjoúm tbmobmdh bm jubmtl
so gl bgopsos sb prhdujb bm bg somtl`kl mhkomlg, so hjurrb bm hrljohmbs jhk-
plrltovls
plrltov ls h so bs bg bgbkbmth vbrnlg bg qub sb bgokoml. Bm kujfls hjlsohmbs,
gl umodld bgododl phdrël flnbr sodh sustotuodl phr uml prhchrkl, sb trltl bm
bstb jlsh db uml bgbjjoúm dbg flnglmtb qub rbsphmdb l su omtbmjohmlgodld bm
bg ljth jhkumojltovh. Bm bg jlsh dbg dosjursh dolgúòjh, gl bgopsos bs kuy
crbjubmtb pubs ghs omtbrghjuthrbs dlm phr supubstl uml `rlm jlmtodld db om-
chrkljoúm qub mh mbjbsotlm sustotuor phr htrhs bgbkbmths `rlkltojlgbs. Gl
bgopsos bs um rbjursh qub phsbb bg flnglmtb plrl bvotlr gl rbdumdlmjol y gls
rbpbtojohmbs b, oùlgkbmtb, plrl bvotlr gl omchrkljoúm dbklsoldh jhmhjodl b
omsbrtlr gl omchrkljoúm mubvl som lpbmls shphrtb tbkìtojh.
Onbrdrhgl jgokltozljoúm gb hcrbjb thdh um kumdh db sbrvojohs plrl
doscrutlr dbg lorb ljhmdojohmldh5 ∂ lsbshrlkobmth tïjmojh y prbsupubsth
tbgbcúmojh `rltuoth.
¸_ tus hehs8 Yhdrël ggb`lr um khkbmth bm qub bg nglmjh ∂ sb jhmvobrtl
bm rheh.
Ylrbjb sbr qub, plrl bgghs, tbmbr dhs julrths db nlüh bm um posh bs sbülg
db qub mh
lrhmfls
bquovhjlrhm
bquovhj crljlsldh bm gl
jhmjbdoïmdhkb su vodl. _, bmb omvotìmdhkb
jhm󿬌lmzl ko jlsh, ∂ ldbjbmlr….
qub mh sb
?9 7B<=5 ¸Tb pl`ls tõ ghs bstudohs8
?< 7F>=5 Mh, ∂ kos pldrbs.
2.4.2. Bquovlgbmjols
Bquovlgbmjols rbcbrbmjolgbs nlsldls bm gls rbgljohmbs prl`kìtojls
Bm kujfls hjlsohmbs, bg bstlngbjokobmth h gl pbrjbpjoúm db gl bxostbmjol
db uml rbgljoúm db jhmto`÷odld db so`mo󿬌jldh bmtrb uml sbrob db umodldbs gom-
`÷ëstojls pgbmls mh dbpbmdb db gl prbsbmjol rblg db rls`hs bstrujturlgbs sostb-
kìtojhs bm jhkõm, somh db lspbjths qub tobmbm qub vbr jhm gl sunebtovodld db
ghs flnglmtbs, jhm gl rbgljoúm bmtrb bgghs, jhm su omtbmjoúm h jhm su jlpljodld

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <:0
db utogozlr jhmmhtltovlkbmtb bg gbmùleb. Bm bstb jlsh, bg klmtbmokobmth dbg

rbcbrbmtb tobmb qub vbr tlmth jhm bg jhmhjokobmth bxtrlgom`÷ëstojh (Kbdbrhs,
<?665 <>9-<><) jhmhjodh h jhkplrtodh phr ghs plrtojoplmtbs bm bg omtbrjlknoh
jhkumojltovh, jhkh jhm gls hpbrljohmbs jh`motovls qub ïsths ggbvlm l jlnh bm
su tlrbl db bglnhrljoúm/jhkprbmsoúm
<) ^bgljohmbs tbxtulg.
nlsldls bm bg jhmhjokobmth jhkplrtodh db ghs omtbr-
ghjuthrbs
Ghs flnglmtbs shm jlpljbs db jhmbjtlr so`mo󿬌jltovlkbmtb jhmjbpths
`rljols l su jhmhjokobmth bmjojghpïdojh h jhmhjokobmth dbg kumdh y l gls
plrjbgls db bsb jhmhjokobmth qub jhkplrtbm jhm sus omtbrghjuthrbs. Ylrl
@utoïrrbz Hrdúübz (<?6?5 ><0) bs bm bstb jlsh julmdh phdrëlkhs flnglr db
bquovlgbmjols
bquov lgbmjols rbcbrbmjolgbs (Jflrhggbs, <??9). Gl jlmtodld db jhmhjokobmth
jhkplrtodh pubdb sbr lg`h prbvoh lg prhpoh omtbrjlknoh1 flnglmtb y hybmtb
jhmhjbm bg rbcbrbmtb y phr bsh pubdbm bstlngbjbr uml rbgljoúm lmlcúrojl bmtrb
gls umodldbs jhrrbcbrbmjolgbs qub lplrbzjlm bm bg tbxth. Yhdbkhs flnglr bm
bstb jlsh db lmìchrl prl`kìtojl.
Bm Yubrth ôjh, plrlësh dbg dbsjlmsh, bg shg mh fljb mumjl vljljohmbs.
Bg sogbmjoh tlkphjh. Bg lstrh rby súgh sb thkl umls fhrls db plusl plrl
qub ggbùb gl mhjfb.
Ybrh fhy,
fhy, dhs sbklmls lmtbs, qub bs julmdh bsjronh, ko pbrrh, yh y kos
vbjomhs pldbjbkhs crëh flstl bm bg lsjbmshr. _ mhknrh tlg vbfëjugh db
gl vbrtojlgodld… (Klruel Thrrbs, BYZ).
Bm htrls hjlsohmbs, bg jhmhjokobmth jhkplrtodh sb bmjubmtrl bm gl om-
chrkljoúm lphrtldl phr bg prhpoh tbxth, db tlg klmbrl qub bs l gh glr`h dbg
prhjbsh db rbjbpjoúm tbxtulg julmdh sb vlm omjhrphrlmdh gls rbcbrbmjols
prl`kìtojls bmtrb umodldbs gïxojls.
Bg ush db jlgo 󿬌
󿬌jljohmbs vlghrltovls bs um rbjursh kuy utogozldh tlmth
jhkh prubnl dbkhdlgozldhr

jursh bstogëstojh gl bxostbmjoljhm
db bsl rbgljoúm
bg qub jhkh phmb
bg flnglmtb phr submmlturlgbzl
bvodbmjol db
su rb-
vo-
soúm sunebtovl
sunebtovl dbg lsumth h jhmjbpth shnrb bg qub trltl bg tbxth (Cgúrbz, <??9).
Zb trltl bm thdhs ghs jlshs db rbchrkugljohmbs dbg so`mo󿬌jldh, db plrìcrlsos
gïxojls qub pbrkotbm gl vlroljoúm bstogëstojl y gl bxprbsoúm dbg flnglmtb kìs
lggì db gl bstrojtl rbcbrbmjolgodld.
Gh jobrth bs qub tbm`h bm uml `rlm bstokl l kos lko`ls, pbrh tlknoïm
jrbh qub shm umls vobels nruels nleh juyhs pbjfhs db pbdbrmlg chrrldhs
db sbdl gltbm ghs kbzquomhs jhrlzhmbs db umls prhstotutls som bsjrõpughs
dospubstls l ljlnlr jhm ko cbgojodld bm kbmhs tobkph dbg qub tlrdl bm
rbplslrsb bg jlrkëm julrtbldh db sus rbsbjhs y lmsohshs glnohs. Dohs
këh, shm bspbguzmlmlmtbs.

Gl mhtl db hjfh jhgukmls gl sbklml plsldl mh sb gl ggbvú bg pltroútojh

dbs󿬌gb dbg Zupbr Nhwg, mo quoïm sbrël bg klrosjlg db jlkph. Q…[ Mldl
db bsth cub gl mhtojol promjoplg.
Ghs bmjlnbzldhs cubrhm jlpturldhs phr gl kuy trostb mhtojol db qub
quozì flstl lsbtbmtl

db eúvbmbs sljbrdhtbs
quobmbs bstlnlm bm gl Lrjfodoújbsos
jhmsl`rldhs db Q…[
l sbrvor. Nhsthm lnuslrhm
Fhy, quobrh
ltljlr bg lsumth db crbmtb. Rstbdbs tobmbm dbrbjfh l bggh. Mh phdbkhs
󿬌mòr jhkh so mh funobrl sujbdodh. _ yh quosobrl dosjutor juìg dbnb sbr
mubstrl rbspubstl jhkh 󿬌bgbs jltúgojhs l bstb tbrrongb bsjìmdlgh. (fttp5//
wwww.brbskls.mbt).
>) ^bgljohmbs nlsldls bm gl bxostbmjol db klrjhs
klrjhs y ùohmbs kbmtlgbs.
Lg flnglr db gl jhfbrbmjol yl doeokhs qub bm kujfls hjlsohmbs bs gl
bxostbmjol db pltrhmbs h khdbghs gh qub ùël mubstrh prhjbsh jhkprbmsovh
y mhs pbrkotb dhtlr db so`mo󿬌jldh l um bmumjoldh. Db gl koskl klmbrl,
gls umodldbs gïxojls shm omtbrprbtldls bm rbgljoúm jhm bg jhmhjokobmth bmjo-
jghpïdojh db ghs flnglmtbs, lsë jhkh bm bstrbjfl dbpbmdbmjol dbg jhmtbxth
jhmjrbth qub gbsjh`motovl,
uml pbrspbjtovl prhphrjohml bg tbxth
bg tbxth bm bg
ljtõl qub bg
jhkh sbchmdh,
bmjubmtrlm omsbrtls.
bg dhkomoh bm Dbsdb
bg qub
bsls umodldbs gïxojls qubdlm jlrljtbrozldls. Bg tbxth gbs prhvbb db gh qub
Glm`ljabr (<?605 <40) dbmhkoml um bmthrmh jhmjbptulg jhmjrbth qub om-
jguyb mh súgh gh sbkìmtojh somh tlknoïm ghs jhmhjokobmths prl`kìtojhs qub
mhs prhphrjohml mubstrl sotuljoúm bm bg kumdh. Bg bstlngbjokobmth db rbgl-
johmbs sotuljohmlgbs h sombjdútojls bmtrb jhmjbpths sb dbnb, prbjoslkbmtb, l
gl bxostbmjol db bshs klrjhs qub mhs pbrkotbm sotulr y rbgljohmlr ghs hnebths
l plrtor db um jhmtbxth jhmjrbth. Bg fbjfh db qub gls umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls
bstïm jhmchrkldls phr rbdbs jhmjbptulgbs (Glm`ljabr,
(Glm`ljabr, <?60) fljb qub jldl
umodld gïxojl phsbl uml `rlm jlmtodld db phsonogodldbs rbgljohmlgbs, bs dbjor,
qub pubdl jrblr jldbmls db so`mo󿬌jljoúm (Jubmjl y Fogcbrty, <???5 <:4) bm
bg bspljoh db um tbxth dbtbrkomldh.
dbtbrkomldh. Bm bg bebkpgh soùobmtb, bg luthr dbg tbxth
bstì sbùrh db qub sus gbjthrbs sbrìm jlpljbs db rbgljohmlr ghs dhs pglmhs
rbcbrbmjolgbs qub ïg jhmbjtl l trlvïs db gl jhkplrljoúm jhm gl qub sb omojol
bg tbxth, «dorbjthr db uml úpbrl ; luro`l rhklmh± y lsë lshjolr bg jhmjbpth
úpbrl, l ghs db bsjbmlroh y chsh, y bg db luro`l, l jlnlgghs db klmbrl qub
thdhs ghs bgbkbmths qubdlm pbrcbjtlkbmtb dostronuodhs5
dostronuodhs5
Bg dorbjthr db uml úpbrl bs jhkh um luro`l rhklmh, tobmb jobm jlnlgghs
bm bg bsjbmlroh y htrhs jobm bm bg chsh.
chs h. _ dbnb jhmtrhglrghs l thdhs.
:) ^bgljohmbs nlsldls bm gl kbtìchrl y gl kbthmokol
Gl kbtìchrl y gl kbthmokol rbsphmdbm, jhkh slnbkhs, l hpbrljohmbs
kbmtlgbs nìsojls. Dbsdb qub Elahnshm, l plrtor db sus bstudohs shnrb gls

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <:?
lclsols, sotuú gl kbtìchrl y gl kbthmokol bm rbgljoúm jhm ghs bebs plrl-

do`kìtojh y somtl`kìtojh rbspbjtov
rbspbjtovlkbmtb
lkbmtb ‚sb`õm vbkhs bm bg soùobmtb
bsqubkl‚, su bstudoh dbeú db sbr pltrokhmoh db gh gotbrlroh plrl jhm-
vbrtorsb bm um jbmtrh db ltbmjoúm okphrtlmtësokh dbmtrh db ghs bstudohs
gom`÷ëstojhs.

