General Chemistry I notes

Robert Picardo
December 2021
2
Chapter 1

Atomic and electronic structure

1.1 Electromagnetic radiation

A wave is an oscillation or periodic movement that can transport energy from one point
in space to another. James Clerk Maxwell showed that electromagnetic waves consist
of an electric field oscillating in step with a perpendicular magnetic field, both of which
perpendicular to the direction of travel:

An electromagnetic wave has

• a wavelength λ (expressed in m)
• a frequency ν (expressed in Hz = s−1 )
• an amplitude (intensity, brightness, loudness)
A wave’s wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional by a factor of the speed
of light c:
c = λν = 2.998 × 108 ms−1

1.2 Blackbody radiation and the ultraviolet catastrophe

A blackbody is an ideal emitter that approximates the behavior of many materials when
heated.
Physicists derived mathematical expressions for blackbody curves using classical mechanics
and classical electromagnetism. However, as the experimental blackbody curves showed that
there was a peak in intensity at shorter wavelengths, theoretical blackbody curves showed that

3
4 CHAPTER 1. ATOMIC AND ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE

the intensity would approach infinity for smaller and smaller wavelengths. This is called the
ultraviolet catastrophe, or the Rayleigh–Jeans catastrophe.

In 1900. Max Planck derived a correct form for the intensity spectral distribution function
by making the assumptions that electromagnetic radiation can be emitted or absorbed only
in discrete packets of energy called quanta.

1.2.1 Planck–Einstein relation

The energy of a photon E is proportional to its frequency ν:

E = hν

where h = 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 J · s is the Planck constant.

1.3 Photoelectric effect

Albert Einstein observed that shining electromagnetic radiation (e.g. light) having a fre-
quency greater than a threshold onto a metal surface could eject electrons (called photoelec-
trons). His observations disagreed with classical electromagnetism, which postulated that the
intensity of the light changed the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons:
• He observed that electrons are emitted depending on the light’s frequency, regardless
of its intensity
• High-frequency light from a dim source caused electron emission without lag time
Einstein argued that the quantized energies posed by Planck in resolving the ultraviolet
catastrophe could be applied to the photoelectric effect.

He viewed quanta as a stream of particles called photons, whose energy depended on fre-
quency:

hc
E = hν =
λ

1.4 Emission spectra

An emission spectrum is a pattern of certain wavelengths produced by passing the emitted
light of a certain atom or molecule through a prism, that is unique to that type of atom or
molecule.
Line spectra, or discontinuous emission spectra, are produced uniquely by an element.
Through observation of discrete spectra, Johann Balmer derived an equation that related
wavelengths of light emitted by hydrogen atoms to integers, which would be generalized by
Johannes Rydberg to all of hydrogen’s emission lines:
1.5. RUTHERFORD–BOHR MODEL 5

!
1 1 1
= R∞ − 2
λ n21 n2

1.5 Rutherford–Bohr model

In an attempt to incorporate the classical mechanics description of the atom, Planck’s ideas
of light energy quantization, and Einstein’s energy-frequency proportionality, Niels Bohr as-
sumed that an electron would emit or absorb a photon, in which it would move to a differ-
ent orbit.

Let the difference between the initial and final orbital energies be ∆E = Ef − Ei . Then,

hc
|∆E| = |Ef − Ei | = hν =
λ

1.5.1 Rydberg formula

!
1 1 1
= R∞ − 2
λ n21 n2
! !
1 1 1 1
∆E = hcR∞ − 2 = (2.718 × 10−18 J) − 2
n21 n2 n21 n2

where R∞ = 1.097 373 153 × 107 m−1

However, Bohr’s model was still extremely flawed, as it only described hydrogen and
hydrogen-like atoms, such as He+ , Li2 + , and Be3 + . This would be later superseded by
the quantum-mechanical model of the atom.

1.6 Wave-particle duality of matter

All matter exhibits properties of both particles and waves, as matter and energy are al-
ternate forms of the same entity (E = mc2 ).

de Broglie generalized the wave–particle duality of light from the photoelectric effect to
material particles.
6 CHAPTER 1. ATOMIC AND ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE

1.6.1 de Broglie wavelength λ

A particle with mass m and velocity v (or linear momentum p = mv) behaves like a
wave with de Broglie wavelength λ:

h h
λ= =
mv p

1.6.2 Double-slit experiment

The double-slit experiment, conducted by Davission and Germer, demonstrated that elec-
trons can exhibit wavelike behavior by shown an interference pattern for electrons trav-
elling through a regular atomic pattern in a crystal.

