J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 8 7 (2 0 2 0) 7 1–8 1

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Microtopographic modification conserves urban

wetland water quality by increasing the dissolved
oxygen in the wet season

Yali Liu1,2 , Jianqing Du 2 , Panpan Hu 1,2 , Mingzhu Ma 1,2 , Dan Hu 1,2,⁎

1. State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing
100085, China
2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China

AR TIC LE I N FO ABS TR ACT

Article history: Microtopography affects hydrological processes and forms different microhabitats. Our
Received 8 April 2019 previous study uncovered that riparian zone microtopography created various
Revised 31 May 2019 microhabitats with different soil environments and runoff-infiltration patterns. However,
Accepted 3 June 2019 how riparian microtopography and microtopography within the water area (waterfall and
Available online 17 June 2019 tributary) affects downstream water quality remains unclear. Therefore, water samples
were taken almost monthly in both the main stream and the tributary, before and after
Keywords: waterfalls, and near the bottom of three microtopographic types from June 2016 to March
Microtopographic modification 2017. Compared with the dry season, the fact that water quality worsened in the wet season
Wetland water quality and that there were positive correlations for nitrate (NO−3) between water and the
Tributary corresponding soil samples suggested that the riparian-soil environment affected the
Waterfall adjacent water quality mainly in the wet season. Nevertheless, riparian microtopography
Eutrophication did not influence water quality downstream because of the low rainfall frequency and the
weak leaching process due to plant interception. In the wet season, both the tributary and
the waterfall increased the dissolved oxygen in the water body and, therefore, lowered the
risk of eutrophication. The tributary has two pathways for improving the water quality, by
increased disturbance and flow velocity, while the waterfall only has the former. However,
such effects were not significant in the dry season. We conclude that the application of
microtopographic modification is useful in maintaining urban wetland water quality in wet
seasons.
© 2019 The Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Published by Elsevier B.V.

Introduction In summer, urban wetlands alleviate the heat island effect

Urban wetlands have important ecological value. Their
function in water conservation is quite evident, and they
can also purify the air by promoting air convection and
evaporation (Mitchell et al., 2001; Mitchell and Diaper, 2006).
by absorbing heat and reducing temperature (Gober et al.,
2009; Steeneveld et al., 2014). To achieve desirable func-
tions, urban wetlands usually use microtopographic modi-
fication to simulate natural wetlands in both structure and
function.

⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail: hudan@rcees.ac.cn (Dan Hu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.06.003
1001-0742 © 2019 The Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V.
72 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 8 7 (2 0 2 0) 71–8 1
Microtopographies, i.e., hummocks (or mounds) and hollows
(or depressions, pits), are widely distributed in natural wetlands.
Both hydrological and edaphic characteristics, i.e., water table,
soil temperature and moisture, and soil nutrients, are different
across different microtopographies (Bruland and Richardson,
2005; Malhotra et al., 2016; Moser et al., 2009; Wolf et al., 2011).
As a result, microtopographic heterogeneity provides a variety
of niches, and thereby increases plant diversity and forms
distinct plant communities at hummocks or hollows (Moser
et al., 2007; Rossell et al., 2008; Sleeper and Ficklin, 2016; Vivian-
Smith, 1997). Root dynamics are also affected by microtopogr-
aphy (Jones et al., 1996). Moreover, the ecosystem function of
wetlands is influenced by microtopography. For instance,
carbon dynamics (Chaudhary et al., 2018; Miao et al., 2017) and
nitrogen cycling and removal (Wolf et al., 2011) are both affected
by microtopography. However, although one important ecolog-
ical function of the artificial wetland is water conservation, the
relationship between water quality and riparian microtopog-
raphy is barely understood. Hydrological and biogeochemical
processes vary across different microtopographies and form
diverse microclimates and microhabitats (Appels et al., 2011;
Scowcroft et al., 2004; Wolf et al., 2011). As soil nutrients can
enter the downstream water environment through runoff
(Francirose et al., 2007; Kleinman et al., 2004; Kwong et al.,
2002; Wang et al., 2013), the effects of riparian microtopography
on soil nutrient heterogeneity (Cheng et al., 2016; Groffman
et al., 2002; Gu et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2009), soil nutrient
leaching (Gu et al., 2017), and runoff (Hammad et al., 2006) may
result in differences in water quality adjacent to the bottom of
different microtopographies. Our previous study showed that
different soil environments and runoff-infiltration patterns
were created across microtopographies at the study site
(Unpublished data). The present study, then, was undertaken
to establish how riparian microtopography affects the water
quality downstream.
Furthermore, the microtopography within the water area
can also form diverse hydrological conditions, thus influenc-
ing the aquatic flora and fauna by affecting the water
environment and energy conversion (Song et al., 2007; Su
et al., 2000; Wu et al., 2019a). Microtopographic modification
in the fluvial system of artificial wetlands can indirectly
control the aquatic environment and ecosystem evolution,
achieving the objective of environmental protection. Water-
falls can increase dissolved oxygen (Aras and Berkun, 2010;
Khdhiri et al., 2014), thereby enhancing the removal efficiency
of phosphorus contaminants (Ilyas and Masih, 2018). The
reaeration capacity is positively related to the height of
waterfalls (Aras and Berkun, 2010). Increases in tributaries
and curves also enhance the water flow rate, which is
positively correlated with the dissolved oxygen (Haider et al.,
2013) and therefore affects the nitrogen content in the water
(O'Connor and Hondzo, 2008). Besides, both the structure and
function of wetland ecosystems are different in the wet and
dry seasons due to the changing hydrological conditions. For
instance, previous studies showed that the water quality (Fan
et al., 2012), plant community (Wu et al., 2017), and carbon
flux (Beringer et al., 2013) were different in the dry seasons,
and differences in the biome can be affected by the timing of
dry seasons (Wu et al., 2015, 2019b). However, whether the
effects of microtopography on wetland water quality have a
seasonal pattern or not is still unclear. Therefore, a compreh-
ensive understanding of the effects of both the riparian
microtopography and the microtopography within the water
area on water quality in different seasons is important for
planners and regulatory agencies to optimize the restoration
strategies and construction of urban wetlands.
In the current study, we hypothesized that (1)
microtopography-induced differentiation in soil environments
and runoff-infiltration patterns affect the corresponding down-
stream water quality in the wet season; (2) microtopography
(tributaries and waterfalls) within the water area can improve
the water quality downstream and lower the risk of eutrophi-
cation resulting from riparian runoff in the wet season. To test
this hypothesis, we selected a plot inside an urban wetland
with various micro-landscapes to study the effects of both
terrestrial and aquatic microtopography on water quality
within the same location.
1. Materials and methods
1.1. Site description
The study site was located inside Beijing Olympic Forest Park
(40° 01′ N, 116° 23′ E) with a semi-humid continental monsoon
climate. It is dry and cold in the winter, and rainy and hot in
the summer. According to the data from the China Meteoro-
logical Data Service Center (Appendix A Table S1), the annual
