Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

EE 214

Credits: American University of Ras Al Khaimah website

Module 3

DARLENE ORTIZ, RECE, RECT

Instructor

College of Engineering and Architecture

SY 2021—2022 1ST Semester

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MODULE

This module discusses the following:

1. Vector Quantities
1.1 Polar and Rectangular Components
1.1.1 Conversion
1.2 Phasor Algebra
2. Alternating Current (AC)
2.1 Reactance
2.1.1 Capacitive Reactance, Xc
2.1.2 Inductive Reactance, XL
2.2 Impedance
2.2.1 The Series R-L Circuit
2.2.2 The Series R-C Circuit

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1. Vector Quantity
Has magnitude and direction. These two quantities can be merged into a single expression.

1.1 Polar and Rectangular Components:

A∠θ → polar form (A cis θ)

Where: A = magnitude of the vector

θ = angle (measured counterclockwise direction with respect to the
positive x-axis and is used to specify direction)

A A vector can also be specified in terms of its rectangular

components, Ax and Ay and can be written as:
Ay
θ Ax + i Ay → rectangular form
Ax
Where: Ax = x-axis component
Ay = y-axis component
i = imaginary number
i0 = 1
i1 = i = √−1
i2 = -1
i3 = -i
i4 = 1

Note: Ax and Ay are unlike terms and cannot be added, etc.

Phasor can also be expressed in exponential form: ejθ = cosθ + jsinθ

1.1.1 Conversion:

Polar → Rectangular Components:

Ax = Acosθ Ay = Asinθ
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦
cosθ = 𝐴 sinθ = 𝐴

Rectangular → Polar Components:

𝐴𝑦
A = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 θ = tan-1(𝐴𝑥)

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Example 1.
Convert the polar form 45 ∠ 20° into rectangular form.

Solution for Example 1:

Solving for the x-axis component,
Ax = Acosθ = 45cos20 = 42.29

Then solving for the y-axis component,

Ay = Asinθ = 45sin20 = 15.39

Finally, we have 42.29 + i 15.39 → rectangular form

Example 2.
Convert the rectangular form 5 – j3 into polar form.

Solution for Example 2:

Solving for the magnitude,
A = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 = √(5)2 + (3)2 = 5.83

And for the phase or angle,

𝐴𝑦 −3
θ = tan-1(𝐴𝑥) = tan-1( 5 ) = -30.96°

Finally, we have 5.83 ∠ -30.96° → polar form

Example 3.
Convert 15ej50 to its polar and rectangular forms.

Solution for Example 3:

This is equivalent to 15 ∠ 50° in polar form.
And in rectangular form: 15(cos50 + jsin50) = 15(0.64 + j0.77)

Example 4.
Find the value for i1035.

Solution for Example 4:

First, you take out the power and divide it by 4, since we have 4 values for i.
1035
= 258.75
4
Then you multiply its remainder by 4. If there’s no remainder, it is equal to 1.
0.75 x 4 = 3
So it means that i1035 = i3 = -i.

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Practice Problem 1. Answers:
1. Convert 6 + j4 phasor to its polar form. 7.21 ∠ 33.69°
2. Convert 40 ∠ 90° to its rectangular form. 0 + j40

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1.2 Phasor Algebra

Addition & Subtraction

Rectangular Form
A phasor in the rectangular form could be added to or subtracted from
another phasor simply by adding or subtracting their rectangular
components.

We have: Z1 = X1 + jY1
Z2 = X2 + jY2

Addition: Za = Z1 + Z2
Za = (X1 + jY1) + (X2 + jY2)
Za = (X1 + X2) + j(Y1 + Y2)

Subtraction: Za = Z1 – Z2
Za = (X1 – jY1) + (X2 – jY2)
Za = (X1 – X2) + j(Y1 – Y2)

Polar Form
A phasor expressed in polar form are usually converted first into their
rectangular components before performing either addition or subtraction.

Multiplication

Rectangular Form
Two phasors expressed in their rectangular forms can be multiplied using
the distribution rule.