1.6.3 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

It is fundamentally impossible to determine simultaneously and exactly both the mo-

mentum and position of a particle.
Assume a particle of mass m moving with velocity in the x-direction vx , or momen-
tum px = mvx . Then, the product of positional uncertainty ∆x and momen-
tum uncertainty ∆x is

ℏ h
∆x∆px = ∆x · m∆v ≥ =
2 4π
1.7. QUANTUM-MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE ATOM 7

1.7 Quantum-mechanical model of the atom

de Broglie’s work on wave–particle duality was extended by Erwin Schrödinger into the
Schrödinger equation, which better accustomed to the electronic behavior around atoms,
including the Bohr model.

Schrödinger described electrons as three-dimensional stationary waves called wavefunctions

ψ. An interpretation by Max Born proposes that electrons are still particles, and ψ de-
scribes the waves that serve as complex probability amplitudes. |ψ|2 describes the proba-
bility of the electron appearing in a particular location.

Ĥψ = Eψ

1.7.1 Quantum numbers n, ℓ, mℓ , ms

Name Symbol Values Physical interpretation

principal quantum number n 1, 2, 3, · · · shell, energy level
azimuthal quantum number ℓ 0, · · · , n − 1 subshell, shape of orbital
magnetic quantum number mℓ −ℓ, · · · , ℓ orientation of orbital
spin quantum number ms − 21 , 21 direction of intrinsic ”spinning”

An atomic orbital is a general region in an atom within which an electron is most

probable to reside, according to the solutions of the Schrödinger equation. An elec-
tron is defined by four quantum numbers.

The principal quantum number n = 1, 2, 3, · · · describes the general energy

level, or shell, of the electron, similar to the Bohr model.

The azimuthal (angular) quantum number ℓ = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1 describes the

shape or subshell of the orbital.
• ℓ = 0: s orbitals have a simple, spherical shape
• ℓ = 1: p orbitals are shaped like dumbbells
• ℓ = 2: d orbitals are shaped like two dumbbells (”X”-shaped)
• ℓ = 3: f orbitals are shaped like three dumbbells
8 CHAPTER 1. ATOMIC AND ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE

The magnetic quantum number mℓ = −ℓ, · · · , +ℓ describes the orientation of

the orbital. All orbitals that have the same energy level (same n and ℓ numbers) are
called degenerate orbitals.

1 1
The spin quantum number ms = − , + describes the electron spin, or the
2 2
intrinsic angular momentum of each electron. Each electron acts as a tiny magnet
with ”rotation,” which can’t be observed in terms of spatial coordinates.

1.7.2 Pauli exclusion principle

No two electrons in the same atom can have exactly the same set of quantum num-
bers (n, ℓ, mℓ , ms ).

It follows that there can only be up to two electrons per orbital.

1.7.3 Aufbau principle

In the ground state of an atom, electrons fill subshells of the lowest available energy
before filling subshells of higher energy.

1.7.4 Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity

Electrons will occupy any available degenerate orbital singly before occupying them
doubly.
1.7. QUANTUM-MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE ATOM 9

1.7.5 Electron configuration of the atom

The energy level diagram (above) is based on observed experimental results and confirmed
by theoretical calculations. The energies are affected by

• A higher nuclear charge Z, which increases nucleus-electron interactions and low-

ers sublevel energy

• Shielding, which is when electrons closer to nucleus slightly repel electrons further
out =⇒ an effective nuclear charge Zeff

• Penetration: the orbital sublevel (shape) can cause electrons to ”penetrate” close to
the nucleus =⇒ increases nuclear attraction and decreases shielding, making the
sublevel energy lower (especially s orbitals)

In a shell n, a lower sublevel ℓ has a lower energy: s < p < d < f

In an orbital

diagram, we first fill the 1s orbital with its first electron (n, ℓ, mℓ , ms ) =
1, 0, 0, 21 . Hydrogen therefore has the electron configuration 1s1 . By the Pauli ex-
clusion principle, if we added another electron, if would have to be at an opposite spin
ms = − 12 .

2p 1s

Filling in the lowest-available energy levels with electrons (according to the aufbau princi-
ple), we get to the p sublevel, which at first we place in each degenerate orbital one electron
before filling in with a second (Hund’s rule):
10 CHAPTER 1. ATOMIC AND ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE

2p
2s

1s

Valence electrons are electrons in the highest principal quantum number n. Core
electrons are electrons that are not valence electrons.