rainfall and average temperature during our study period
from June 2016 to May 2017 were 680.7 mm and 14.3°C,
respectively. Over 60% of the annual rainfall was in July and
August, and there was only 26.3 mm of rainfall during the dry
season. Visible surface runoff was generated by two heavy
rainfall events in July and August (253.50 mm daily precipita-
tion in a single day in July and a 50.20 mm one-day precipita-
tion event in August). No surface runoff was observed during
any other months. The rainfall distribution was extremely
uneven and coincident with the plant growing season from
June to September.
The study plot was located at the runoff area of the urban
wetland surrounded by an artificially modified hillslope. The
microtopography (tributaries and waterfalls) within the water
area was located relatively upstream of the riparian microto-
pography. The streams originated from the upstream subsur-
face flow wetland and passed by a large rock to isolate the
tributary from the main stream. There were two waterfalls
with heights of 1 and 0.7 m. The stream was less than 1 m
deep, and almost no aquatic plants were found at the bottom,
only mud and gravel. After the second waterfall, the stream
entered the area affected by the riparian microtopography.
This area was the inlet of a large lake, and the water near the
land was nearly static all the time. Three microtopographic
types including gully, steep slope, and gentle slope were
selected to study the effects of riparian microtopography on
water quality. The gentle and steep slopes were classified
according to both the international standard (Manual of
Detailed Geomorphological Mapping, Commission on Geo-
morphological Survey and Mapping of International Geo-
graphical Union, 1972) and the Chinese standard (Technical
 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 8 7 (2 0 2 0) 7 1–8 1
Standard of the 2nd National Land Survey, Ministry of Natural
Resources, 2007). The steep and gentle slopes were well-
covered by vegetation in the wet season, while the gully had
no vegetation coverage at any time.
1.2. Sampling and analysis
The water sampling locations WV01–WV04 were located in
the main stream, and WV05 and WV06 were located in the
tributary (Fig. 1). WV02 was before the first waterfall, and
WV04 was after the second waterfall. WV03 was located
between the two waterfalls. This set of water samples was
used for the study of how microtopography within the water
area affects water quality. As WV02 and WV03 were separated
by 17.5 m, which may obscure the effects of the waterfall, only
WV03 and WV04 were selected to study how the waterfall
influences water quality downstream. Water samples were
also taken simultaneously under the gully (W-Gu), steep slope
(W-SS), and gentle slope (W-GS) to study the effects of riparian
microtopography on water quality downstream.
Ten sets of water samples were collected from June 2016 to
March 2017. Five each were sampled in the wet season (from
June 2016 to October 2016) and the dry season (from December
2016 to March 2017). Water samples were collected 10–20 cm
below the water surface without disturbing the bottom sedi-
ment. Three parallel samples were taken at each location and
then mixed in a sterile polyethylene bottle. Afterward, they
were immediately transferred and stored in a refrigerator at 4°C.
Fig. 1 – Schematic representation of the study plot showing all microtopographies and the spatial configuration of the sampling
locations. Spatial scale is not actual and spatial distances are labeled above.
73
The water temperature, flow velocity, pH value, dissolved
oxygen (DO), and oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) were
measured during sampling. The flow velocity and tempera-
ture were measured using a Flow Tracker velocimeter (YSI,
USA), at resolutions of 0.1 cm/s and 0.1°C, respectively. The
pH was measured by a portable pH meter (LE438 electrode;
Mettler Toledo, Switzerland) at a resolution of 0.01. DO
and ORP were measured with a portable dissolved oxygen
analyzer (LE621 electrode and LE501 electrode, respectively;
Mettler Toledo, Switzerland) at a resolution of 0.01 mg/L and
1 mV, respectively. As the waters at W-Gu, W-SS, and W-GS
were almost static at all times, the flow velocity was not
measured at these locations. The concentrations of nitrogen
(N) and phosphorus (P) in the water samples, including total
phosphorus (TP), phosphate (PO3− 4 ), total nitrogen (TN), nitrate
(NO−3), ammonium (NH+4), and nitrite (NO−2) were measured in
the lab using a Smart Chem 200 Discrete Auto Analyzer (AMS,
Italy), with a spectral range of 420–880 nm, a linear range of
0.001–2.5 Abs, and a resolution of 0.0001 Abs. NH+4 and NO−2
were measured on the same day of sampling, and the others
− −
were measured on the next day. PO3− +
4 , NO3, NH4, and NO2 were
first filtered by a 0.45-μm membrane before measurement. TN
and TP were first digested with K2S2O8 under high tempera-
ture and pressure and then measured.
Soil samples were also taken simultaneously in 1 m × 1 m
sampling plots adjacent to W-Gu, W-SS, and W-GS, respec-
tively. At each plot, three soil cores (5 cm diameter) were
randomly collected with a hand auger, carefully mixed,
74 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 8 7 (2 0 2 0) 71–8 1