We have: Z1 = X1 + jY1
Z2 = X2 + jY2

Then Z1Z2 = (X1 + jY1)(X2 + jY2)

Z1Z2 = X1X2 + jX1Y2 + jY1X2 + j2Y1Y2
Z1Z2 = (X1X2 – Y1Y2) + j(X1Y2 + jY1X2)

Polar Form
Quantities expressed in the polar form can easily be multiplied.

We have: Z1 = A1 ∠ θ1
Z2 = A2 ∠ θ2

Then Z1Z2 = (A1A2) ∠ (θ1 + θ2)

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 Division

Rectangular Form

We have: Z1 = X1 + jY1
Z2 = X2 + jY2

𝑍1 X1 + jY1 (X1X2 + Y1Y2)+j(X2Y1−X1Y2)

Then = X2 + jY2 =
𝑍2 X22 + Y22

Polar Form

We have: Z1 = A1 ∠ θ1
Z2 = A2 ∠ θ2

𝑍1 A1 ∠ θ1 𝐴1
Then = = 𝐴2 ∠ (θ1 – θ2)
𝑍2 A2 ∠ θ2

Example 1.
Add (5 + j3) and (6 – j4).

Solution for Example 1:

(5 + j3) + (6 – j4) = 11 – j1

Example 2.
Multiply (2 + j6) and (5 + j13).

Solution for Example 2:

(2 – j6) (5 + j13) = 10 + j26 – j30 – j278 = [10 – (-1)(78)] + j(26 – 30) = 88 – j4

Example 3.
Divide (10 + j15) by 5.

Solution for Example 3:

10 + j15 10 15
= 5 + j 5 = 2 + j3
5

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2. Alternating Current (AC)
Is one that continuously varies in amplitude and periodically reverses in polarity.

Figure 1. Sinusoidal wave.

Important Terms

Amplitude (v or i) – highest and lowest point of the wave.

Frequency (f ) – cycles per second. Unit is Hertz (Hz). Reciprocal of f is period (T) which
1
is f = 𝑇 .

Period (T) – time it takes to complete one cycle. Unit is seconds (s). Reciprocal of T is
1
frequency which is T = .
𝑓

Figure 2. Other types of waves.

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Resistor in an AC Circuit:

ΔVR = Vmaxsinθ = Vmaxsin90 = Vmax

R, ΔVR

Figure 3. Resistor in an AC circuit schematic diagram and the waveform of V and I.

In-phase – in their phasor diagram, the current and voltage coincides or in same
the same phase angle.

Figure 4. Resistive circuit phasor diagram.

Formula

Average Power: Pave = Irms2R

𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱
RMS (Root Mean Square): Irms = Vrms =
√𝟐 √𝟐

Note: Vrms and Irms is the voltage/current that is measure by the multitester in AC.

Instantaneous Value

ΔVR = Vmaxsinθ or ΔVR = Vmaxsin2πft

Where: θ = ωt
ω = 2πf, rad/s
t = seconds, s

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Example 1.
Solve for the frequency of sin30t.

Solution for Example 1:

sin30t = sin2πft
30
where 30 = 2πf and f = 2π = 4.7/s or 4.7 Hz

Example 2.
An AC voltage source has an output of ΔV = (2.00x102V sin2πft). This source is connected
to a 1.00x102Ω resistor. Find the Irms and Vrms of the resistor.

Solution for Example 2:

Solving for the Vrms,

Vmax 2.00x102 V
Vrms = = = 141.42V
√2 √2

While in solving for the Irms, we need to get the Imax first,

Vmax 2.00x102V
Imax = = 1.00𝑥102 Ω = 2A
𝑅

2A
So, Irms = = 1.414A
√2

Practice Problem 2. Answers:

Solve for the frequency in Hz.
1. sin135t 21.49 Hz
2. sin0.5t 0.08 Hz

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 2.1 Reactance
the nonresistive component of impedance in an AC circuit, arising from the effect
of inductance or capacitance or both and causing the current to be out of phase with
the electromotive force causing it. Its unit is ohm (Ω).

2.1.1 Capacitor in an AC Circuit:

When I is max, v = 0
When V is max, I = 0

Figure 5. Capacitor in an AC circuit schematic diagram and the waveform of V and I.

Out of phase – for purely capacitive circuits, I is “leading” by 90° and E or V is

“lagging” by 90°.