^bgljohmbs plrldo`kìtojls
Beb lshjoltovh-kbtìchrl
^bgljohmbs somtl`kìtojls
Beb db gls jhknomljohmbs‚
kbthmokol
Bm lknhs jlshs sb trltl db prhjbshs jh`motovhs qub flnglmtb y hybmtb

ljtovlm jhm bg 󿬌m db bmjhmtrlr shgujohmbs bxprbsovls l su mbjbsodld db jhku-
mojlr um dbtbrkomldh
kbthmokols fljb qub bgjhmjbpth.
flnglmtbGl gbxojlgozljoúm
bstï db mukbrhsls
tlm clkogolrozldh kbtìchrls
jhm gl bxprbsoúm quby
mh pbrjonl gl rbgljoúm trhphgúòjl qub sb fl bstlngbjodh. Bs kuy crbjubmtb qub
l gh glr`h db um tbxth sb dbspgobùbm kbtìchrls jhmjbptulgbs (Glahcc y Ehfm-
shm, <?69)1 bm bsb jlsh, bg tbxth cumjohml jhkh bg dhkomoh db dbstomh shnrb bg
qub sb supbrphmbm ghs jhmjbpths dbg dhkomoh db hro`bm. Bs bmthmjbs julmdh
gl kbtìchrl phsbb um jlrìjtbr jhfbsovh pubs mh sb trltl dbg ush losgldh db uml
okl`bm somh db gl rbgljoúm qub bs mbjbslroh bstlngbjbr bmtrb uml sbrob db jhm-
jbpths qub, súgh jhkh rbsugtldh db prhybjjohmbs hmthgúòjls y bpostïkojls l
plrtor db um dhkomoh jh`motovh jhkõm, bmjubmtrlm su sbmtodh bm bg tbxth (So-
jbmtb, <??:). L plrtor db Rm`brbr y Zjfkod (<??3), Jubmjl y Fogcbrty (<???5
<99) prbsbmtlm bg soùobmtb juldrh jhm gls promjoplgbs kbtìchrls.
YÔMJOYLGBZ KBTÌCH^LZ
KHÔ^ BZ YL^TO^
GLZ TL^BLZ DOCËJOGBZ ZHM JL^@LZ
GLZ YB^ZHMLZ ZHM
Z HM LMOKLGBZ
GL SODL BZ RM SOLEB
GLZ TBH^ËLZ ZHM BDOCOJOHZ
BG TOBKYH BZ RM HNEBTH DB SLGH^
GLZ ODBLZ ZHM LGOKBMTHZ
LGOKBMTHZ
BG LKH^ BZ RML @RB^^L

Rml pbrshml gbëdl bs um plës sbknrldh y hjupldh Q…[. _l dbsdb

gls gbjturls omclmtogbs bkpobzlm l trlzlrsb gls `rlmdbs lvbmodls, gls
pbqubüls jlggbs Q…[. _ bs bm gl ldhgbsjbmjol y prokbrl euvbmtud, shnb
thdh, julmdh sb lgzlm ghs 󿬌rkbs bdo 󿬌
󿬌johs… (Klruel Thrrbs, BYZ).
Bsth fl sodh phsongb phr gl quobnrl dbg pbmslkobmth hjjodbmtlg
qub sb fljb
fljb pltbmtb db klmbrl trìòjl l jhkobmzhs db so`gh. Yhr bsl
fbmdodurl bkbr`b lg`h qub rbsugtl
rbsugtl mubvh
mubvh db purh
purh hgvodldh,
hgvodldh, phrqub
prhvobmb db ghs omojohs koskhs dbg tobkph fostúrojh. Tlknoïm sb fl
dojfh qub gl jlusl db gl lkno`÷bdld mh rldojl bm bg hro`bm, bg dohs,
mo tlkphjh bm su kïdouk, bg hrìjugh, somh bm bg rbjbpthr,
rbjbpthr, qub mh bstì
l gl lgturl db ghs dhs. Thdlvël
Thdlvël bg fhknrb mh sb fl dbsjunobrth jhkh
kbdodl db thdls gls jhsls, umh db ghs poglrbs dbg pbmslkobmth hjjodbmtlg
(^hkìm ^bybs (dor.)5 Dojjohmlroh jrëtojh db gls jobmjols shjolgbs).
s hjolgbs).
Bm julmth l gl kbthmokol, gl nlsb plrl gl rbgljoúm bmtrb ghs jhmjbpths
okpgojldhs bs gl jhmto`÷odld, sb trltl phr tlmth db bstlngbjbr rbcbrbmjols
plrjolgbs db uml bmtodld. Ylrl Gb @ubrm (<?035 >3 y ss.) gl rbgljoúm qub
dl hro`bm l gl kbthmokol sb nlsl bm gl prhxokodld qub bxostb bm bg rbcb-
rbmtb bmtrb bg tïrkomh prbsbmtb y bg sustotuodh. Gl prbsbmjol db kbthmo-
kols jhmjbptulgbs bm um dosjursh sorvb plrl bstlngbjbr rbgljohmbs jhfbso-
vls bmtrb gls umodldbs gïxojls okpgojldls (Nlrjbghml Zìmjfbz, <??6). Bg
juldrh jhm gls promjoplgbs kbthmokols db Jubmjl y Fogcbrty (<???5
( <???5 <<>)
rbsugtl kuy õtog.
YÔMJOYLGBZ
YÔMJOYLGBZ KBTHMOKOLZ
BG THDH YH^ GL YL^TB
GL YL^TB YH^ BG THDH
BG JHMTBMODH YH^ BG JHMTOMBMTB
GL YB^ZHML YH^ ZR MHKN^B
BG GR@L^ CËZOJH YH^ GL OMZOTOTRJOÚM ZOTRLDL
ZOTRLDL BM BZB GR@L^
BG GR@L^ YH^ BG LJHMTBJOKOBMTH
GL OMZTOTRJOÚM YH^ GLZ YB^ZHMLZ ^BZYHMZLNGBZ
BG Y^HDRJTH^ YH^ BG Y^HDRJTH
BG JHMT^HGLDH^ YH^ GHZ ZRNH^DOMLDHZ
Bg Jhm`rbsh lprubnl bg doìgh`h jhm BTL so ghs tbrrhrostls dbelm gls

lrkls. Thdhs ghs `ruphs dbg Ylrglkbmth, slgvh bg YY, vhtlrhm l clvhr
db gl prhpubstl, prbsbmtldl phr ghs shjolgostls bg vobrmbs plsldh, y bm
gl qub sb lphyl um prhjb sh db doìgh`h jhm gl nlmdl «som jhmtrlplrtodls
prhjbsh
phgëtojls±. (Dolroh >9 komuths).

Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël
NL^JBGHML ZÌMJFBU, L. (<??6)5 «Bg phdbr db gl kbthmokol±, bm E.G.
NL^JBGHML
Jocubmtbs (bd.)5 Bstudohs db gom`÷ëstojl jh`motovl, Lgojlmtb, Rmovbrsodld
db Lgojlmtb, pp. :32-:69.
NBGOMJFÚM, K. bm
jhkprbmsoúm±, (<???)5
K. DB«Gbmùleb
SB@L y mh gotbrlg y lspbjths
C. JRBTHZ prl`kìtojhs
(jhhrds.)5 db gl
Ysojhgom`÷ësto-
jl dbg bsplühg, Kldrod, Tlurus, pp. :90-:0:.
Omtrhdujjoúm
Bsplsl-Jlgpb.
N^RJL^T, E.K. (<???)5 «Gl bgopsos±, bm O. NHZ\RB y S. DBKHMTB
(jhkps.)5 @rlkìtojl dbsjroptovl db gl gbmùl bsplühgl, Kldrod, Bsplsl-
Jlgpb, pp. >060->63:.
JLN^Ï, K.T. y ^. L^TO@LZ (<?6?)5 «Yrhebjjoú tbxtulg db gbs rbgljohms
sbkémtoqubs bmtrb gbs plrlugbs (O)±, JHK Bmsbmylr Jltlgé
Jltlgé lgs Ldugts,
<?, Nlrjbghml, @bmbrlgotlt db Jltlgumyl.
JRBMJL, K.E. y E. FOGCB^T_ (<???)5 Omtr
Omtrhdujjoúm
hdujjoúm l gl gom`÷ëstojl jh`mo-
tovl, Nlrjbghml,
JFL^HGGBZ, Lrobg. «G‟lmlpfhrb lsshjoltovb. Yrhngækbs db dïgokotl-
K. (<??9)5
tohm±, Sbrnuk, <:-:, pp. <<?-<46.
CGÚ^BU, H. (<??9)5 Gl lmìchrl5 Rml lprh lprhxokljoúm
xokljoúm prl`kì tojl, Nh`htì,
prl`kìtojl
Omstotuth Jlrh y Jubrvh.
@RTOÏ^^BU H^DÚÜBU, Z. (<?6?)5 Omtrhd Omtrhdujjoúm
ujjoúm l gl sbkìmtojl cumjoh-
mlg, Kldrod, Zëmtbsos.
FLGGODL_, K.L.A. y ^. FLZLM (<?03). Jhfbsohm om Bm`gosf, Ghmdrbs,
Ghm`klm, <?6:.
GLAHCC, @. y K. EHFMZHM (<?63)5 Kbtìchrls db gl vodl jhtodolml, Kl-
drod, Jìtbdrl.
GLM@LJAB^, ^.P. (<?60-?<)5 Chumdltohms hc jh`motovb `rlkklr , O-OO,
Ztlmchrd, Ztlmchrd Rmovbrsoty Yrbss.
GB @RB^M, K. (<?03)5 Gl kbtìchrl y gl kbthmokol
kbthmokol, Kldrod, Jìtbdrl.
GRMD\ROZT, G. (<?69)5 Gl jhfïrbmjb tbxtubggb. Zymtlxb, sïklmtoqub,
sïklmto qub, prl`-
kltoqub, Jhpbmflùb, Myt Mhrdosa Chrgl`.
G_HMZ, E. (<?6?)5 Zbkìmtojl, Tbodb, Nlrjbghml.
————— (<??2)5 Gbmùleb, so`mo 󿬌jldh y jhmtbxth, Nlrjbghml, Ylodús.
so`mo 󿬌 Ylodús.
KBDB^HZ KL^TËM, F. (<?66)5 Yrhj Yrhjbdokobmths
bdokobmths db jhfbsoúm bm bg bs-
plühg
pl ühg ljt ulg , Zlmtl Jruz db Tbmbrocb, Bxjkh. Jlnogdh Omsuglr db
ljtulg
Tbmbrocb.
YHTTOB^, N. (>999)5 «Zbkìmtojl±, bm K. LGSL^ (dor.)5 Omtrh Omtrhdujjoúm
dujjoúm l gl
gom`÷ëstojl bsplühgl, Nlrjbghml, Lrobg, pp. 232-20?.

RM@B^B^, C. y F.E. ZJFKOD (<??3)5 Lm omtrhdujtohm

omtrhdujtohm th jh`motovb
jh`motovb gomùos-
gomùos-
tojs, Ghmdrbs, Ghm`klm.
SOJBMTB, N.L. (<??:)5 «Bm thrmh l gl sbkìmtojl y gl prl`kìtojl db gl kb-
tìchrl5 uml rbvosoúm jrëtojl±, Yrl`klgom`÷ëstojl , <, pp. :90-::4. Nongoh-
Nongoh-
`rlcël jhkpgbkbmtlrol
LYHTFÏGHU, D. (<??2)5 ^ôgb bt chmjtohmmbkbmt
chmjtohmmbkbmt db g‟lmlpfhrb
g‟lmlpfhrb dlms gl dy-
mlkoqub tbxtubggb, @ombnrl, Drhz.
NHZ\RB, O. (<?64)5 «Mb`ljoúm y bgopsos±, BGRL, >, pp. <0<-<??.
JHZBÔR, B. (<?00)5 Yromjopohs db sbkìmtojl bstrujturlg @rbdhs, Kldrod.
,
,
DBG TBZH, B. y ^. MRÜBU (<??3)5 Zbkìmtojl y prl`kìtojl dbg tbxth jh-

kõm, Kldrod, Jìtbdrl.
DËLU NLRTOZTL, K.J. (<??9)5 «@rlkìtojl y bstogëstojl db ghs trhphs±,
BGRL, 3, pp. <2:-<6>.
BZJLS_ ULKH^L, ^. (<???)5 «Gl lmìchrl lshjoltovl jhkh kbjlmoskh db
jhfbsoúm tbxtulg±, ^bv
^bvostl
ostl db Omvbsto
Omvbsto`ljo
`ljoúm
úm Gom`÷ ëstojll, OO->, pp. <<<-<>6.
Gom`÷ëstoj
BZYOMLG, K.T. (<?66)5 Zo`mo 󿬌 󿬌jlt o omtbrprbtljoú, Yungojljohms db g‟Lnldol
db Khmtsbrrlt.
L^LMJB, K.^. (<?0?)5 Zbkìmtojl db gl kbthmokol y db gl somïj-
@L^JËL L^LMJB,
dhqub, Slggldhgod,
Slggldhgod, Rmovbrsodld db Slggldhgod.
Slggldhgod.
AHSLJJO, H. (<??4)5 «Cumjoúm y jhmtbxth5 ljbrjl db gl bgopsos±, Bstudohs
db `rlkìtojl bsplühgl, Nubmhs Lorbs, Bdojolg, pp. <9:-<<?.
ARTZJFB^L, C.S. (<?0?)5 «Tbhrëls shnrb bg so`mo 󿬌jldh±, bm C.S. ARTZ-
JFB^L, Coghshcël dbg gbmùleb, Kldrod, @rbdhs, pp. ::-><:.
H@DBM, J.A. y O.L. ÔJFL^DZ (<?34)5 Bg so`mo 󿬌 󿬌jldh dbg so`mo 󿬌jldh,
Nubmhs Lorbs, Ylodús.
ZJFMBDBJAB^,, J., K. JFL^HGGBZ, @. AGBONB^
ZJFMBDBJAB^ AGBONB^,, y E. DL DLSOD (bds.)
(<??4)5 G‟lmlpf
G‟lmlpfhrb
hrb lsshjoltovb. Lspbjts gomùostoqubs, psyjfhgom`
psyjfhgomùosto-
uosto-
qubs bt luthkltoqubs, Ylrës, Agomjasobja.
ZHGÏ, _.^.
_.^. (<?33)5 «Fljbr±5 vbrnh cumjohmlg y gbxojlg, Plsfom`thm, @bhr-
`bthwm Rmovbrsoty Yrbss.
T^REOGGH,
T^R EOGGH, ^. (<?66)5 Omtrh
Omtrhdujjoúm bsplühgl, Kldrod, Lrjh
dujjoúm l gl sbkìmtojl bsplühgl
Gonrhs
Ljtovodldbs
<. Zbülgl bm ghs soùobmtbs
soùobmtbs tbxths
tbxths ghs kbjlmoskhs db jhfbsoúm gïxojl.
l) Jhm crbjubmjol gbbkhs shnrb `ruphs db turostls sbjubstrldhs phr
ùbrroggls bm plësbs l dhmdb sb cubrhm l pbslr db jhmhjbr ghs robs`hs.
_ gh qub bsths okprudbmtbs suebths bxo`bm gub`h bs, omvlrolngbkbmtb,
omvlrolngbkbmtb,
qub sb khvogojb bg Bstldh…

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <4:
n) Flnël hsjurbjodh y Ybglo glmzlnl dbstbgghs mh súgh phr gl ogukomljoúm

mlvodbül somh qub `rlm plrtb db gl jlggb Q…[ bstì ltonhrrldl db jhkbrjohs
dbdojldhs l prhphrjohmlr ghs kìs dovbrshs lplrlths rbgljohmldhs jhm gls
mubvls tbjmhgh`ëls. _ ghs bsjlplrltbs dbstbgglnlm gl pgltl y bg lgukomoh db
gls jlrjlsls db jìklrls, kúvogbs, rbprhdujthrbs db kõsojl…
j) JBRTL.
  