sieved, and bulked into one sample. All samples were then correlation. All tests were considered significant at p < 0.05.
placed in plastic bags, immediately transported to the All statistical tests were performed in SPSS v. 19.0 (IBM Corp.,
laboratory, then naturally air-dried for the measurement of Armonk, NY, USA).
− −
TP, PO3− +
4 , TN, NO3, NH4, and NO2 using a Smart Chem 200
Discrete Auto Analyzer (Song et al., 2016).

1.3. Data statistics and analysis 2. Results and discussion

Samples taken from the same location at different times were
considered independent because the site was highly dynamic,
and the samples were taken weeks to months apart, based on
other small-scale studies (Febria et al., 2012; Frossard et al.,
2012). A t-test was used to study the differences in water
quality between the wet and dry seasons. The matched-pair
analysis was used to identify the water quality differences
between the main stream and the tributary, and before and
2.1. Seasonal dynamics of water quality
In the stream, the water temperature was affected by the
atmospheric temperature and was significantly different be-
tween the wet and dry seasons (p < 0.01). The pH was 7.5–7.8,
which suggested that the water was weakly alkaline. DO and
ORP were significantly lower in the wet season than in the dry
−
season (p < 0.01). TP, PO3−
4 , and NO3 were significantly higher in

after the waterfall. The relative differences of each index the wet season than in the dry season (p < 0.001). TN, NO−2, and
between the main stream and the tributary, and before and NH+4 showed no seasonal patterns (Fig. 2 and Table 1).
after the waterfall were also calculated with the following Eqs. Near the riparian microtopography, the water temperature
(1) and (2), respectively, to represent the efficiency in water had the same pattern as in the stream. The pH was 7.5–8.4,
quality improvement. which suggested that the water was weakly alkaline. DO and

ORP were significantly lower in the wet season than in the dry
Relative differences ¼ WV061 −WV021 =WV061  100% ð1Þ season (DO, p < 0.01; ORP, p < 0.05). TP, PO3− −
4 , and NO3 were

significantly higher in the wet season than in the dry season

Relative differences ¼ WV041 −WV031 =WV041  100%
where i represents the water quality index.
The effects of riparian microtopography on downstream
water quality were analyzed by repeated-measures ANOVA.
The relationship between the water quality and the riparian-
soil environment was analyzed using Pearson or Spearman
ð2Þ (p < 0.01). TN, NO−2, and NH+4 showed no seasonal patterns
(Table 2).
Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential nutrients for the
growth of algae and aquatic plants (Caron et al., 2000) and are
mainly responsible for eutrophication (Schindler et al., 2008).
Understanding the dynamics of nitrogen and phosphorus in

Fig. 2 – Water quality dynamics during the study period. The points and bars represent the mean ± standard error.
 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 8 7 (2 0 2 0) 7 1–8 1 75

Table 1 – Seasonal differences in water quality in the stream.

Indexes V T pH DO ORP TP PO3−
4 TN NO−3 NH+4 NO−2
(cm/sec) (°C) (mg/L) (mV) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)

Wet 12.52 24.18 7.62 3.33 144.87 0.12 0.06 18.79 0.34 0.24 0.052
season (8.65) (5.56)⁎⁎ (0.13) (2.13) ⁎⁎ (60.24) ⁎⁎ (0.06)⁎⁎ (0.03)⁎⁎ (5.03) (0.21)⁎⁎ (0.16) (0.03) ⁎
Dry 13.97 8.17 7.67 9.59 210.6 0.04 0.03 19.03 0.05 0.38 0.07
season (9.45) (3.81) ⁎⁎ (0.08) (1.26)⁎⁎ (21.32)⁎⁎ (0.04) ⁎⁎ (0.03) ⁎⁎ (5.58) (0.01) ⁎⁎ (0.44) (0.03) ⁎

The tables represent the mean (standard error) of each index. ⁎ and ⁎⁎ indicate a significant difference between the wet and dry seasons at
p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively.

Table 2 – Seasonal differences in water quality adjacent to the riparian microtopography.