A shortcut to electron configuration is noble gas configuration, in which the configuration

of the core electrons is replaced by a condensed noble gas to which it corresponds.

Na : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 =⇒ [Ne]3s1

Chapter 2

Chemical bonding and molecular

geometry

2.1 Ionic and covalent bonding

Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between metal cations and nonmetal anions. Elec-
trons are taken from the metal atom and into the nonmetal atom.

Covalent bonds are regions of relatively high electron density between nuclei which arises
partly from the ”sharing” of electrons. Usually occurs between nonmetals and nonmetals.

Pure covalent bonding occurs between identical atoms, where the electrons are shared
equally. Polar covalent bonding refers to an unequal distribution of electrons, in which
there is a partial positive charge δ+ and a partial negative charge δ−:

11
12 CHAPTER 2. CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

2.1.1 Electronegativity χ
The electronegativity χ of an atom is its power to attract electrons toward itself. In a po-
lar covalent bond, electron density is higher around a more electronegative atom. Pauling
electronegativities are based on a relative 0–4 scale and calculated from bond dissociation
energies Ed .

The electronegativity difference |χA − χB | can tell the character of the bond:

• Pure covalent: |χA − χB | < 0.4

• Polar covalent: 0.4 < |χA − χB | < 1.8

• Ionic: 1.8 < |χA − χB |

However, since there are many exceptions to this table, it is best to look for the types of atoms
(nonmetal v. metal, nonmetal v. nonmetal) in determining the character of the bond.

2.1.2 Lewis octet rule

Rule of thumb: Main-group elements tend to bond such that they have eight valence
electrons in a Lewis structure.

Exceptions

Free radicals: Molecules with an odd number of valence electrons.

N=O

Electron-deficient molecules: Molecules that contain atoms that don’t have a filled valence
shell. For example, boron trifluoride BF3 has a Lewis structure that can actually fulfill an
octet rule by forming B F bonds. However, it is shown experimentally that B – F bonds are
shorter, meaning that this Lewis structure is much more likely to occur:

Hypervalent molecules: Elements in periods 3 and higher have more than four valence
orbitals. Thus they can share more than four electron pairs because of their empty d orbital.
2.2. FORMAL CHARGES AND RESONANCE 13

2.2 Formal charges and resonance

The formal charge is a charge assigned to an atom under the assumption that electrons are
shared equally in covalent bonds regardless of electronegativity.

1
formal charge = valence electrons (neutral) − lone pairs − (bonding electrons)
2

Resonance or mesomerism refers to the combination of possible structures (contributing

structures) into the wavefunction of a single resonance hybrid. Electrons are instead delo-
calized across partial bonds.

Example. The carbonate ion can have three contributing structures:

which all contribute into a resonance hybrid:

A resonance hybrid does not fluctuate between contributing structures; rather, it is the weighted
average of the contributing structures (depending on the squared coefficient in the linear
combination of wavefunctions).

2.2.1 Major contributing structures

The most stable contributing structures contribute most to the resonance hybrid.
These are structures that have
• all atoms’ formal charges as close to 0 as possible
• any negative formal charges placed on the more electronegative atoms
14 CHAPTER 2. CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

2.3 VSEPR theory

Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory describes the electron-pair geometry and
molecular geometry of any given molecule, as well as approximate bond angles around a cen-
tral atom.

Lone pairs repel from each other more than bonding pairs, leading to higher bond angles. To
determine electron-pair geometry, we count the number of electron domains (or elec-
tron regions. Any lone pair, single bond, double bond, or triple bond counts as one electron
domain.

2.3.1 Polarity and dipole moment

Separation of charges within a polar bond (due to differences in χ) form a bond dipole
moment, which are represented as vectors. If the total sum of the vectors leads to a non-zero
vector, it forms an overall dipole moment of the entire molecule, meaning the molecule is
polar. If the total sum of the vectors is a zero vector, the molecule is non-polar. The direction
of these vectors are determined by the molecular geometry.
Chapter 3

Chemical bonding theories

There are two main theories that attempt to model the mechanism of covalent bonding with
close adherence to the quantum-mechanical model: valence bond theory and molecular
orbital theory.