   
 
   
 
   

Gl ùlrdol
ùlrdol jovog db Jbutl
Jbutl ghjlgozú lybr bg jldìvbr db uml omko`rlmtb,
omko`rlmtb,
         
l bsjlshs kbtrhs db gl jhstl db Jbutl. Bg flgglz`h dbg jubrph sb
prhdueh lgrbdbdhr db gls <6 fhrls bm gl pglyl db gl ônbrl, bm gl nlfël
sur db gl joudld.
d) Thdhs ghs moühs dbg kumdh, kbmhs umh, jrbjbm. _ mh súgh jrbjbm,
somh qub bmsbùodl slnbm qub fly qub jrbjbr.
>. Nusjl somúmokhs
somúmokhs cumjohmlgbs
cumjohmlgbs plrl
plrl ghs soùobmtbs
soùobmtbs gbxbkl
gbxbklss y bsjronb
bsjronb dhs
tbxths qub sb jhrrbsphmdlm jhm jldl umh db ghs movbgbs qub fls sbülgldh5
jhjfb, jhmdujor, `bmtb, phgojël, vbghjodld,
vb ghjodld, rhpl, dombrh,
dom brh, jfojl, nloglr,
nloglr,
:. kõsojl,
L plrtor clmtìstojh.
db gl kbtìchrl ‗gl vodl bs um voleb‛,
voleb‛, bsjronb um pbqubüh
pbqubüh tbx-
tbx-
th. Nusjl, ldbkìs, lg`õm bebkpgh.
4. Zbülgl y eusto󿬌jl bm ghs soùobmtbs bebkpghs ghs kbjlmoskhs db jh-
fbsoúm gïxojl y `rlkltojlg.
<) Bstb kbs Omtbrohrb
Omtbrohrbss tb rb`lgl bg Bxtrl Mlvodld. Jldl Mlvodld bs
docbrbmtb phrqub tõ gl fljbs docbrbmtb. Bm bg Bxtrl db Mlvodld tb
prhphmbkhs kog odbls bgb`lmtbs plrl gls 󿬌bstls kìs clkogolrbs.
>) Clkl bs qub tb jhmhzjlm thdhs. Yrbstoòh, súgh ghs qub okphrtlm.
:) Gls pobzls nìsojls sb ljtulgozlm
ljtulgozlm omjhrphrlmdh
omjhrphrlmdh dbtlggbs dbg ìknoth db
gls khths y kbzjgìmdhghs jhm rbcbrbmjols rhjabrls. Lsë sb jhmstruyb
um bstogh qub jhmcël bm bg jubrh, gls jrbklggbrls y shnrb thdh bm bg
mb`rh plrl rbchrklr jlzldhrls y trlebs db jflqubtl.
4) Mh fly uml nubml jhkodl
jhkodl h rbumoúm
rbumoúm qub mh ljlnb jhm bg hcrbjokobmth
db um jlcï. Bg roth rbquobrb lgùmhs jhmhjokobmths plrl fljbrgh
slnrhsh b oklòmljoúm plrl prbsbmtlrgh jhm bstogh. Júkh y dúmdb
thklrgh, dbpbmdb súgh db gl bgbjjoúm pbrshmlg. Lquë tobmbm lgùmls
su`brbmjols.
2) Bg dosbüh bm V dbg mubvh Zobkbms KJ39, su tbjgldh db chrkl
rbdhmdbldl, su plmtlggl l jhghr y su jìklrl omtb`rldl db lgtl
prbjosoúm gb jhmvobrtbm bm um kúvog bxtrlhrdomlroh. Bs kuy cìjog
db uslr5 dhngb jgoj plrl fljb gl chth, y bm jubstoúm db sbùmdhs gl
okl`bm bstì gostl
gos tl plrl bmvolr.

3) (Yrokbrl pìòml db um jltìgh`h) Ylmlshmoj.

Ylmlshmoj. «Zb pubdb vovor som thdh
bsth. Ybrh bsh mh bs vodl±.
0) Ghs ruodhs, tlg jhkh fhy shm pubsths bm prìjtojl b omjgush
rbvbrbmjoldhs, flm `lmldh gl nltlggl cësojl lg sogbmjoh, gl ùbrrl
kltbrolg. _ mhs qubdl jhkh kbtìchrl gotbrlrol5 «Bg rbsth bs bg
sogbmjoh±, phr bebkpgh.

2.2. Ghs klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh
2.2.<. Db󿬌mojoúm y prhpobdldbs
Gl bvodbmjol db qub bxostbm bgbkbmths bm bg dosjursh qub mh tobmbm uml
cumjoúm db toph rbcbrbmjolg, somh qub su tlrbl plrbjb bstlr kìs nobm rbgljoh-
mldl jhm gl hr`lmozljoúm dbg kltbrol tbxtulg bs gh qub, jhkh doeokhs, ggbvú
ggbvú l
ghs prokbrhs gom`÷ostls dbg tbxth y dbg dosjursh l prhphmbr um toph db rbgljoúm
dbmhkomldl db jhmbxoúm. Bm bggl bstlrëlm okpgojldls um jhmeumth db umodl-
dbs ‚bm lqubg khkbmth nlstlmtb dbsltbmdodls phr ghs omv omvbsto`ldhrbs‚
bsto`ldhrbs‚ jhm gl
cumjoúm db rbgljohmlr y doroòr gl dorbjjoúm db ghs so`mo󿬌jldhs qub jhmchrklm
bg tbxth. Gl ltbmjoúm l bstls umodldbs y bg bmchqub dldh l su bstudoh jhrrb pl-
rlgbgh, uml vbz kìs, l ghs lvlmjbs y mubvhs khdbghs qub gl gom`÷ëstojl fl odh
prhphmobmdh bm ghs õgtokhs lühs. L gl bv bvhgujoúm
hgujoúm db gl gom`÷ëstojl dbg tbxth y
su lnlmdhmh db󿬌motovh db gl pbrspbjtovl hrljohmlg
hrljohml g ‚ y,
y, bm jhmsbjubmjol,
jhmsbjubm jol, db gl
mbjbsodld db bxpgojlr gl jhmbxoúm bmtrb hrljohmbs‚ fly qub lüldor
lüldor,, jhkh sl-
nbkhs, bg dbslrrhggh db gl prl`kìtojl, db gl gom`÷ëstojl jh`motovl
jh`motovl y db gls dos-
jopgomls shnrb bg dosjursh thdls bggls omtbrbsldls, shnrb thdh, bm bg plpbg qub
bstls umodldbs ‚yl pubstls bm bvodbmjol bm bg jlsh db gl `rlkìtojl bsplühgl
phr @ogo @lyl (<?4:) y Lgjoml
Lgjoml y Ngbjul (<?02)‚ rblgozlm bm gl jhmchrkljoúm
dbg dosjursh y bm ghs prhjbshs qub fljbm phsongb gl jhkprbmsoúm tbxtulg.
tbxtulg.
Ghs klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh, qub bs jhkh sb dbmhkoml l bstls umodldbs,
flm sodh, bm bg jlsh bsplühg, bstudoldhs bspbjolgkbmtb phr Jltlgoml Cubmtbs
(<?60, <??3), K.ª Lmthmol Klrtëm Uhrrlquomh (<??4), Klrtëm Uhrrlquomh y
Bstrbggl Khmthgëh Durìm (<??6), Klrtëm Uhrrlquomh y Ehsï Yhrthgïs Gìzl-
rh (<???), Ehsï Yhrthgïs Gìzlrh (<??:, <??6), Lmthmoh Nroz (<??:), Bstrbggl
Khmthgëh (<??0) y Guos Jhrtïs (<??< y <??2), Zlgvldhr Yhms (<??6 y >999),
^hsbr Klrtëmbz (<??0), bmtrb htrhs. Zhm mukbrhsësokls gls pungojljohmbs y
ghs mõkbrhs khmh`rì󿬌jhs dbdojldhs lg bstudoh db bstls umodldbs bm juyh
dbtlggb mh phdbkhs bmtrlr.
Ghs klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh shm db󿬌modhs phr Ehsï Yhrthgïs (<??65
>2->3) jhkh umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls omvlrolngbs qub mh rblgozlm uml cum-
joúm somtìjtojl dbmtrh db gl hrljoúm y juyl tlrbl bs «ùolr, db ljubrdh jhm
sus dostomtls prhpobdldbs khrchsomtìjtojls, sbkìmtojls y prl`kìtojls, gls

omcbrbmjols qub sb rblgozlm bm gl jhkumojljoúm±. Db gl koskl klmbrl qub

ghs dosjurshs mhs sorvbm plrl rblgozlr omcbrbmjols shnrb lqubggh qub mhs
quobrbm jhkumojlr, ghs klrjldhrbs phsbbm bsl koskl cumjoúm db prhjb-
slkobmth db bmumjoldhs bm rbgljoúm jhm bg jhmtbxth. Zu prbsbmjol rbsug-
tl, bm jhmsbjubmjol, cumdlkbmtlg, pubs phmbm bm bvodbmjol, jhkh sbülgl
bstb koskh luthr, «qub gl chrkl gom`÷ëstojl mh súgh dbtbrkoml quï sb
dbsjhdo󿬌jl lg bsjujflr um dosjursh somh tlknoïm, bm nubml kbdodl, quï
sb jhkprbmdb jhm phstbrohrodld±, Yhrthgïs (<??65 <>).
Klrtëm Uhrrlquomh y Yhrthgïs (<???5 492?-490<) sbülglm gls soùobmtbs
prhpobdldbs `rlkltojlgbs db ghs klrjldhrbs5
l) Ghs klrjldhrbs shm umodldbs
umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls omvlrolngbs
omvlrolngbs lumqub
lumqub gl klyhr
plrtb db gls chrkls qub sb utogozlm jhkh klrjldhrbs dosjursovhs pubdbm
rblgozlr htrls cumjohmbs gom`÷ëstojls. Yubsth qub prhjbdbm db gl bvhgu-
joúm db jobrths somtl`kls, phsbbm dostomths `rldhs db `rlkltojlgozl
`rlkltojlgozljoúm.
joúm.
n) Zomtìjtojlkbm
n) Zomtìjtojlkbmtb tb phsbbm uml klyhr
klyhr khvogodld
khvogodld qub gls jhmeumjohmbs
jhmeumjohmbs
j) Ghs klrjldhrbs
klrjldhrbs sb bmjubmtrlm gokotldhs phr omjoshs
omjoshs db bmthmljoúm.
d) Mh pubdbm ggbvlr bspbjo 󿬌jljohmbs mo ldyljbmtbs jhkpgbkbmtlrohs.
b) Mh sb jhhrdomlm
jhhrdomlm bmtrb së, pbrh sb pubdbm jhknomlr
jhknomlr jhm somtl`kls
qub sb bmjubmtrlm bm omjosh.
c) Ghs klrjldhrbs dosjursov
dosjursovhs
hs mh pubdbm sbr mb`ldhs.
`) Julmdh sb bmjubmtrlm bm bm uml umodld
umodld somtl`kìtojl
somtl`kìtojl tobmbm uml rbgl-
joúm somtìjtojl jhm gl thtlgodld dbg somtl`kl.
f) Mh pubdbm
pubdbm sbr dbstljldhs phr pbrëcrlsos db rbgltovh.
rbgltovh.
o) Ghs dostomths klrjldhrbs klmtobmbm rbgljohmbs dostomtls jhm rbspbjth
lg kobknrh dbg dosjursh qub ghs soùb.
e) Jhm rbspbjth lg turmh db plglnrl, ghs klrjldhrbs mh phsbbm thdhs thdhs gl
koskl luthmhkël.
a) Ghs klrjldhrbs
klrjldhrbs pubdbm sotulrsb bm kobknrhs dbg dosjursh qub jhms-
totuybm jltb`hrëls gïxojls y somtl`kìtojls kuy dovbrsls.
g) Lgùmhs klrjldhrbs pubdbm rbgljohmlr kobknrhs dosjursov dosjursovhs
hs omjgu-
sh dbmtrh db uml koskl hrljoúm.
Bm julmth lg so`mo󿬌jldh db ghs klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh, bsths koskhs lu-
thrbs bmjubmtrlm qub su tlrbl promjoplg bs prhphrjohmlr omstrujjohmbs db prh-
jbslkobmth dosjursovh. Bstls omstrujjohmbs pubdbm sbr db toph lrùkbmtltovh
‚lnrbm gl phsonogodld fljol jobrtls jhmtomuljohmbs dbg dosjursh y jobrrlm h do-
󿬌jugtlm htrls‚1 h nobm shnrb gl bstrujturl omchrkltovl
omchrkltovl dbg dosjursh ‚cljogotlm bg
rbjhmhjokobmths
rbjhmhjokobmt hs dbg túpojh y sbülglm bg omtbrïs db ghs jhkbmtlrohs‚. Zom bknlr-
`h fly qub tbmbr bm jubmtl tlknoïm ghs bcbjths db sbmtodh, bs dbjor, ghs vlghrbs
qub ldquobrbm bstls umodldbs bm sus jhmtbxths db ush, sblm bsths gom`÷ëstojhs h
bxtrlgom`÷ëstojhs,
bxtrlgom`÷ ëstojhs, jhkh hjurrb jhm ghs klrjldhrbs jhmvbrsljohmlgbs.
jhmvbrsljohmlgbs.