Water indexes T pH DO ORP TP PO3−
4 TN NO−3 NH+4 NO−2
(°C) (mg/L) (mV) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)

Wet season 25.09 8.06 5.41 174.1 0.11 0.05 17.45 0.367 0.15 0.06
(5.92) ⁎⁎ (0.33) ⁎⁎ (3.07) ⁎⁎ (19.31) ⁎ (0.05) ⁎⁎ (0.03) ⁎⁎ (4.39) (0.27) ⁎⁎ (0.12) (0.05)
Dry season 7.84 7.72 8.34 197.6 0.05 0.02 18.82 0.04 0.19 0.1
(4.63)⁎⁎ (0.16) ⁎⁎ (1.94) ⁎⁎ (36.19) ⁎ (0.05) ⁎⁎ (0.02) ⁎⁎ (4.35) (0.02) ⁎⁎ (0.15) (0.06)

The tables represent the mean (standard error) of each index. ⁎ and ⁎⁎ indicate a significant difference between the wet and dry seasons at
P < .05 and P < .01, respectively.

the wetlands is important for preventing and controlling
eutrophication (Baulch, 2013). Water quality in the wet season
was worse than in the dry season, with lower DO and more
nutrient content, particular P. The TN concentration was
much higher than TP, and far exceeded the threshold of
eutrophication (1.5–2 mg/L), whereas the TP concentration
was around the threshold (0.15–0.2 mg/L) (Dodds et al., 1998;
Istvánovics, 2009; Monteagudo et al., 2012; Tank and Dodds,
2010). This suggested that the study site had a high risk of
water bloom. Low DO was common in rainfall events (Gaulke
et al., 2015), and the growth of aquatic plants also consumed
DO in the wet season, which coincided with the plant growing
season (Kaenel et al., 2010). The greater nutrient content could
be ascribed to the enhanced ion exchange between water and
sediment (Saeed and Sun, 2012; Yao et al., 2011), while the
other possibility might be the increased surface runoff
together with N and P input from the riparian area. Therefore,
further studies are necessary on the relationship between the
riparian-soil environment and the adjacent water quality, and
on the effects of riparian microtopography on downstream
water quality.
2.2. Effects of riparian microtopography on water quality
NO−3 in the water body was positively correlated with the soil
NO−3, and was significant for the 10–25 cm soil layers (p < 0.01;
r2 = 0.551) (Fig. 3). Other water quality indexes showed no
significant relationship with the riparian-soil environment
(Appendix A Table S2).
Adjacent to the riparian microtopography, the water
temperature, pH, and ORP showed no significant differences
(Fig. 4 and Appendix A Table S3). DO at W-GS and W-Gu was
significantly higher than at W-SS during the dry season
(p < 0.01) and was also significantly higher at W-GS than at

Fig. 3 – Linear regression of NO−3 in the water and soil.

76 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 8 7 (2 0 2 0) 71–8 1

Fig. 4 – Repeated-measures ANOVA of the effects of riparian microtopography on water quality within different periods. The
letters a and b mark the significance levels at p < 0.05.

W-SS over the entire year (p < 0.01). TN at W-Gu was 2.3. Effects of aquatic microtopography on water quality
significantly higher than at W-SS in the dry season and over
the entire year (p < 0.05). The trend of NO−2 was opposite to DO. No differences in water temperature or pH were found
TP and PO3− 4 showed no significant differences across between the main stream and the tributary. The flow velocity
microtopographies at any time (Fig. 4). and DO in the tributary were significantly higher than in the
Water quality was somewhat affected by the riparian- main stream in all periods (flow velocity: p < 0.05 in the wet
soil environment. This is because NO−3 is mobile and easy to season and p < 0.01 in the dry season and the entire year; DO:
leach (Ryden et al., 1984). The soil colloids can adsorb PO3− 4
and lower its mobility in the soil (Berkel and Beckett, 1996;
Missong et al., 2016, 2018). Therefore, PO3− 4 in the water
downstream was not significantly affected by the soil PO3− 4 .
Despite the significant differences in soil nutrients across
riparian microtopographies reported in our previous study
(Liu et al., 2019, submitted), almost no effects of riparian
microtopography on water quality were found. The reason
is that most rainfall and the subsequent runoff occurred in
the wet season, when the well-grown vegetation can
alleviate the leaching of nutrients (Gyssels and Poesen,
2003; Gyssels et al., 2002; Ziadat and Taimeh, 2013).
Therefore, the gully without vegetation coverage suffered
from intense leaching in the wet season, resulting in more
nitrogen input downstream. In the dry season, the rainfall
frequency and intensity were both low, and runoff was
hardly generated. No influence of the riparian-soil environ-
ment on the water quality downstream was detected
during that time. Therefore, the effects of riparian micro- Fig. 5 – Effect of riparian microtopography on water quality.
topography on water quality strongly depend on the local The effect is derived from soil nutrient heterogeneity as
rainfall pattern and its coupling with vegetative periodicity. affected by microtopography and depends on the leaching
At locations where there is more runoff generated, less process, which is associated with the local rainfall pattern
vegetation coverage, or both, riparian microtopography and vegetation coverage, resulting in different effects at
should have a stronger effect on water quality downstream different locations.
(Fig. 5).
 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 8 7 (2 0 2 0) 7 1–8 1 77