Figure 6. Purely capacitive circuit phasor diagram.

Formulas
𝟏
Capacitive Reactance: Xc =
𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐜
Where: f = frequency
C = capacitance
Xc = capacitive reactance, ohms (Ω)

Voltage: Vcrms = Irms Xc

Average Power: Pave = Irms2 Xc

𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱
RMS (Root Mean Square): Irms = Vrms =
√𝟐 √𝟐

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Example 1.
An 8.00μF capacitor is connected to the terminals of an AC generator with an rms voltage
of 1.50x102V and a frequency of 60.0Hz. Find the capacitive reactance and the rms current
in the circuit.

Solution for Example 1:

Solving for the Xc,
1 1
Xc = 2πfc = 2π(60.0Hz)(8.00μF) = 331.57Ω

Then solving for the Irms,

Vcrms 1.50x102 V
Irms = = = 0.45A or 452.39mA
Xc 331.57Ω

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 2.2.2 Inductor in an AC Circuit:

vL = Vmaxsinωt

Figure 7. Inductor in an AC circuit schematic diagram and the waveform of V and I.

Out of phase – for purely inductive circuits, I is “lagging” by 90° and E or V is

“leading” by 90°.

Figure 8. Purely inductive circuit phasor diagram.

Formulas

Inductive Reactance: XL = 2πfL

Where: f = frequency
L = inductance
XL = inductive reactance, ohms (Ω)

Voltage: VLrms = Irms XL

Average Power: Pave = Irms2 XL

𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱
RMS (Root Mean Square): Irms = Vrms =
√𝟐 √𝟐

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Example 1.
In a purely inductive AC circuit, L = 25mH and the rms voltage is 1.50x10 2V. Find the
inductive reactance and the rms current in the circuit if the frequency is 60.0Hz.

Solution for Example 1:

Solving for the XL,
XL = 2πfL = 2π(60.0Hz)(25mH) = 9.42Ω

Then solving for the Irms,

Vcrms 1.50x102 V
Irms = = = 15.915A
Xl 9.42Ω

Example 2.
A pure inductance L has a current of i = 10sin(350t + 100°)A. Determine the voltage across
this element if L is a) 0.1H and b) 1H.
Solution for Example 2:
350
From the equation, we know that 2πf = 350. So it follows that the f = 2π = 55.704 Hz.

Solving for the XL,

XL1 = 2πfL = (350)(0.1H) = 35Ω
XL2 = 2πfL = (350)(1H) = 350Ω

Then solving for the v, v = iXL

v1 = iXL1 = [10sin(350t + 100°)][35Ω] = 350sin(350t + 100°) V
v2 = iXL2 = [10sin(350t + 100°)][350Ω] = 3500sin(350t + 100°) V

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2.2 Impedance
Is the equivalent opposition to current flow. This is generally reactance plus
resistance.

Z = R + jX

Where: R = value of the resistance

X = the total reactance (XL + XC)
Z = total impedance, in ohm (Ω)

2.2.1 The Series R-L Circuit

The combination of R + L lies between angles 0° and 90° in the phasor diagram.

XL

Figure 9. Series R-L circuit and its phasor diagram.

Formulas

Impedance: Z = R + jXL = √𝐑𝟐 + 𝐗𝐥𝟐

Voltage: E = √𝐄𝐫 𝟐 + 𝐄𝐥𝟐 = 𝐈√𝐑𝟐 + 𝐗𝐥𝟐 = IZ

Power: P = IEcosθ = IE(p.f.)

P = IEcos0 = IE→ for purely resistive circuit
P = IEcos90 = 0 → for purely inductive or capacitive circuit

𝐄𝐫 𝐑
Power Factor: p. f. = cosθ = =𝐙
𝐄

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Example 1.
A 240V, 60 cycle source is connected to a coil of wire that has a resistance of 7.5Ω and an
inductance of 0.0477H. Calculate the following: total reactance, impedance, current, power
and power factor.