2.2.>. Jglso󿬌jljoúm y cumjohmbs

Yhr gh qub sb rb󿬌brb l gl jglso󿬌jljoúm db ghs klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh, bg
jrotbroh sbùodh phr Klrtëm Uhrlquomh y Yhrthgïs fl sodh bg db gls cumjohmbs
dosjursovls
dosjursov ls qub bstls umodldbs dbsbkpbülm. Ylrtobmdh
Ylrtobmdh db bstl odbl, rblgozlm gl
soùobmtb jglso󿬌jljoúm5
BZT^RJTR^LDH^BZ DB
BZT^RJTR^LDH^BZ JHKBMTLDH^BZ pubs, pubs nobm, lsë gls jhsls
jhsls
GL OMCH^KLJOÚM H^DBMLDH^BZ bm prokbr gu`lr/bm sbùmdh
gu`lr, phr uml plrtb/phr htrl
plrtb, btj.
DO@^BZH^BZ phr jobrth, l thdh bsth, l
prhpúsoth
JHMBJTH^BZ JHMBJTH^BZ LDOTOSHZ ldbkìs, bmjokl, lplrtb,
omjgush
JHMBJTH^BZ phr tlmth, phr jhmsoùobmtb,
jhmsoùobmtb,
JHMZBJRTOSHZ db lfë, bm jhmsbjubmjol
JHMBJTH^BZ bm jlknoh, phr bg jhmtrlroh,
JHMT^LL^@RKBMTLTOSHZ lmtbs nobm
^BCH^KRGLDH^BZ ^BCH^KRGLDH^BZ h sbl, bs dbjor, bsth bs, l slnbr
BVYGOJLTOSHZ
^BCH^KRGLDH^BZ DB kbehr dojfh, kbehr lõm, kìs
^BJTOCOJLJOÚM nobm
^BCH^KRGLDH^BZ DB bm julgquobr jlsh, bm thdh
DOZTLMJOLKOBMTH jlsh, db thdhs khdhs
^BCH^KRGLDH^BZ db 󿬌motovl,
bm sukl, bm db 󿬌 bm 󿬌m,
motovl, bm 󿬌 m,
^BJLYOTRGLTOSHZ 󿬌mm y lg jlnh
lg 󿬌
lg
HYB^LDH^BZ HYB^LDH^BZ bm rblgodld, bm bg chmdh, db
L^@RKBMTLTOSHZ DB ^BCRBÛH fbjfh
L^@RKBMTLTOSH
HYB^LDH^BZ DB phr bebkpgh, bm plrtojuglr
plrtojuglr
JHMJ^BJOÚM
KL^JLDH^BZ DB KHDLGODLD jglrh, dbsdb gub`h
JHMSB^ZLJOHMLGBZ BYOZTÏKOJL
DB KHDLGODLD nubmh, nobm, vlgb, lsë
DBÚMTOJL
BMCHJLDH^BZ DB fhknrb, korl, hyb
LGTBÔDLD
KBTLDOZJR^ZOSHZ nubmh, bf, bstb
JHMSB^ZLJOHMLGBZ

Ghs bstrujturldh rbs db gl omchrkljoúm sorvbm plrl sbülglr gl hr`lmozl-
bstrujturldhrbs
joúm omchrkltovl
omchrkltovl db ghs dosjurshs. Fly db dostomths tophs5
Jhkbmtldhrbs
Yubs nobm, kìs lggì db gls docbrbmjols tbrkomhgúòjls, gls gbòsgljohmbs
glnhrlgbs db ghs dostomths plësbs prbsbmtlm `rlmdbs docbrbmjols (7fttp5//
wwww.umovbrsol.bs=).
Hrdbmldhrbs
Bm prokbr gu`lr, phrqub sb qubdl jhrth bm bg mõkbrh db plësbs, jhm
<6 (phtbmjolgkbmtb lkpgolngb l htrhs ?) crbmtb l ghs kìs db 39 qub
sb bstokl mbjbsotlm db bstl kbdodl plrl phdbr lgjlmzlr ghs HDK.
(Omtbrkhm-Hxclk).
Dos`rbshrbs
….y, l thdh bsth, ^lehy rbjhòbmdh 󿬌rkls (Cbrmlmdh Eìurbùo).
Ghs jhmbjthrbs vomjuglm sbkìmtojl y prl`kìtojlkbmtb um kobknrh dbg
dosjursh jhm htrh kobknrh lmtbrohr, db tlg chrkl qub bg klrjldhr ùël gls
omcbrbmjols qub sb flm db bcbjtulr dbg jhmeumth db ghs dhs kobknrhs dosjur-
sovhs jhmbjtldhs. Yubdbm sbr5
Ldotovhs
Gl dbstrujjoúm db gl omdustrol turëstojl y db su omcrlbstrujturl cub uml
db gls rlzhmbs phr gls julgbs >02.999 pbrshmls sb qubdlrhm som bkpgbh
trls bg tsumlko. Bm lgùmls zhmls flstl um ?9% db gl cubrzl db trlnleh
sb qubdú som bkpgbh. Ldbkìs, 0: fhspotlgbs y <6> bsjubgls mbjbsotlm
rbjhmstruorsb (Omtbrkhm-Hxclk).
Jhmsbjutovhs
Yhr tlmth, pungoqubkhs bm bsplühg (^bvostl Mbnroel, >992).
Jhmtrllrùkbmtltovhs
Ghs rbcuòhs tobmbm qub sbr gh su󿬌jobmtbkbmtb rhnusths jhkh plrl
rbsostor ghs ro`hrbs db gls dostomtls bstljohmbs y plrl prhphrjohmlr um
vbrdldbrh fh`lr dbsdb bg julg phdbr `lmlrsb gl vodl. Zom bknlr`h
mh dbnbm sustotuor l lqubggh qub sb fl pbrdodh‛ (Omtbrkhm-Hxclk).
rbchrkugldhrbs prbsbmtlm lg kobknrh dbg dosjursh bm bg qub sb bm-
Ghs rbchrkugldhrbs
jubmtrlm jhkh uml bxprbsoúm kìs ldbjuldl db gh qub sb prbtbmdoú dbjor jhm
um kobknrh prbjbdbmtb.
^bchrkugldhrbs bxpgojltovhs
Gl odbl jglvb fl sodh «rbjhmstrujjoúm pgus±, bs dbjor, lyudlr l gls
jhkumodldbs phnrbs l bsjlplr db gl phnrbzl qub gls fljb tlm vugmbrlngbs
lmtb ghs dbslstrbs mlturlgbs (Omtbrkhm-Hxclk).

^bchrkugldhrbs db rbjto󿬌jljoúm
Tobmbm bg dbsbh db sbr dubühs db su prhpol bkprbsl y bstìm dospubsths
l sljro󿬌jlr h, kbehr dojfh, omvbrtor om`rbshs l jhrth l jlknoh db uml
lpubstl bm gl qub jrbbm 󿬌rkbkbmtb (ôm`Mbt Jhrphrltb Jhmsugtom`).
^bchrkugldhrbs db dostlmjolkobmth
_, bm julgquobr jlsh, phrqub bg ljubrdh klmtobmb okphrtlmtbs
omtbrrh`lmtbs bm tbkls jhkh gls jhmdojohmbs mbjbslrols plrl rbjonor bg
lgovoh, gl ldojohmlgodld db ghs rbjurshs (Omtbrkhm-Hxclk).
^bchrkugldhrbs rbjlpotuglto
rbjlpotugltovhs
vhs
Bm db 󿬌motovl, plrl qub Bsplül dï um plsh 󿬌rkb bm su jhmtronujoúm
l ghs Hnebtovhs dbg Kogbmoh y gl gujfl jhmtrl gl phnrbzl, lsukobmdh
um godbrlz`h lg rbspbjth l movbg omtbrmljohmlg, dbnb ljtulr soùobmdh,
bmtrb htrhs, ghs <9 plshs plrl gl ljjoúm qub sb bxphmbm l jhmtomuljoúm
(Omtbrkhm-Hxclk).
Ghs hpbrldhr
hpbrldhrbs
bs lrùkbmt ltovhs jhmdojohmlm, phr su so`mo󿬌jldh, gls phso-
lrùkbmtltovhs
nogodldbs lrùkbmtltovls dbg kobknrh bm bg qub sb omjguybm som rbgljohmlrgh.
Hpbrldhrbs db rbcubrzh lrùkbmtltovh
lrùkbmtltovh
Ybrh `bmbrlgkbmtb bsb lsumth gh `hnbrmlnlm ghs nlrjhs lkbrojlmhs,
kuy `rlmdbs, ggbvlmdh su kbrjlmjël. Bm rblgodld
rblgodld,, yh bstuvb bm Jlmlrols
bm bg 0> ú 0:.
Hpbrldhrbs db jhmjrbjoúm
Fl flnodh okphrtlmtbs hnstìjughs plrl qub bg prhjbsh lvlmjb kìs
rìpodlkbmtb, jhkh phr bebkpgh, bg fbjfh db qub bm Ljbf, Omdhmbsol,
tobrrls bm gls qub lmtbs flnotlnlm umls <>9.999 pbrshmls sb bmjubmtrlm
lfhrl sukbròdls h pbrklmbmtbkbmtb omflnotlngbs. (Omtbrkhm-Hxclk).
Ghs klrjldhrb jhmvbrsljohmlgbs shm gls plrtëjugls dosjursovls
klrjldhrbss jhmvbrsljohmlgbs dosjursovls qub lpl-
rbjbm jhm kìs crbjubmjol bm gl jhmvbrsljoúm, qub dldh qub jhmstotuyb uml
sotuljoúm
db jhkumojltovl pbjugolr, clvhrbjb gl prbsbmjol db dbtbrkomldhs tophs
klrjldhrbs.
Db khdlgodld bpostïkojl
>>0 7F:=5 Zë, phrqub fljëlkhs trlnlehs, pubs yh qub sï (--=)... ghs
dbrbjfhs fuklmhs y flgl, l fljbr pubs trlnleoths, nb
7plglnrl jhrtldl=, mh sï (--=)... jhsls shjolgbs. Ybrh,
brl omfuklmh qub mhs tuvobrlm jultrh jrëhs, cubrl lfë
fbgìmdhmhs db crëh flstl qub tbrkomlrlm, h sbl, bsh kb
plrbjb h sbl uml nbstolgodld y db lfë dbsdb gub`h doeb5
7bstogh dorbjth= so ïsths shm jltúgojhs, dohs këh, lkhr lg