Table 3 – Differences in water quality between the main stream and the tributary.
V T pH DO ORP TP PO3−
4 TN NO−3 NH+4 NO−2
(cm/sec) (°C) (mg/L) (mV) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)

Wet WV02 9.45 23.96 7.61 2.22 151.00 0.12 0.06 19.21 0.32 0.29 0.05
season (4.25)⁎ (6.12) (0.14) (1.85) ⁎ (56.23) (0.07) (0.03) (5.83) (0.21) (0.23) (0.03)
WV06 19.63 24.16 7.58 2.89 132.40 0.10 0.04 16.77 0.32 0.21 0.05
(6.02)⁎ (6.08) (0.13) (2.29) ⁎ (69.98) (0.04) (0.02) (4.80) (0.21) (0.16) (0.03)
Dry WV02 10.22 8.08 7.64 8.74 207.00 0.03 0.01 19.76 0.05 0.23 0.07
season (3.68) ⁎⁎ (4.13) (0.06) (1.365) ⁎ (21.79) (0.03) (0.01) (5.43) (0.01) ⁎ (0.12) (0.04)
WV06 26.52 8.18 7.64 9.60 205.80 0.04 0.03 17.16 0.04 0.41 0.06
(3.97) ⁎⁎ (4.17) (0.08) (1.03) ⁎ (29.49) (0.05) (0.02) (8.00) (0.01) ⁎ (0.41) (0.03)
Whole WV02 9.84 16.02 7.63 5.48 179.00 0.08 0.04 19.49 0.18 0.26 0.06
year (3.77) ⁎⁎ (9.71) (0.10) (3.76) ⁎⁎ (49.88) (0.07) (0.04) (5.32) (0.20) (0.17) (0.04) ⁎
WV06 23.07 16.17 7.61 6.24 169.10 0.07 0.04 16.96 0.18 0.31 0.05
(6.02) ⁎⁎ (9.75) (0.11) (3.91) ⁎⁎ (63.72) (0.05) (0.03) (6.23) (0.20) (0.31) (0.03) ⁎

The table represents mean (standard error) of each index. ⁎ and ⁎⁎ indicate a significant difference between the main stream and the tributary at
p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively.

Fig. 6 – Differences in water quality between the main stream and the tributary. The histogram represents the relative
difference between the main stream and the tributary, and a value greater than 0 stands for a higher mean in the tributary.
*and ** indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively.

p < 0.05 in the wet and dry seasons and p < 0.01 in the entire
year). The main stream had higher N and P contents in the wet
season, but the difference was not significant. The possible
reason for the insignificant difference was the large variation
within the group (Table 3). No consistent pattern was found in
the dry season. Meanwhile, the tributary had significantly
lower NO−3 (p < 0.05). Although it also exhibited higher P
content (0.041 mg/L for TP and 0.025 mg/L for PO3− 4 ), the
difference was not significant, and the concentration was still
relatively low. In the entire year, most N and P contents were
lower in the tributary, except NH+4 (Fig. 6 and Table 3), while NO−2
was significantly higher in the main stream (p < 0.05).
Flow velocity was higher before the waterfall in the dry
season and in the entire year (p < 0.05). The water tempera-
ture changed little in the wet and dry seasons, but was
statistically significantly a little higher over the entire year

Fig. 7 – Differences in water quality before and after the waterfall. The histogram represents the relative difference before and
after the waterfall, and a value greater than 0 stands for a higher mean after the waterfall. *and ** indicate significant
differences at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively.
78 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 8 7 (2 0 2 0) 71–8 1

Table 4 – Differences in water quality before and after the waterfall.