Solution for Example 1:

Let us solve first for the XL, XL = 2πfL = 2π(60Hz)(0.0477H) = 17.98Ω

Now, solving for the impedance, Z,

Z = √R2 + Xl2 = √(7.5Ω)2 + (17.98Ω)2 = 19.484Ω

For the current, I, we have E = IZ, so

𝐸 240𝑉
I = 𝑍 = 19.484Ω = 12.318A

For the power, since only the resistor has power,

P = I2R = (12.318A)2(7.5Ω) = 1137.982W or 1.138kW

For the power factor, since we already have the values of the resistance and impedance,
R 7.5Ω
p. f. = cosθ = Z = 19.484Ω = 0.385 lagging (current)

Example 2.
A load of 18.4kW operating at a power factor of 0.8 lagging is connected to a 460V, 60
cycle source. Calculate: load current, power factor angle, equivalent impedance, resistance
and reactance of the load.
Solution for Example 2:
Solving for the current using the given power and power factor, P = IEcosθ = IE(p.f.),
P 18.4kW
I= = = 50A
E(p.f.) (460V)(0.8)

Solving for the power factor angle, we have p. f. = cosθ, so

θ = cos-1(0.8) = 36.87°

Then solving for the equivalent impedance, Z, we have now current and voltage, so,
E 460V
Z = I = 𝟓𝟎𝐀 = 9.2Ω
So our impedance is: Z = 9.2 ∠ 36.87°

R
Solving for the resistance, we use the formula cosθ = Z, so
R = Zcosθ = (0.8)(9.2Ω) = 7.36Ω

Solving for the reactance, we use the formula Z2 = R2 + XL2 so,

XL = Z2 – R2 = (9.2Ω)2 – (7.36Ω)2 = 5.52Ω

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2.2.2 The Series R-C Circuit
The combination of R + C lies between angles 0° and -90° in the phasor
diagram.

Figure 10. Series R-C circuit and its phasor diagram.

Formulas

Impedance: Z = R + jXc = √𝐑𝟐 + 𝐗𝐜 𝟐

Voltage: E = √𝐄𝐫 𝟐 + 𝐄𝐜 𝟐 = 𝐈√𝐑𝟐 + 𝐗𝐜 𝟐 = IZ

Power: P = IEcosθ = IE(p.f.)

P = IEcos0 = IE→ for purely resistive circuit
P = IEcos90 = 0 → for purely inductive or capacitive circuit

𝐄𝐫 𝐑
Power Factor: p. f. = cosθ = =
𝐄 𝐙

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Example 1.
A 125V, 25 cycle source is connected to a series circuit consisting of a 30Ω resistor and a
159μF capacitor. Calculate the following: impedance, current, power factor, power.

Solution for Example 1:

1 1
Let us solve first for the Xc, Xc = 2πfC = 2π(25Hz)(159μF) = 40.04 Ω

Now, solving for the impedance, Z,

Z = √R2 + Xc2 = √(30Ω)2 + (40.04 Ω)2 = 50.031Ω
1
Z = 30 + j(2π(25Hz)(159μF) ) = 30 + j40.04 → in rectangular form
Z = 50.031 ∠ 53.157° → in polar form

For the current, I, we have E = IZ, so

𝐸 125𝑉
I = 𝑍 = 50.031Ω = 2.498A

For the power factor, since we already have values of resistance and impedance,
R 30Ω
p. f. = cosθ = Z = 50.031Ω = 0.599 (leading)

For the power,

P = IEcosθ = (2.498A)(125V)(0.599) = 187.234W

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Definition of Terms

Resistance – the opposition to current flow. Its symbol is R and its unit is ohm (Ω).

Conductance – the ease of which electrons may flow or the measure of how much a circuit
conducts current. This is the reciprocal of resistance. Its symbol is G and its unit is Siemens
or mho (S).

Reactance – the opposition to current with respect to time. Its symbol is X and its unit is
ohm (Ω).

Susceptance – the measure of how much a circuit reacts against change in current over
time. This is also the measure of how much a circuit is susceptible to conducting a changing
current. This is reciprocal to reactance. Its symbol is B and its unit is Siemens or mho (S).

Impedance – the measure of how much alternating current is impeded in a circuit. Its
symbol is Z and its unit is ohm (Ω).

Admittance – the measure of how much current is admitted in the circuit. Its symbol is Y
and its unit is Siemens or mho (S).

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