prúeokh y juodlr lfë l ghs dbkìs. ¡\uotl, quotl 7/bstogh
dorbjth=!
Db khdlgodld dbútojl
>2: 7B<=5 ¡\ub tõ sbpls! 7rosls=. Slgb, kuy nobm 7ruodh ; chgohs=.
Nubmh, lfhrl vlkhs l (--=)... flnglr, um phjh bm `bmbrlg...
7vljogljoúm= phr bebkpgh, db gls jglsbs shjolgbs. ¸\uï
hpomìos8
Bmchjldhrbs db lgtbrodld
>36 7B<=5 Ybrh së, bspbrl, bspbrl, bsjujfl 7/sokugtìmbh=. Korl,
7mhknrb prhpoh= Murol 7/mhknrb prhpoh=, yh bsthy bm
jhmtrl db gl dbrbjfl. Ldbkìs...
Kbtldosjursovhs jhmvbrsljohmlgbs
:?6 7B<=5 Nubmh (--=)... jhkh (--=)... 7vljogljoúm= so mhs phmbkhs
l dbnltor, bstls prbùmtls shm db gls qub mumjl (--=)... h
sbl, plrl dbnltorgh 7soj= qub mumjl sb ggb`l l um tïrkomh,
phrqub (--=)... bs okp 7plglnrl jhrtldl= h sbl, y (--=)...
lplrtb, qub mh jhmsostb bm jhmvbmjbr l mldob db gh qub tõ
7sokugtìmbh= pobmsls.
Bm julmth l su tlrbl jhfbsovl,
jhfbs ovl, su plpbg jhkh bgbkbmths plrl prhphrjohmlr
umodld l um bmumjoldh tbxtulg bs cumdlkbmtlg. Mh súgh phmbm bm rbgljoúm plr-
tbs db tbxth rblgozlmdh lsë uml tlrbl
tlrb l qub tobmb kujfh qub vbr jhm gl dboxos tbx-
tulg, somh qub fljbm phsongb y doro`bm nubml plrtb db gl ljtovodld omcbrbmjolg
db ghs flnglmtbs. Ghs klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh shm bgbkbmths jhfbsovhs bstrb-
jflkbmtb umodhs jhm gl dhtljoúm b omtbrprbtljoúm db gl jhfbrbmjol tbxtulg. Zo
gls umodldbs gïxojls bstlngbjëlm pubmtbs jhm bg so`mo󿬌jldh tbxtulg lg sbr, bm
rblgodld, ïstls, gls umodldbs shnrb gls qub dbsjlmsl bg túpojh dbg dosjursh, ghs
klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh tobmb qub vbr jhm bg so`mo󿬌jldh prl`kìtojh dbg tbxth,
jhm gl phsonogodld db ghs flnglmtbs db utogozlr umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls qub bxprb-
sbm sus omtbmjohmbs y qub, l su vbz, ùëbm bg prhjbsh db jhkprbmsoúm phr plrtb
db ghs dbstomltlrohs. Jhfbrbmjol y jhfbsoúm sb mhs prbsbmtlm bm bstrbjfësokl
vomjugljoúm jhkh chrklmtbs db ghs tbxths. Zúgh mbjbsodldbs kbthdhgúòjls
bxpgojlm su sbplrljoúm pubs, bm gl rblgodld db ghs omtbrjlknohs tbxtulgbs, gl
hr`lmozljoúm db gls umodldbs gom`÷ëstojls y gl jhkumojljoúm db so`mo󿬌jldhs
shm bg thdh qub bxpgojl bg fbjfh koskh db gl jhkumojljoúm.
Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël
NÔU @ÚKBU, L. (<??:l)5 «Ghs jhmbjthrbs prl`kìtojhs bm bsplühg jhgh-
quolg (O). Zu plpbg lrùkbmtltovh±, Jhmtbxths, VO-></>>, pp. <42-<66.
————— (<??:)5 «Ghs jhmbjthrbs prl`kìtojhs bm bsplühg jhghquolg (OO).

Zu plpbg kbtldosjursovh±, Bsplühg Ljtulg, 2?, pp. :?-23.
JH^TÏZ ^HD^Ë@RBU,
^HD^Ë@RBU, G. (<??<)5
(< ??<)5 Zhnrb jhmbjthrbs, bxpgbtovhs y kugbtoggls
bm bg bsplühg flngldh, Kìgl`l, Ì`hrl.
————— (<??2n)5 «Nongoh`rlcël5 klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh (O)‛, Bsplühg
Ljtulg, 3:, pp. 3:-6>.
JH^TÏZ ^HD^Ë@RBU, G. (<??2)5 ‗Nongoh`rlcël5 klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh
(y OO)±, Bsplühg Ljtulg, 34, pp. 02-?4.
CRBMTBZ ^HD^Ë@RBU, J. (<?60)5 Bmgljbs bxtrlhrljohmlgbs, Zbvoggl, Lgclr.Lgclr.
————— (<??3l)5 Gl somtlxos db ghs rbgljoh rbgljohmlmtbs
mlmtbs suprlhr ljohmlgbs,
suprlhrljohmlgbs
————— (<??3n)5 Bebrjojohs db somtlxos suprlhrljohmlg, Kldrod, Lrjh
Gonrhs.
KL^TËM UH^^L\ROMH, K.L. y B. KHMTHGËH DR^ÌM (bds.) (<??6)5
Klrjldhrbs
Klrjldh rbs dbg dosjursh. Tbhrël lmìgosos, Kldrod, Lrjh Gonrhs.
Tbhrël y lmìgosos
KL^TËM UH^^L\ROMH, K.L. y E. YH^THGÏZ GÌUL^H (<???)5 «Ghs
klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh±, bm O. NHZ\RB y S. DBKHMTB (jhkps.)5
492<-4><:.^. (<??0)5 J hmbjtlmdh
KL^TËMBU, hmbjtlmdh tbxth, Nlrjbghml, Hjtlbdrh.
KHMTHGËH DR^ÌM, B. (<??0)5 «Gl tbhrël db gl rbgbvlmjol y bg bstudoh
db ghs jhmbjthrbs dosjursovhs±, bm J. CRBMTBZ ^HD^Ë@RBU (bd.)5
Omtrhdujjoúm
Omtrhd prl`kìtojl gom`÷ëstojl, Zbvoggl, Rmovbrsodld db
ujjoúm tbúrojl l gl prl`kìtojl
Zbvoggl, pp. >0-:?.
YB^HML, E. (>999)5 «Gl jhfbsoúm tbxtulg y ghs bmgljbs bxtrlhrljohmlgbs±,
bm K. LGSL^ (dor.)5 Omtrhd ujjoúm l gl gom`÷ëstojl bsplühgl, Nlrjbghml5
Omtrhdujjoúm
Lrobg, pp. 442-43>.
YHMZ NH^DB^ËL, Z. (<??6)5 Jhmbxoúm y jhmbjthrbs. Bstudoh db su rbgljoúm
bm bg rbòstrh omchrklg db gl gbmùl, Slgbmjol,
Slgbmjol, Rmovbrsodld db Slgbmjol.
Slgbmjol.
————— (>999)5 «Ghs jhmbjthrbs±, bm L. NÔU y @ruph SL.BZ.JH5
¸Júkh sb jhkbmtl um tbxth jhghquolg8, Nlrjbghml, Lrobg, pp. <?:->>9.
YH^THGÏZ GÌUL^H, E. (<??:)5 «Gl dostomjoúm bmtrb ghs jhmbjthrbs y htrhs
klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh bm bsplühg±, Sbrnl, >9, pp. <4<-<09.
————— (<??6)5 Klrjl
Klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh, Nlrjbghml, Lrobg.
dhrbs dbg
Nongoh`rlcël
Nongoh`rlcël rbjhkbmdldl
rbjhkbmdldl
JLZLDH SBGL^DB,
SBGL^DB, K. (<??<)5 «Ghs hpbrldhrbs dosjursovhs
dosjursovhs bs dbjor, bsth
bs, h sbl slnbr bm
bm bsplühg ljtulg5 vlghrbs db gbmùl y cumjohmbs tbxtul-
gbs±, Gom`÷ëstojl Bsplühgl
Bsplühgl Ljtulg, <:, pp. 60-<<3.
JRL^TB^H ZÌMJFBU, E.K. (<??2)5 «Bg bstltuth jltb`hrolg db ldbkìs y

sus prhpobdldbs dostronujohmlgbs±, Dojbmdl, <:, pp. <9:-<<6.
CRBMTBZ ^HD^Ë@RBU,
^HD^Ë@RBU, J. (<?60)5 «Yrl`kìtojl y rbgljoúm omtrltbxtulg5 bg
jlsh db flstl, omjgush y mo soquobrl±, BGRL, 4, pp. <2?-<03.
————— (<??:)5 «Jhmjgusovhs y rbchrkugltovhs±, Sbrnl, >9, pp. <0<-<?6.
————— (<??4)5 «Rshs dosjursovhs y hrobmtljoúm lrùkbmtltovl5 db fbjfh,
bm bcbjth y bcbjtovlkbmtb±, Bsplühg Ljtulg, 3>, pp. 2-<6.
————— (<??3l)5 Gl somtlxos db ghs rbglj rbgljohmlmtbs
ohmlmtbs suprlhrl
suprlhrljohmlgbs
johmlgbs,
————— (<??3n)5 Bebrjojohs db somtlxos suprlhrljohmlg, Kldrod, Lrjh
Gonrhs.
@L^JÏZ @ÚKBU, K.Y. (<??0)5 «Yrhjbdokobmths db hrdbmljoúm bm ghs tbx-
ths bsjroths±, ^hklmostosjf
^hklmostosjfbs Elfrnujf, 46, pp. >?3-:<2.
bs Elfrnujf
@L^JËL OU\ROB^DH, O. (<??6)5 Kbjlmoskhs db jhfbsoúm tbxtulg. tbxtulg. Ghs jh-
bs ogltovhs bm bsplühg, Jlstbggúm, Rmovbrsodld Elukb O.
mbjthrbs
mbjthr
@L^ÔDH KBDOML,
KBDOML, E. (<??:)5 «Hpbrldhrbs bpostïkojhs y jhmbjthrbs jhm-
tbxtulgbs±, bm F. FLSBÂLTB bt lg. (bds.)5 Lpr Lprhxokljohmbs
hxokljohmbs prl`kl-
gom`÷ëstojls lg bsplühg, Ìkstbrdlk, ^hdhpo, pp. 2-29.
KL^TËM UH^^L\ROMH, K.L. (<??4)5 «@rlkìtojl dbg dosjursh. Ghs ggl-
kldhs klrjldhrbs dbg dosjursh±, Ljtls dbg Jhm`r
Jhm`rbsh
bsh db gl Gbmùl Bs-
Zbvoggl, <??>, Kldrod, Omstotuth Jbrvlmtbs, pp. 09?-0>9.
plühgl, Zbvoggl,
KLTBH ^HD^Ë@RBU, E.B. (<??3)5 «Ghs klrjldhrbs do`rbsovhs. Bstudoh
bspbjolg db phr jobrth bm bsplühg ljtulg±, bm Zjroptl Yfoghghòjl om kb-
khrolk Klmubg Tlnhldl Jod , OO, Gl Jhruül, Rmovbrsodldb dl Jhruül,
pp. 2:<-22>.
YHMZ NH^DB^ËL, Z. (<??4)5 «Gl prbsbmjol db ghs bmgljbs bxtrlhrljohmlgbs
bm gl trldojoúm `rlkltojlg bsplühgl5 gl 󿬌ùrl db Lmdrïs Nbggh±, Khbmol,
<, pp. >2<->30.
YH^THGÏZ GÌUL^H, E. (<?6?)5 «Bg jhmbjthr lrùkbmtltovh pubs±, Dojbm-
dl, 6, pp. <<0-<:>.
YH^THGÏZ GÌUL^H,
tbkltozljoúm E. (<??2)5 «Dbg
db ghs klrjldhrbs dosjursh hrlg
dosjursovhs±, l glJH^TÏZ
bm G. `rlkìtojl5 gl sos-
^HD^Ë-
@RBU (bd.)5 Ljtls dbg dosjursh hrlg, Lgkbrël,
dbg O Zokphsoh dbg lmìgosos dbg dosjursh
Rmovbrsodld db Lgkbrël, pp. <40-<0<.
ZJFOCCÔM, D. (<?60)5 Dosjhursb klrabrs
klrabrs, Jlknrod`b, JRY.
Ljtovodldbs
<. Dbtbrkoml y eusto󿬌jl gl mlturlgbzl db ghs soùobmtbs klrjldhrbs dbg
dosjursh5
l) >09 7B>=5 Lfë, y bmjokl tobmbm

tobmbm gl jlrl db dbjortb... phrqub tõ t7(b)=
bstìs kurobmdh db dhghr5 7bstogh dorbjth= mh tb khgbstlrì kujfh, so
bsh bs um fbrpbs glnolg 7/bstogh dorbjth=. Zbrì um fbrpbs glnolg, sbühr,
pbrh yh gl mhjfb qub bsthy plslmdh... (LGJH^B).
n) Ljlnh db plslr jultrh dëls bm bg Fhtbg Zlm Zbnlstoìm, y gl vbrdld, qub
dbel kujfh qub dbsblr, so bmtrìos bm su pìòml, dbg @ruph Lrlmzlzu,
plrbjb um fhtbg db pbgëjugl, db gueh, vlkhs qub dojbs, vl l sbr gl
gbjfb, y bm jlknoh gl jhsl mh bs lsë.
j) Ybrh, phr htrl plrtb, gl bxostbmjol db uml trldujjoúm 󿬌rkldl phr Ehr`b
Guos Nhr`bs lyudlrël bm um cuturh phstbrohr, julmdh sb prhduebsb gl
lutïmtojl bjghsoúm db gl 󿬌ùrl db Alcal bm gl Gotbrlturl Rmovbrslg, l
qub bstl trldujjoúm qubdlrl rbgb`ldl lg hgvodh, bmshknrbjodl phr gl
󿬌rkldl phr Nhr`bs. (¸\uoïm trldueh phr prokbrl vbz «gl kbtlkhrchsos±
kbtlkhrchs os±
db Crlmz Alcal lg jlstbgglmh8 Jrostoml Ybstlül Jlstrh)
d) Lybr vokhs uml mubvl ehrmldl db «dbrruknb± db gls nhgsls
kumdolgbs. Bs omõtog flnglr bm bsths khkbmths db vlghrljohmbs
julmdh ghs omvbrshrbs prb󿬌brbm klmtbmbrsb cubrl db ghs kbrjldhs.
Lsë gls jhsls, ¸quï phdbkhs fljbr bm bstb khkbmth8 (7fttp5//www.
(7fttp5//www.
󿬌mlmzls.jhk=).
b) :?6 7F>=5 Bm um promjopoh gl jlrrbrl bs lg`h l glr`h pglzh. Yhrqub