V T pH DO ORP TP PO3−
4 TN NO−3 NH+4 NO−2
(cm/s) (°C) (mg/L) (mV) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)

Wet WV03 18.72 24.24 7.66 4.29 146.00 0.11 0.06 19.44 0.36 0.27 0.06
season (7.09) (6.08) (0.14) ⁎⁎ (1.32) ⁎⁎ (49.97) ⁎⁎ (0.05) (0.03) (5.40) (0.25) (0.18) (0.03) ⁎
WV04 15.65 24.34 7.74 5.72 118.20 0.11 0.06 18.65 0.38 0.21 0.05
(10.76) (6.08) (0.13) ⁎⁎ (1.41) ⁎⁎ (57.07) ⁎⁎ (0.04) (0.03) (5.16) (0.27) (0.14) (0.03) ⁎
Dry WV03 21.74 8.04 7.69 10.18 203.20 0.03 0.04 19.23 0.05 0.27 0.07
season (3.82)⁎ (4.18) (0.07) ⁎⁎ (0.88) ⁎⁎ (20.57) (0.03) (0.04) (6.01) (0.01) (0.21) (0.04)
WV04 12.16 8.18 7.76 10.75 212.40 0.04 0.04 19.73 0.05 0.31 0.06
(5.84)⁎ (4.22) (0.07) ⁎⁎ (0.68) ⁎⁎ (15.48) (0.04) (0.04) (4.82) (0.01) (0.28) (0.03)
Whole WV03 20.23 16.14 7.67 7.24 174.60 0.07 0.05 19.34 0.20 0.27 0.06
year (5.60) ⁎ (9.85) ⁎ (0.11) ⁎⁎ (3.28) ⁎⁎ (46.97) (0.06) (0.04) (5.39) (0.23) (0.18) (0.03)
WV04 13.9 1 16.26 7.75 8.24 165.30 0.07 0.05 19.19 0.21 0.26 0.06
(8.37) ⁎ (9.84) ⁎ (0.10) ⁎⁎ (2.85) ⁎⁎ (63.39) (0.05) (0.04) (4.74) (0.25) (0.21) (0.03)

The table represents mean (standard error) of each index. ⁎ and ⁎⁎ indicate a significant difference before and after the waterfall at p < 0.05 and
p < 0.01, respectively.

(p < 0.05). The pH after the waterfall was significantly higher
in all periods (p < 0.01), while the differences were also very
small (Fig. 7 and Table 4). DO greatly increased (by up to 25% in
the wet season) after the waterfall in all periods (p < 0.05 in
the wet and dry seasons; p < 0.01 over the entire year). For N
and P contents, no consistent pattern or significant change
was identified after the waterfall in the dry season and over
the entire year. However, most N and P contents, except for
NO−3, were lower after the waterfall in the wet season, and NO−2
was significantly lower (p < 0.05).
The water quality downstream (at W-Gu, W-SS, and W-GS)
was better than before all aquatic microtopographies (at
WV01 and WV02). DO was significantly higher, and N and P
contents were relatively lower (Appendix A Table S4).
DO levels were negatively correlated with water tempera-
ture (r = − 0.733, p < 0.01), TP (r = − 0.586, p < 0.01), PO3−
4 (r =
− 0.524, p < 0.01), and NO−3 (r = − 0.76, p < 0.01) (Appendix A
Table S5).
DO represents the redox conditions of the water envi-
ronment, which can affect the water N and P contents
(Spagni et al., 2001; Xia et al., 2001). The enhancement of DO
by aquatic microtopography is generated by two main
pathways. First, the turbulence in streams derived from
aquatic microtopography increases the air–water interface
area and the exchange of chemicals due to a large number of
entrained air bubbles (Brattberg and Chanson, 1998; Chen
et al., 2000; Pfister et al., 2006). The other one is ascribed to
the rapid flow velocity, which can reduce the decay rate of
DO (Gillot et al., 2000).
The study site was affected by riparian leaching, and was
at the threshold of eutrophication only in the wet season.
Both the tributary and the waterfall had improved the water
quality by increasing DO in the wet season, and are therefore
useful in maintaining the aquatic environment. However, the
mechanisms are different. The enhanced DO after the
waterfall is only ascribed to the turbulent water–air mixing