3.1 Valence bond theory

The valence bond theory describes a covalent bond as an overlap of atomic orbitals. In
overlapping, these atomic orbitals undergo hybridization, or mathematically, linear com-
bination of atomic orbitals, to form hybrid orbitals.
• A σ-bond is a head-to-head overlap of two s or p orbitals, such that electron density
is most concentrated in a region along the internuclear axis.
• A π-bond is a side-by-side overlap of two p orbitals, in which electron density lies on
opposite sides of the internuclear axis, at which there is a nodal plane.
• All single bonds are σ-bonds.
• A double bond has 1σ + 1π.
• A triple bond has 1σ + 2π.

3.1.1 Hybridization
According to the quantum-mechanical model, atomic orbitals (Ψ) combine to produce new
orbitals.

15
16 CHAPTER 3. CHEMICAL BONDING THEORIES

Hybridization is linear combination of atomic orbitals of an atom, which results in

a hybrid orbital.

The number of electron domains determines the type of hybrid orbital.

Example. Acetylene (H−C− −C−H) is a linear molecule where both C−H bonds have sp
hybridization, and the C−
−C bond has sp hybridization and two π-bonds.
3.2. MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY 17

3.2 Molecular orbital theory

A downside of valence bond theory is that it is unable to explain electron delocalization
resulting from resonance and free radicals, where there is fractional bond order.

Molecular orbital (MO) theory concerns over the combination of atomic wave-
functions to form molecular wavefunctions Ψ. Regions of high probability den-
sity of electrons are molecular orbitals Ψ.
• Bonding orbitals σ and π result from constructive interference (addition)
of electron wavefunctions. They lower the energy or increase the bonding of the
molecule.
• Antibonding orbitals results from destructive interference of electron
wavefunctions. They increase the energy or lower the bonding of the molecule.

(bonding electrons) − (antibonding electrons)

bond order =
2

s-p mixing refers to the switches in molecular orbital energies for homonuclear
diatomic molecules with Z < 8 (Li2 , Be2 , B2 , C2 , N2 ). =⇒ (π2p ) < (σ2p )

For homonuclear diatomic molecules with Z ≥ 8 (O2 , F2 , Ne2 ), negligible s-p

mixing occurs. =⇒ (π2p ) > (σ2p )

As a result,
18 CHAPTER 3. CHEMICAL BONDING THEORIES

energy

∗
σ2p
paramagnetic
∗ π∗
π2py 2pz
2px 2py 2pz 2px 2py 2pz
π2pyπ2pz

σ2p

∗
σ2s
2s 2s
σ2s

∗
σ1s
1s 1s
σ1s

O O2 O

2 ∗ 2 2 ∗ 2

2
4  ∗  2
O2 has electron configuration (σ1s ) (σ1s ) (σ2s ) (σ2s ) σ2p π2p π2p . The
bond order of O2 is
10 − 6
bond order = = 2.
2
This accounts for the biradical nature of dioxygen, of which neither its Lewis structures or
resonance theory can predict with adherence to an exact double bond order:

O-O O=O O O
...and also for the paramagnetic nature of dioxygen, or the relatively weak tendency for its
electrons to align their spin along a magnetic field.
Chapter 4

Chemical reactions

4.1 Precipitation

A precipitation reaction is the sedimentation of a solid material (precipitate) from

a liquid solution in which the material is present in amounts greater than its solubil-
ity in the liquid.

19
20 CHAPTER 4. CHEMICAL REACTIONS

4.2 Acid-base reaction

An acid-base reaction is a proton transfer reaction.

An acid is a species capable of donating a proton (Brønsted acid) or capable of form-

ing a covalent bond with an electron pair (Lewis acid).

A strong acid is an acid that completely reacts with water.

−
HCl(aq) −−→ H+
(aq) + Cl(aq)

HBr(aq) , HCl(aq) , HI(aq) , HNO3(aq) , HClO4(aq) , H2 SO4(aq) are strong acids.

A weak acid is an acid that partially reacts with water.

− +
CH3 COOH(aq) −
↽−
−⇀
− CH3 COO(aq) + H(aq)

A base is a species capable of forming a covalent bond with a proton (Brønsted base
or the vacant orbital of some other species (Lewis base).

A strong base completely dissociates in water.

NaOH(s) −−→ Na(aq) + + OH−

(aq)

A weak base partially dissociates in water.

+ −
NH3(aq) + H2 O(l) −
↽−
−⇀
− NH4 (aq) + OH(aq)

4.3 Oxidation–reduction reaction

An oxidation–reduction reaction, or redox reaction, is an electron transfer reac-

tion.