mh kb dojb mldl l kë (--=)... bebrjbr db lnh`l7(d)=h, mh kb ùstl.
_ lplrtb 7soj= bsh, h sbl, tõ julmdh slgbs jhm gl jlrrbrl db 7mhknrb
prhpoh= Dbrbjfh 7/mhknrb prhpoh= tbrkomldl, mh brbs lnh`ldh,
brbs um eurostl y (--=)… (LGJH^B).
c) Lghmsh fl fbrbdldh gl subrtb db Zjfukljfbr pbrh db thdhs khdhs
mh bs um klg poghth.
>. ¸\uï cumjoúm rblgozlm ghs klrjldhrbs
klrjldhrbs jhmv
jhmvbrsljohmlgbs
brsljohmlgbs qub lplrbjbm
lplrbjbm
bm ghs soùobmtbs bmumjoldhs8
l) 7T2,F,>,Nl,BB,S=5 Thtlg qub, 7rbpbtojoúm=qub mh, qub mh7/
rbpbtojoúm= vl mldob y do`h5 «Korl gh qub hs do`h5 dbmtrh db
7mõkbrh=quomjb7/mõkbrh=
klmdlrmhs±. «Tõ bstìs thmth±.dëls, gls Korl,
«Nubmh±. jlrtlsso dbmb`ldls vlm l
vobrls ko tbgïchmh,
plrbjël gl Tbgbcúmojl,
Tbgbcúmojl, th7(dh)=s gglkìmdhkb l ghs 7mõkbrh=quomjb7/
mõkbrh= dëls.
n) 7T2,F,>,Nl,BB,S=5 Yubs së, s ë, pbrh yh. Nubmh, vhy trlmquogh.
j) 7Jfu<,K,:,Kb,BB,B=5 Mh, ¡fhknrb!, bg pldrb bstì nobm qub gh do`l,
jglrh.
d) 7J>,K,<,Nl,BO,B=5 Ybrh, hyb7/sokugtìmbh= do`h5«Mh sbrì Ybpb±. _
julmdh ggbùï l gl pubrtl, yl bstlnl bm gl bsquoml.
:. Jhkpgbtl bg
bg soùobmtb tbxth jhm
jhm bg toph
toph db jhmbjthr
jhmbjthr qub jhmsodbrbs
ldbjuldh. Lgùmhs
Lgùmhs pubdbm rbpbtorsb5 phr jhmsoùobmtb, phr htrh gldh,
ldbkìs, lg jhmtrlroh, db fbjfh, som bknlr`h, bs dbjor, bm rblgodld,
phr tlmth, phr htrl plrtb
Ylrl bstlngbjbr bg «jhmtrlth shjolg± dbg Osglk cljtongb bm mubstrh tobkph
dbnbkhs ‚jhkh ghs prokbrhs sbùodhrbs dbg Yrhcbtl‚ dbsbknlrlzlrmhs jhk-
pgbtlkbmtb db ghs fìnoths kbmtlgbs db mubstrh plsldh dbjldbmtb y lprbmdbr
lprbmdbr,,
uml vbzsodh
mhs fl kìs,hcrbjodl
l korlr phr
fljol gl sflrí‟lf
Lg-gî
Lg-gîff plrl su jhkh gl nlsbhjhmjbptulg
ljbptljoúm su rbjflzh.jhkpgbtl qub
XXXXXXXXX, momùml ljbptljoúm db gl sflrí‟l pubdb sbr vbrdldbrlkbm-
tb gb`ëtokl l kbmhs qub sbl uml ljbptljoúm jhmsjobmtb, jrbltovl. Mh pubdb
flnbr mom`õm pglmtblkobmth shnrb bg «jhmtrlth shjolg± l kbmhs qub jhk-
prbmdlkhs, dorbjtlkbmtb y bm dbtlggb, bm quï jhmsostbm gls jgìusugls db bsb
jhmtrlth5 XXXXXXXXXl kbmhs qub gl thtlgodld db gl jhkumodld jhmtrltlmtb gh
jhkprbmdl.
Crbjubmtbkbmtb hëkhs gl hnebjoúm db qub bg oytofîd ‚slgudlngb
‚slgudlngb jhkh
pubdb sbr bm tobkphs db vodl jugturlg vo`hrhsl‚ bs pbgo`rhsh bm tobkphs
db dbjldbmjol phrqub phdrël dlr gu`lr l docbrbmjols omslgvlngbs db pbmsl-
kobmth Q…[ Zo bs vbrdld ‚y bs vbrdld‚ qub gh jhmtrlroh dbg oytofîd , bg tl-
qgíd
Qgl okotljoúm[,
Qgl
kusugkìm fl sodh
y, XXXXXXXXX , dbgrbsphmslngb
klrjfotlrsbdbdbglthdl
chsogozljoúm dbg pbmslkobmth
mubstrl votlgodld jugturlg,
bs hnvoh qub õmojlkbmtb bg rbbstlngbjokobmth dbg oytofîd gb`ëtokh pubdb
jurlr mubstrl bmcbrkbdld. ^bjflzlrgh bm bg khkbmth prbjosh db mubstrl
dbjldbmjol bquovlgb l mb`lrgb gls votlkomls l uml pbrshml qub pldbjb bs-
jhrnuth h nbro-nbro h julgquobr htrl bmcbrkbdld jlusldl phr gl clgtl db
votlkomls. Julgquobr kïdojh tb dorì qub bsb pljobmtb súgh pubdb slgvlrsb so
sb gb ldkomostrlm gls votlkomls db qub bs db󿬌jotlroh1 XXXXXXXXX, mubstrhs
sbrkhmostls prhcbsohmlgbs plrbjbm bstlr dojobmdh5 «Bspbrbkhs flstl qub bg
pljobmtb sb rbjupbrb dbg bsjhrnuth, y bmthmjbs jhmsodbrlrbkhs uml ldko-
mostrljoúm db votlkomls±.
Bsth so`mo󿬌jl, XXXXXXXXX, qub dbnbkhs lpgojlr mubstrh oytofîd dbmtrh dbmtrh
db ghs gëkotbs klrjldhs jglrlkbmtb phr gls dhs cubmtbs dbg Osglk.
Mh pubdb dudlrsb db qub ghs Jhkplübrhs dbg Yrhcbtl jhmsodbrlrhm
gl hnsbrvlmjol db gl sflrí‟l jhkh gl õmojl ùël lnshgutl bm gl vodl db um
kusugkìm.
Zbrël um brrhr jrbbr ‚jhkh l tlmths hrobmtlgostls mh-kusugklmbs gbs ùs-
tlrël fljbrmhs jrbbr‚ qub bstl sokpgojodld bm gl jhmjbpjoúm y gl db 󿬌mojoúm
dbg sflrí‟l db ghs Jhkplübrhs cubsb dbnodl lg supubsth jlrìjtbr «mlèc± db
su pbrspbjtovl ‚db ljubrdh l gl sbmjoggbz pltrolrjlg db sus vodls y l su los-
glkobmth db plësbs kìs sh󿬌stojldhs‚. Bm lnshguth5 su ljtotud suklkbmtb
prbjosl bm tbkls eurëdojhs bstlnl nlsldl bm gl jbrtbzl db qub ghs jlshs y hr-
dbmlmzls bstopugldls bm bg musñs db gls Dhs Cubmtbs elkìs trltlrhm db junror
thdls gls jhkpgojljohmbs y jhmstbgljohmbs phsongbs db gl bxostbmjol fuklml,
y qub, XXXXXXXXX, gl sflrí‟l jhkh tlg bs jhmjosl, jglrl y prbjosl, y pbrkl-
mbjb lnobrtl l thdl kbmtb slml y kldurl.
Bxostb, XXXXXXXXX, lnumdlmtb bvodbmjol db qub bg Dldhr db gl Gby gl
jhmjonoú jhkh ljjbsongb l gl jhkprbmsoúm dorbjtl db jldl jrbybmtb, yl qub
rbprbsbmtl
tb gl odbhgh`ël
nlsldl. Yhr bm qubglgljhkpgbeodld
jhmsoùobmtb, vodl dbg jrbybmtb dbnb
ljtulg, y bmbstlr
ghs jhmsjobmtbkbm-
so`ghs plsldhs,
omfbrbmtb lg jhmjbpth jhmvbmjohmlg db gl sflrí‟l dbnb rbshgvbrsb db lg`õm
khdh bm gl sokpgojodld.
¸Rml hpomoúm rbvhgujohmlrol8 Bm jobrth sbmtodh gh bs. Bs rbvhgujohmlrol
bm gl kbdodl bm qub vl bm gl dorbjjoúm hpubstl lg ush db ghs so`ghs1 pbrh,
XXXXXXXXX, mh bs bm lnshguth rbvhgujohmlrol. XXXXXXXXX, sb trltl db uml
hpomoúm kuy hrthdhxl y lmtoùl1 tlm lmtoùl, XXXXXXXXX, qub plsl phr bmjo-
kl db lg`h kìs db kog lühs, kìs lggì dbg jhmsbrvlduroskh db ghs luth-dbso`-
mldhs «ùlrdolmbs db gl cb±. ( Ljbptljoúm jrbltovl, phr Kufìkkld Lsld).
Ljbptljoúm jrbltovl,
4. L plrtor db ghs soùobmtbs klrjldhrbs dbg dbg dosjursh, rbdljtl um tbxth
shnrb bg tbkl qub bgoels. Dbnbs utogozlrghs thdhs y sbülglr quï cum-
joúm rblgozlm bm jldl jlsh.
Bm prokbr gu`lr, bm sbùmdh gu`lr, ldbkìs, phr htrl plrtb, bm rbsukodls
jubmtls, bm rblgodld, bs dbjor, l prhpúsoth, som bknlr`h, phr tlmth, bm
db󿬌motovl.

3. G󰁬 󰁬󰁤󰁢󰁪󰁲󰁬󰁪󰁯ú󰁭 󰁬󰁧 󰁪󰁨󰁭󰁴󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨
3.<. Bg jhmjbpth db ldbjuljoúm5 vobels y mubvls pbrspbjtovls
Ylrl Nblu`rlmdb y Drbssgbr (<?6<) gl ldbjuljoúm bs, jhkh fbkhs vosth,
umh db ghs trbs promjopohs qub, eumth jhm gl b󿬌jljol y gl bcbjtovodld, rbùglm
gl ljtovodld tbxtulg. Ylrl bsths luthrbs, gl ldbjuljoúm dbpbmdb db «so sb bstl-
ngbjb h mh um bquogonroh bmtrb bg ush qub sb fljb db um tbxth bm uml sotuljoúm
dbtbrkomldl y bg khdh bm qub sb rbspbtlm gls mhrkls db tbxtulgodld± (<?6<5
43). Mh sb trltl, phr tlmth, db um promjopoh jhmstotutovh db gl jhkumojljoúm
tbxtulg, mh bs uml db gls mhrkls db tbxtulgodld qub dbnb jukpgor um tbxth,
gl ldbjuljoúm sb rb󿬌brb l gl chrkl bm qub bg jhmeumth db bshs promjopohs,
jhmjrbtldhs bm um ljhmtbjokobmth jhkumojltovh h tbxth sb ldlptlm l uml
dbtbrkomldl sotuljoúm db jhkumojljoúm. Lumqub Nblu`rlmdb y Drbssgbr
jbmtrlrhm thdl su ltbmjoúm bm gls mhrkls db tbxtulgodld, bg dbslrrhggh qub
plrlgbglkbmtb y bm gls õgtokls dïjldls flm tbmodh ghs bstudohs gom`÷ëstojhs
shnrb bg jhmtbxth y, bm jhmsbjubmjol, gl okphrtlmjol jldl vbz klyhr qub sb
jhmjbdb l gls jlrljtbrëstojls gom`÷ëstojh-dosju
gom`÷ëstojh-dosjursov
rsovls
ls dbrovldls db gl sotuljoúm
db ush, flm hngo`ldh l rbsotulr bstb jhmjbpth y l tbmbrgh bm jhmsodbrljoúm bm
gls bspbjo󿬌jljohmbs shnrb quï sb dbnb bstudolr bm um tbxth.
Bm bcbjth, jhkh jhmsbjubmjol db gl prh`rbsovl thkl db jhmjobmjol db gl
okphrtlmjol db ghs cljthrbs bxtrlgom`÷ëstojhs plrl gl bxpgojljoúm db ghs kb-
jlmoskhs vbrnlgbs db bxprbsoúm, gl gom`÷ëstojl fl dbslrrhggldh bm ghs õgtokhs
lühs dostomths khdbghs tbúrojhs l trlvïs db ghs julgbs omtbmtlr bxpgojlr db quï
           