Fig. 8 – Effect of the waterfall (a) and the tributary (b) on water quality within the water area. The blue rectangles represent
processes or water quality indexes in the bulk flow. The khaki rectangles represent NO−3 in the sediments. The gray ellipses
represent the mechanisms involved in affecting water quality. The red arrows mean increase or facilitate, whereas the green
arrows stand for decrease or weaken. The tributary has one more pathway than the waterfall by means of increased flow
velocity, resulting in different effects on water quality.
 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 8 7 (2 0 2 0) 7 1–8 1
(Fig. 8a), whereas the effect of the tributary on DO is a
combination of turbulence and flow velocity (Fig. 8b), resulting
in different effects on water quality. Without aquatic plants,
the removal of P in the bulk flow in the present study is
mainly ascribed to sediment adsorption and chemical precip-
itation (Ilyas and Masih, 2018; Richardson et al., 1996).
Increased DO levels can accelerate the adsorption and
precipitation of P to the sediment (De-Bashan and Bashan,
2004; Zhang et al., 2010). By alleviating the limitation of mass
transfer, increased flow velocity also facilitates the flux of
solutes from water to sediments (O'Connor and Hondzo,
2008). As a result, the tributary, with higher flow velocity,
had better P removal efficiency than the waterfall under a
similar level of increased DO. For N in the bulk flow, the
increased DO level results in higher NO−3 but lower NH+4 and
NO−2 by stimulating the nitrification process, while the
increased NO−3 in turn accelerates the denitrification rates in
the sediments (Jensen et al., 1994). The enhanced flow velocity
in the tributary also stimulates the transfer of NO−3 from the
bulk flow to the sediments, where the NO−3 is then consumed
by denitrification, resulting in lower TN. However, the flow
velocity after the waterfall is lower and the transfer of NO−3
into the sediments is thus limited, leading to slightly lower TN
and higher NO−3.
DO was much higher in the dry season and the entire year
than in the wet season; therefore, such effects of the tributary
and the waterfall on the water quality found in the wet season
were not identified with the slightly increased DO level in the
dry season or the entire year. Although TP and PO3− 4 were
higher in the tributary in the dry season, the variation was
large and the means were still considerably low without
causing eutrophication. The proper application of aquatic
microtopography can help with the removal of contaminants
and the inhibition of algae growth.
3. Conclusions
Using a study plot with diverse microtopographies, we
comprehensively investigated the ways in which microtopo-
graphy affects water quality and the importance of
microtopographic modification in water conservation in
urban wetlands. Eutrophication was a major threat to the
studied wetland. In the wet season, riparian runoff enhanced
−
TP, PO3−
4 , and NO3 concentrations in the water body. In the
meantime, DO was low during the rainfall events, leading to
the threshold of eutrophication. However, both the tributary
and waterfall improved the water quality by increasing DO in
the water body and helped to lower the risk of eutrophication,
whereas the mechanisms for the two types of features are
different. The tributary has one more pathway than the
waterfall to increase DO by means of increased flow velocity.
In addition, riparian microtopography showed no significant
effects on water quality downstream because of the limited
runoff due to the coupling effects of the local rainfall pattern
and plant growth. However, the effects of microtopography on
water quality were not significant in the dry season. We
concluded that both terrestrial and aquatic microtopography
can affect urban wetland water quality, whereas the effects of
riparian microtopography depend on both the local rainfall
79
pattern and the vegetation coverage. A proper application of
microtopographic modification in urban wetland construction
can help with the improvement of its ecological function in
water conservation.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 41571482) and the State Key
Laboratory of Urban & Regional Ecology (No. SKLURE2017-1-
1). We thank Qian Ma, Haining Gao, Fengsen Han and
Yuanzheng Li for their assistance in the field work.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.06.003.
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