phr htrl plrtb, bs phsongb rbjhmhjbrgh b odbmto󿬌jlrgh. Bs bg jlsh db gl tbhrël
dbg rbòstrh, dbslrrhggldl phr gl gom`÷ëstojl sostïkojh-cumjohmlg l plrtor db ghs
pglmtblkobmths prbvohs db Cortf, Klgomhwsay y Flggodly, juyhs jhmjbpths db
jlkph, khdh y tbmhr, bmtbmdodhs jhkh promjopohs tbúrojhs qub pbrkotbm vl-
ghrlr y jhmjrbtlr gl omjodbmjol dbg jhmtbxth bm gls jhmstrujjohmbs dosjursovls,
rbsugtlm db `rlm utogodld plrl bstlngbjbr gl kbdodl dbg lmjgleb jhmtbxtulg db
um tbxth.
Yhr htrl plrtb, gl ldbjuljoúm bs tlknoïm um jhmjbpth db glr`l trldojoúm dbm-
trh db gl rbtúrojl, dosjopgoml dbg dosjursh qub pubdb jhmsodbrlrsb um rbcbrbmtb
okphrtlmtb plrl julgquobr lspbjth dbg bstudoh dbg tbxth. Gl odbl db lptuk, dbjh-
ruk h ldbjuljoúm chrkl plrtb db gl trldojoúm rbtúrojl dbsdb sus hrë`bmbs y bstì
rbgljohmldl jhm gl mbjbsodld db ldlptlr thdhs ghs lspbjths y btlpls db gl jhms-
trujjoúm tbxtulg bmtrb së y, l su vbz, jhm bg prhpoh flnglmtb, jhm ghs dbstomltlrohs
y jhm gl sotuljoúm db jhkumojljoúm.
Bm bstb sbmtodh, bm gh qub phdbkhs jhmsodbrlr um tbxth cumdljohmlg shnrb
gls rbgljohmbs bmtrb rbtúrojl y gom`÷ëstojl, Nbrmd Zpoggmbr (<?0?5 <3?) lg sb-
gbjjohmlr gls jltb`hrëls rbtúrojls qub phdrëlm jhmsodbrlrsb db omtbrïs plrl gl
gom`÷ëstojl, eumth l ghs jhmjbpths «flnglmtb, hybmtb, dosjursh± dbstljl tlk-
noïm bg jhmjbpth db «ldbjuljoúm± y, jhmtomõl5
Q...[ ldbjuljoúm, tlmth lg hnebth dbg flngl jhkh l ghs dbstomltlrohs phr
gh qub tobmb qub tbmbr bm jubmtl gls rbgljohmbs shjolgbs (gu`lr, tobkph,
jorjumstlmjols, dosjurshs prhmumjoldhs) y gl sotuljoúm fostúrojl,
jltb`hrëls qub flm vubgth lg jbmtrh db ltbmjoúm db gl gom`÷ëstojl
(prl`kìtojl, shjohgomùëstojl).
Bstl thkl db jhmjobmjol db gl mbjbsodld db jhmbjtlr bg dosjursh, bg tbxth,
jhm ghs plrtojoplmtbs bm bg ljth jhkumojltovh fl sodh omsostbmtbkbmtb sb-
ülgldl bm kujfhs db ghs tbxths cumdljohmlgbs db mubstrh ljtulg plrldo`kl
omvbsto`ldhr. Bm bcbjth, gl odbl db qub bg jhmtbxth bs um bgbkbmth jbmtrlg so
sb quobrb lnhrdlr bg bstudoh dbg gbmùleb dbsdb uml pbrspbjtovl bmumjoltovl,
fl sodh pglmtbldl y dbslrrhggldl phr gom`÷ostls jhkh Jhsbrou h Nbmvbmostb,
ldbkìs db sbr bg jhmjbpth cumdlkbmtlg db gl prl`kìtojl y db gl gom`÷ëstojl
sostïkojl y cumjohmlg omluùrldl phr Flggodly, jhkh yl doeokhs. Dbsdb bg
pumth db vostl db julgquobrl db bstls dosjopgomls, um tbxth h dosjursh mh bs
uml bstrujturl chmhgúòjl, somtìjtojl y sbkìmtojl db so`mo󿬌jljoúm lutúmhkl,
um tbxth bs bg rbsugtldh db um prhjbsh db jhmstrujjoúm db sbmtodh dbpbmdobmtb
dbg jhmtbxth, «um jhmtomuk db so`mo󿬌jldh bm jhmtbxth± (Flggodly, <?6>5 >4)
qub, bm jhmsbjubmjol, dbnb sbr gl rbspubstl l plrtojuglrbs jorjumstlmjols db
bkosoúm-rbjbpjoúm.
Yhr su plrtb, Zokhm Doa, bm ghs prbgokomlrbs kbthdhgúòjhs l su Tfb
tfbhry hc cumjtohmlg `rlkklr (<??05
(<??05 :-4) sbülgl qub gls rb`gls qub `hnobr-
mlm gl jhmstotujoúm db gls bxprbsohmbs gom`÷ëstojls (sbkìmtojls, somtìjtojls,
khrchgúòjls y chmhgúòjls) pubdbm jhmsodbrlrsb omstrukbmtlgbs bm rbgljoúm
jhm ghs hnebtovhs y prhpúsoths db htrh jhmeumth db rb`gls, gls rb`gls prl`-
kìtojls, qub shm gls qub `hnobrmlm ghs khdbghs db omtbrljjoúm vbrnlg bm gls
julgbs bsls bxprbsohmbs shm usldls.
Bm db󿬌motovl, shnrb gh qub sb bstì gglklmdh gl ltbmjoúm bs shnrb bg fbjfh
bvodbmtb db qub «uslkhs bg gbmùleb db khdhs docbrbmtbs bm sotuljohmbs docb-
rbmtbs± (B`òms y Klrtom, >9995 :49). Jhm bg jhmjbpth db ldbjuljoúm bmtrlm
bm eub`h cljthrbs mh bstrojtlkbmtb gom`÷ëstojhs bm gl jhmstrujjoúm dbg dosjursh
vbrnlg, pbrh cumdlkbmtlgbs plrl su jhmsbjujoúm tlgbs jhkh gls omtbmjohmbs db

ghs flnglmtbs y gl mlturlgbzl y ghs jhmtbxths db ghs dbstomltlrohs.
3.>. Bg lmìgosos db gl ldbjuljoúm. Gl Tbhrël dbg ^bòstrh

3.>.<. Omtrhdujjoúm5 gl vlroljoúm gom`÷ëstojl
          
bm bg ush qub ghs flnglmtbs fljbm db gl gbmùl flm sodh dbslrrhggldls shnrb
thdh phr gl tbhrël dbg rbòstrh
tojl sostïkojh-cumjohmlg y dbg `ïmbrh,
db Flggodly ‚ëmtoklkbmtb
qub cub quobm ljuüú go`ldl l gl gom`÷ës-
db󿬌motovlkbmtb gl
mhjoúm db rbòstrh‚, bm rblgodld, bg rbòstrh h vlroljoúm bstogëstojl db gl gbmùl
bmtrl db ggbmh bm ghs omtbrbsbs db gl shjohgom`÷ëstojl. Rm jhmjbpth jglvb plrl
bstl dosjopgoml bs bg db vlroljoúm. Ylrl Crlmjosjh Khrbmh Cbrmìmdbz, flngl-
khs db vlroljoúm gom`÷ëstojl julmdh bg flnglmtb fljb ush «db bgbkbmths gom-
`÷ëstojhs docbrbmtbs plrl bxprbslr gls koskls jhsls± (<??65 <0). Gl lplrojoúm
db uml vlrolmtb gom`÷ëstojl ‚bs dbjor, db umh db bshs bgbkbmths gom`÷ëstojhs
jhm ghs qub sb pubdb bxprbslr gh koskh bm uml gbmùl‚ pubdb bstlr dbtbrko-
mldl tlmth phr cljthrbs gom`÷ëstojhs jhkh phr cljthrbs shjolgbs. Gl vlroljoúm
shjohgom`÷ëstojl bstlrël omtbrbsldl bm bg bstudoh db gls vlrolmtbs dbtbrkomldls
phr cljthrbs gom`÷ëstojhs y phr cljthrbs shjolgbs (<??65 <6).
Yhr gh qub sb rb󿬌brb l ghs tophs db vlrobdldbs qub sb dlm bm uml gbmùl,
ghs shjohgom`÷ostls subgbm dostomùor bmtrb5
l) Lqubggls qub bstìm
bstìm dbtbrkomldls
dbtbrkomldls phr gl mlturlgbzl db ghs
ghs usulrohs db
bsl gbmùl.
n) Lqubggls vlrobdldbs dbtbrkomldls phr ghs ushs qub ghs flnglmtbs fl-
jbm db gl gbmùl.
Bg prokbr `ruph gh jhmstotuybm gls vlrobdldbs `bh`rì 󿬌jls y shjolgbs
db gl gbmùl. Gl vlrobdld doltúpojl tobmb qub vbr jhm bg hro`bm tbrrothrolg
dbg flnglmtb. Trldojohmlgkbmtb sb gb dbmhkoml dolgbjth pubs sb rb󿬌brb l gl
vlrobdld qub ldhptl um odohkl bm uml jobrtl ìrbl db su dhkomoh bspljolg.
L bstl docbrbmjoljoúm fhrozhmtlg fly qub lüldor gl vlrobdld db gbmùl qub
sb prhdujb jhkh jhmsbjubmjol db gl bstrlto 󿬌jljoúm y dostronujoúm shjolg db
ghs flnglmtbs1 shm gls vlrobdldbs shjolgbs, dbmhkomldls tlknoïm dolgbjths
shjolgbs, shjohgbjths h vlrobdldbs dolstrìtojls. Ghs shjohgbjths db uml gbm-
ùl bstìm dbtbrkomldhs phr jlusls bxtrlgom`÷ëstojls db mlturlgbzl shjolg y
          
gom`÷ëstojl shm5 sbxh, bdld, movbg db omstrujjoúm, movbg shjohjugturlg, btmol, l
ghs qub flnrël qub lüldor htrhs jhkh prhcbsoúm, prhjbdbmjol h nlrroh.
Bg sbùmdh `ruph gh jhmstotuybm gls vlrobdldbs «qub sb db󿬌mbm bm cum-
joúm db gl sotuljoúm
s otuljoúm y bg jhmtbxth jhkumojltovh±
jhkumojltovh± (Khrbmh, <?665 ?>)1 bs gh
qub sb dbmhkoml rbòstrh h vlroljoúm bstogëstojl. Bm bstb jlsh gl vlroljoúm

gom`÷ëstojl mh tobmb qub vbr tlmth jhm gls jlrljtbrëstojls dbg prhpoh flnglmtb
jhkh jhm gls jorjumstlmjols jhmjrbtls qub pubdlm jhmdojohmlr bg ush qub
ïstb fl`l db gl gbmùl. Bs ïstb bg toph db vlroljoúm bm bg qub bstlkhs omtbrb-
sldhs. Gl vlroljoúm cumjohmlg db gl gbmùl tobmb qub vbr jhm gh qub F. @ogbs
dbmhkoml «tbhrël db gl ljhkhdljoúm dbg flngl h ldlptljoúm±, bs dbjor, gl
jlpljodld qub phsbbm ghs flnglmtbs y bg prhpoh sostbkl db gl gbmùl db
ldbjulrsb l umls jorjumstlmjols dbtbrkomldls db bkosoúm-rbjbpjoúm. Dbsdb
gl pbrspbjtovl dbg lmìgosos db tbxths, bstudolr juìgbs shm gls dokbmsohmbs dbg
pbrspbjtovl
          
bmtrl db ggbmh bm mubstrhs omtbrbsbs, bm gl kbdodl bm qub ljlnl phr jhmsh-
godlr y eusto󿬌jlr gl pbrspbjtov
pbrspbjtovll tbxtulg, prl`kìtojl y cumjohmlg db gl gbmùl
qub fl hrobmtldh thdh mubstrh khdbgh db lmìgosos. Db thdls klmbrls, dbnb
qubdlr jglrh tlknoïm qub um khdbgh db lmìgosos db tbxths, phr kuy jhk-
pgbth qub sb prbtbmdl, mh pubdb trltlr jhm gl koskl bxflusto
bxflustovodld
vodld thdls gls
phsonogodldbs qub hcrbjb bg tbxth jhkh hnebth db bstudoh. Mhshtrhs vlkhs
l lnhrdlr lquë bg lspbjth kìs prìjtojh y lpgojltovh db gl tbhrël dbg rbòs-
trh, jhkh bs gl phsonogodld db lpgojlr sus trbs jhmjbpths nìsojhs ‚jlkph,
khdh, tbmhr‚ l um lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg. Gls vlrobdldbs `bh`rì󿬌jls
y shjolgbs jhmsodbrlkhs, som bknlr`h, qub dbnbm sbr hnebth db um lmìgosos
shjohgom`÷ëstojh bspbjë 󿬌jh.
3.>.>. Gl tbhrël dbg rbòstrh y bg lmìgosos db tbxths5 gls vlrolngbs jlkph,
khdh y tbmhr
Db thdls gls prhpubstls qub dbsdb gl gom`÷ëstojl sb flm rblgozldh bm gls
õgtokls dïjldls plrl omtbmtlr bxpgojlr db quï klmbrl omjodb bg jhmtbxth sh-
nrb gl chrkugljoúm gom`÷ëstojl db um tbxth y júkh bs phsongb rbjhmhjbr gls
fubggls h klrjls db jhmtbxtulgozljoúm bm um tbxth dldh, gl bglnhrldl phr gl
tbhrël shnrb bg rbòstrh y bg `ïmbrh ‚Flggodly (<?06,<?62), B`òms (<??4),
B`òms y Klrtom (>999))‚ bs gl qub fl tbmodh um klyhr dbslrrhggh y uml
ljhòdl kìs `bmbrlgozldl. Bstl tbhrël, qub tobmb jhkh pumth db rbcbrbmjol
gls tbhrëlsdostomùb
Flggodly, db Klgomhwsao
bmtrb um(<?>:) y Cortf
jhmtbxth (<?20)yyum
db jugturl jhkh prokbrdbokpugshr
jhmtbxth sotuljoúm.l
Bg prokbrh bs jhmsodbrldh bg klrjh jugturlg bm bg qub sb dbsbmvubgvb gl ljto-
vodld gom`÷ëstojl y bm bg qub jhnrl sbmtodh bg gbmùleb. Bg jhmtbxth db jugturl
bstlngbjb bg `ïmbrh dosjursovh pubs bs bg ìknoth jugturlg bg qub, bm õgtokl
omstlmjol, dl jlrtl db mlturlgbzl l gls chrkls fostúrojlkbmtb dbtbrkomldls
l gls qub gglklkhs `ïmbrhs. Bm julmth lg jhmtbxth db sotuljoúm, bsth bs, bg
qub lcbjtl db chrkl kìs dorbjtl lg ush plrtojuglr qub um flnglmtb rblgozl dbg
sostbkl gom`÷ëstojh, bs bg qub dbtbrkoml bg rbòstrh, «l vlrobty ljjhrdom` th

usb± (Flggodly, <?62), gl vlroljoúm cumjohmlg dbg sostbkl jhmdojohmldl phr
bg ush. Bg hnebtovh db gl tbhrël dbg rbòstrh qubdl rbsukodh bm bstl jotl dbg
prhpoh Flggodly (<?065:>)5
Q…[ omtbmtlr dbsjunror ghs promjopohs `bmbrlgbs qub `hnobrmlm gl vlroljoúm
(vlroljoúm dbg gbmùleb bm jhmtbxth), db klmbrl qub bkpbjbkhs l
bmtbmdbr quï cljthrbs sotuljohmlgbs dbtbrkomlm quï jlrljtbrëstojls
gom`÷ëstojls.
Bg jhmtbxth db sotuljoúm dl jubmtl db gls prhpobdldbs sotuljohmlgbs dbg
tbxth, bs dbjor, db quï cljthrbs db bsb jhmtbxth lcbjtlm l gls bgbjjohmbs gom-
`÷ëstojls. Bm bstb sbmtodh, bg bmchqub sostïkojh cumjohmlg dbg lmìgosos dbg
rbòstrh y dbg `ïmbrh sb hjupl db dbsjronor gls bstrujturls db gl gbmùl y
rbgljohmlr gls dokbmsohmbs jhmtbxtulgbs dbg rbòstrh jhm gl hr`lmozljoúm sb-
kìmtojl y `rlkltojlg db gl prhpol gbmùl (B`òms y Klrtom, (>9995 :<:).
Ghs trbs jhmjbpths jhm ghs qub sb fljb rbgljoúm l lqubgghs bgbkbmths dbg jhm-
           
<) Jlkph
Bm `bmbrlg phdbkhs dbjor qub bg jlkph bstì rbgljohmldh jhm bg tbkl dbg
dosjursh, jhm ghs jhmhjokobmths db ghs flnglmtbs, jhm bg `rldh db clkogolro-
dld jhm bg tbkl qub sb suphmb qub bg ludothroh phsbb (B`òms y Klrtom, >9995
::?) y lcbjtl, nìsojlkbmtb, l gl sbgbjjoúm dbg vhjlnuglroh y l gl dostomjoúm
`rldulg bmtrb bg ush db gbmùleb tïjmojh qub sb dbrovl dbg jhmhjokobmth bs-
pbjolgozldh db uml kltbrol y bg ush dbg gbmùleb jhtodolmh prhpoh dbg jhmhjo-
kobmth `bmbrlg. B`òms (>99>5 <:2) gh rbprbsbmtl jhm gl soùobmtb 󿬌ùrl5
JHMJHJOKOBMTH JLKYH JHMJHJOKOBMTH

BZYBJOLGOULDH JHKÕM
(BZYBJOLGOULDH) (@BMB^LG)
Bg jlkph tobmb qub vbr jhm gl ljtovodld shjolg y prhcbsohmlg db ghs fl-
nglmtbs y jhm gls sotuljohmbs bm gls qub ïstls sb dbslrrhgglm (Jlgvo, >993). Bg
jlkph
(Jlnrï,sb jlrljtbrozl
>99<1 bm um
y Klrokúm bxtrbkh
Gghrjl phr bg ushYïrbz,
y Zlmtlklrël db gbmùls
>990) db bspbjolgodld
y bm bg htrh phr
gl utogozljoúm db vhjlnuglroh qub fljb rbcbrbmjol l sotuljohmbs jhtodolmls y
jhmhjodls phr ghs omtbrghjuthrbs. Gom`÷ëstojlkbmtb, ghs tbxths tïjmojh-jobm-
të 󿬌jhs (@utoïrrbz ^hdogggl, >992) sb jlrljtbrozlm cumdlkbmtlgkbmtb phr gl
utogozljoúm db um gïxojh bspbjolgozldh qub súgh jhmhjbm ghs bmtbmdodhs bm
bsb jlkph db jhmhjokobmth. Ybrh, ldbkìs, shm crbjubmtbs lgùml db bstls
jlrljtbrëstojls (Voromljfs, <??9)5
  
     
  


   
     
 
    
         
Bmbsths
thdhs bg soùobmtb
rls`hs5 tbxth dovug`ltovh shnrb bg ZODL phdbkhs sbülglr jlso
¸JÚKH LJTÕL BG SO^RZ DB GL
OMKRMHDBCOJOBMJOL FRKLML (SOF)8
Bg SOF bs um vorus qub ltljl prbcbrbmtbkbmtb lg sostbkl db dbcbmsls dbg
hr`lmoskh, jhkpubsth cumdlkbmtlgkbmtb phr ghs gomchjoths (<: y T) y
ghs kljrúcl`hs.
Lmtb julgquobr sustlmjol u hr`lmoskh bxtrlüh qub bmtrb bm jhmtljth
jhm bg thrrbmtb slmùëmbh sb phmb bm klrjfl gl rbspubstl omkumotlrol db
mubstrh jubrph. L gls sustlmjols bxtrlüls qub prhvhjlm uml rbspubstl
omkumotlrol bspbjë 󿬌jl sb gbs gglkl Lmtë`bmhs.
Trls bg jhmtljth
phsongb jhmprbsbmjol
dbtbjtlr gl bg SOF gldbpbrshml rbsugtlbspbjë
lmtojubrphs omcbjtldl, lumqub
󿬌jhs crbmtb
crbmtb lgmh bs
SOF
flstl plsldls <> sbklmls. Bs bg dbmhkomldh «pbrëhdh vbmtlml±. Bm
bstb pbrohdh mh sb dbtbjtlm lõm ghs lmtojubrphs pbrh bxostb bmhrkbs
jlmtodldbs db vorus bm slm`rb (bgbvldl vorbkol). Ïstl bs gl clsb qub sb
gglkl db prokhomcbjjoúm.
Bg SOF tobmb uml bspbjolg ltrljjoúm phr um toph db gomchjoths T, ghs
gglkldhs JD4 qub rbprbsbmtlm bg 49-42% dbg thtlg db ghs gomchjoths qub
sb bmjubmtrlm jorjuglmdh bm mubstrl slm`rb, ghs julgbs shm omcbjtldhs
phr bg SOF. Durlmtb gl prokhomcbjjoúm sb prhdujb uml doskomujoúm
bm gl jocrl db ghs JD4 db lgrbdbdhr dbg >9%. Jhkh rbsugtldh db su
dbstrujjoúm phr bg SOF.
Durlmtb
omkumb dbgbstb pbrëhdhmhsogbmjohsh
hr`lmoskh db gl bmcbrkbdld
jhmsoùb brrldojlr thdl gl rbspubstl
bg vorus y su rbpgojljoúm pbrsostb
cumdlkbmtlgkbmtb bm ghs `lm`gohs gomcìtojhs. L glr`h pglzh bg SOF supbrl gl
rbspubstl omkumhgúòjl y gl jlpljodld db rb`bmbrljoúm prhdujoïmdhsb um
dbnogotlkobmth plugltomh db gls dbcbmsls dbg hr`lmoskh.
Ghs gomchjoths T JD4 bkpobzlm l doskomuor bm mõkbrh y jlgodld y sb
bmtrl bm gl clsb ljbgbrldl db gl bmcbrkbdld SOF/ZODL, bm gl qub bg
vorus sb kugtopgojl jlso oùlg qub bm gl clsb db prokhomcbjjoúm. Bs bm
bstl clsb julmdh bkpobzlm l lplrbjbr ghs prokbrhs sëmthkls y so`mhs

db lquïggls
l) Rtogozljoúm db gïxojh bspbjolgozldh5 kljrúcl`h, gomchjoth, prokhom-
cbjjoúm, lmtë`bmh.
lmtë`bmh.
n) Rsh db ljrúmokhs
ljrúmokhs prhpohs db gl jobmjol5 SOF, gomchjoths T JD4.
j) Mhkomlgozljo
Mhkomlgozljohmbs,
hmbs, bspbjolgkbmtb ush db lnstrljths dbvbrn
dbvbrnlgbs5
lgbs5 dbno-
gotlkobmth, rb`bmbrljoúm, rbpgojljoúm, rbspubstl, dbstrujjoúm, dosko-
mujoúm, ltrljjoúm, jhmtljth, jhkpubsth.
d) Zomtlxos prbcbrbmtbkbmtb lnrbvoldl5 «Bs bg dbmhkomldh ‗pbrëhdh
vbmtlml‛. Bm bstb pbrëhdh mh sb dbtbjtlm lõm ghs lmtojubrphs pbrh

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LMÌGOZOZ DB TBVTHZ BM BZYLÜHG

YRNGOJLJOHMBZ DB GL RMOSB^ZODLD DB LGOJLMTB

© Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl, >996

Dosbüh db phrtldl5 jlmdbgl oma.

^bsbrvldhs thdhs ghs dbrbjfhs. Mh sb pbrkotb rbprhdujor, lgkljbmlr bm sostbkls db rbjupbrljoúm

OMT^HDRJJOÚM5 BG LMÌGOZOZ DB TBVTHZ5 HNEBTOSHZ

O. BG TBVTH JHKH RMOD

OO. TBH^ËL _ Y^ÌJTOJL DBG LMÌGOZOZ DB TBVTHZ BM

>) Gl dboxos bspljolg ......................

<> Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <:

<4 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

tbúrojh-prìjtojh plrl lnhrdlr bsths lspbjths. Bstl plrbjb sbr gl hrobmtljoúm

ldbkìs db ghs lspbjths

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <2

som dudl‚ db dosjopgomls jhkh gl prl`kìtojl h bg lmìgosos db gl jhmvbrsljoúm

Gl jhkpbtbmjol dosjursovl

<3 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

Zo sb dbsbl dbsvolrsb db bsths jrotbrohs jhkh nlsb plrl jhmsb`uor uml

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <0

bm bg pglmtblkobmth db Db Nusths Thvlr (<?645 <9) julmdh l󿬌rkl qub «bg

<6 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

bsths jhmjbpths mh tobmbm bg koskh sbmtodh mo jhkprbmdbm ghs koskhs

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg <?

            

Bstrujturl `bmbrlg db gl hnrl

>9 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg ><

LUH^ËM CB^MÌMDBU, D. (jhhrd.) (>99>)5 LGJH^B (Lgojlmtb-jhrpus

>> Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

————— (<??3)5 Lprhxo Lprhxokljo

<. R󰁭󰁬 󰁭󰁢󰁪󰁢󰁺󰁯󰁤󰁬󰁤 󰁹󰁾󰁢󰁳󰁯󰁬5 󰁧󰁨󰁺 󰁧ë󰁫󰁯󰁴󰁢󰁺 󰁤󰁢󰁧 󰁫󰁨󰁤󰁢󰁧󰁨 󰁣󰁨󰁾󰁫󰁬󰁧 󰁢󰁭

>3 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg >0

flstl omtb`rlr jubstohmbs rbgljohmldls jhm bg jhmtbxth y jhm ghs usulrohs. Bm

>6 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

jhnrl jlrtl db mlturlgbzl y sb jhmv

<.>. Bg khdbgh cumjohmlg y bg lmìgosos db tbxths

< Mlturlgkbmtb, cubrhm htrhs kujfhs ghs gom`÷ostls qub jhmtronuybrhm

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg >?

>. Ghs chrklgostls tobmdbm l bxpgojlr ghs umovbrslgbs jhkh plrtb db uml

:9 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

gom`÷ëstojls, somh tlknoïm gl flnogodld plrl rblgozlr

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg :<

L^BMZ, F. (<?3?)5 Gl gom`÷ëstojl5 sus tbxths y su bvhgujoúm dbsdb gl Lmto-

:> Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

>. G󰁬 󰁤󰁢󰁣󰁯󰁭󰁯󰁪󰁯ú󰁭 󰁤󰁢 «󰁴󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨±. B󰁧 󰁴󰁢󰁶󰁴󰁨 󰁪󰁨󰁫󰁨 󰁲󰁭󰁯󰁤󰁬󰁤 󰁪󰁨󰁫󰁲󰁭󰁯󰁪󰁬󰁴󰁯󰁳󰁬

:4 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

bm jhmsodbrljoúm uml pbrspbjtovl jhkumojltovl y prhjbsulg shnrb bg tbxth

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg :2

>.>. Bg jlrìjtbr jhkumojltovh dbg tbxth

:3 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

db ghs flnglmtbs, ghs ljths oghjujohmlrohs y bg trltlkobmth

Ylrl E. K. Zomjglor (<?605 <2), gls promjoplgbs docbrbmjols bmtrb um khdb-

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg :0

:6 Jlrkbm Klrokúm Gghrjl

Lmìgosos db tbxths bm bsplühg :?

tbxth ëmtb`rh y l su bstrujturljoúm kbdolmtb dhs jhmeumths db rb`gls5 gls