2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) −−→ 2 NaCl(s)

2 Na(s) −−→ 2 Na(s) + + 2 e− (reducing agent)
−
Cl2(g) + 2 e −−→ 2 Cl−
(s) (oxidizing agent)

4.3.1 Oxidation state

The oxidation state (OS) of an atom is the charge of the atom after ionic approximation of
its heteronuclear bonds.
4.3. OXIDATION–REDUCTION REACTION 21

• OS in elemental form is 0.
• OS of a monatomic ion = ion’s charge.
• H: +1 (nonmetals), −1(metals)
1
• O: −2 (most compounds), −1 (peroxides), (superoxides),
2
(+) (combined with) F

• Halogens: −1 (F), −1 (other halogens except with O)

• X
(OS for all atoms) = charge of molecule/ion
22 CHAPTER 4. CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Chapter 5

Thermochemistry

5.1 Energy

Energy is the capacity to supply heat q or do work w. The SI unit of q or w is the

joule (J = N · m = kg · m2 s−2 ). The calorie, also another unit of energy, is equal
to 4.184 J.

5.2 First law of thermodynamics

Energy is neither created, nor destroyed.

5.3 Internal energy and enthalpy

The internal energy H refers to the sum of all possible kinds of energy in a system
(e.g. kinetic and potential energies). We mostly concern ourselves with the change
in internal energy ∆U .
∆U = q + w
where q is the heat added to/subtracted by the system and w is the work done on/by
the system.

U is a state function, meaning that it is dependent on the present state of the system, not the
path taken to reach it.
q and w are not state functions. A battery, for example, can either power up a fan (heat +
work) or short out a wire (heat). Regardless, ∆U does not change; the battery will end up
running out of energy anyway.

23
24 CHAPTER 5. THERMOCHEMISTRY

The enthalpy H is the sum of the internal energy U and the product of pressure p
and volume V :
H = U + pV

Most commonly, the work w done by chemical/physical changes is usually with change in
volume ∆V . We call w the pressure–volume work:

w = −p∆V

Therefore the change in enthalpy under constant pressure is

∆H = ∆(U + pV )
= ∆U + p∆V
= (qp + w) − w
= qp

Under constant pressure,

∆H = qp

5.4 Heat capacity C

Let q be the amount of heat absorbed or released through a body of matter in a tem-
perature change ∆T . The heat capacity C of the body of matter is

q δq
C ≡ lim =
∆T →0 ∆T dT

5.4.1 Mass-specific heat capacity c

1 δq q
c= = =⇒ q = mc∆T
m dT m∆T

5.4.2 Molar-specific heat capacity c̄

q 1 δq
c̄ = =
n∆T n dT
5.5. HESS’S LAW 25

5.5 Hess’s law

The change in enthalpy of a reaction ∆r H − ◦

at constant pressure is independent of
the intermediate steps taken throughout the entire reaction.

5.5.1 Standard enthalpy of formation ∆f H −◦

The standard enthalpy of formation ∆f H − ◦
is the change in enthalpy during the forma-
tion of 1 mol of a substance from its constituent elements in a standard state.

By definition, the most stable (or elemental) form of an element has ∆f H −

◦
= 0.

5.5.2 Standard enthalpy of reaction ∆r H −◦

For a reaction νA A + νB B + · · · → νX X + νY Y + · · · ,
X X
∆r H −
◦
= νp ∆f Hp−
◦
− νr ∆f Hr−◦

all p all r

5.5.3 Bond enthalpy

The bond enthalpy is the change in enthalpy D = ∆f H −
◦
associated with the breaking of
a bond in 1 mol of gaseous substance.
X X
∆r H −◦
= D(bonds broken) − D(bonds formed)
26 CHAPTER 5. THERMOCHEMISTRY
Chapter 6

Gas behavior

6.1 Gas pressure p

The pressure p is the force F exerted over a unit area A:

F
p=
A

Unit Definition
pascal, Pa 1 Pa = 1 N · m−2
pounds per square inch, psi 1 atm ≈ 14.7 psi
atmosphere, atm 1 atm = 101 325 Pa = 760 Torr
bar, bar 1 bar = 1 × 105 Pa
torr, Torr 1
1 Torr = 760 atm
inch of mercury, inHg 1 inHg = 3386 Pa
millimeter of mercury, mmHg 1 mmHg ≈ 1 Torr

standard pressure = 1.000 atm = 760.0 mmHg = 101 325 Pa = 101.325 kPa

6.2 Ideal gas law

An ideal gas with pressure p, volume V , temperature T , and amount of substance n

has the behavior
p1 V1 p2 V2
pV = nRT ⇐⇒ =
T1 T2

27
28 CHAPTER 6. GAS BEHAVIOR

The gas constant is notated R, where

L · atm L · mmHg L · kPa J

R = 0.082 06 = 62.37 = 8.314 = 8.314
K · mol K · mol K · mol K · mol

6.2.1 Gay-Lussac’s law

P1 P2
p = kT =⇒ =
T1 T2

6.2.2 Charles’s law

V1 V2
V = kT =⇒ =
T1 T2

6.2.3 Boyle’s law

pV = k =⇒ p1 V1 = p2 V2

6.2.4 Avogadro’s law

V1 V2
V = kn =⇒ =
n1 n2

6.3 Dalton’s law of partial pressures

Let p be the total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases, and pi be the pressure of the
ith constituent gas.
X
p= pi = p1 + p2 + p3 + · · ·
all i

The partial pressure pA of a constituent gas A is

nA
pA = yA p, where yA = P
ni
6.4. GRAHAM’S LAW OF EFFUSION 29

6.4 Graham’s law of effusion

Effusion is the escape of gas molecules through a tiny hole. Thomas Graham found that the
rate of effusion is proportional to the inverse of the square root of the molar mass of the gas.

r
rateA MA
=
rateB MB

6.5 Kinetic molecular theory

The kinetic molecular theory (KMT) is the simplest model for the behavior of gases, con-
forming to the laws described above.

Assumptions:

1. Particles in a gas are constantly moving, only changing direction upon collision.

2. Particles are negligibly small compared to the space between them.

3. The pressure exerted by a gas comes from collisions between particles and the con-
tainer walls.

4. Attraction between particles is negligible; thus their collisions are elastic (don’t involve
a loss of energy).

5. The average kinetic energy of a gas is proportional to its kelvin temperature.

6.5.1 Kinetic energy

The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is a probability distribution describing the speed
of particles in an idealized gas under KMT.
30 CHAPTER 6. GAS BEHAVIOR

The kinetic energy Ek of a particle of mass m and speed u is

1
Ek = mu2
2
We calculate the root mean square speed of the gas particles by taking the square root of the
average of the individual squared speeds:
r Pn
2
i=1 ui
p
urms = u = 2
n

Thus the average kinetic energy of 1 mol of particles, with molar mass M and root
mean square speed urms , is
r
1 2 3RT
urms = M urms =⇒ urms =
2 M

6.6 van der Waals equation

!
an2
P+ 2 (V − nb) = nRT
V
where a is the correction factor for molecular attraction, and b is the correction factor
for the volume of molecules.
Chapter 7

Intermolecular forces

7.1 London dispersion forces

London dispersion forces are attractive forces between an instantaneous dipole and
an induced instantaneous dipole due to asymmetrical electron distribution. Occurs
in all atoms and molecules.

7.2 Dipole–dipole interactions and hydrogen bonds

Dipole–dipole interactions are forces between polar molecules.

A hydrogen bond is a dipole–dipole interaction between an electronegative atom

and a hydrogen bonded to an electronegative atom (N, O, F).

31
32 CHAPTER 7. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

7.3 Liquids
The viscosity, or ”thickness,” of a liquid is a measure of its resistance to flow. Cohesive
forces refer to all attractive intermolecular forces. Surface tension γ, σ is the energy re-
quired to increase the surface area of a liquid. Adhesive forces refer to all attractive inter-
molecular forces between two different molecules.

7.3.1 Capillary action

Capillary action is the result of cohesion and adhesion: a liquid flows through a porous
material due to attraction to the surface and to other molecules.

Jurin’s law: The height h of a liquid, with surface tension γ and density ρ, inside a
capillary tube, with contact angle θ, and radius r, under gravitational acceleration g,
is
2γ cos θ
h=
ρgr

7.3.2 Vapor pressure

When a liquid is enclosed in a flask, some of its molecules will escape in a gaseous phase
(vaporization) due to the Ek of collisions within the liquid. Some gaseous molecules will
re-enter the condensed phase (condensation). Dynamic equilibrium is a state of a liquid
at which the rate of vaporization and the rate of condensation are equal.

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature T at which its equilibrium vapor
pressure is equal to the pressure surrounding the liquid. When the surrounding pres-
sure is 1 atm = 101.3 kPa, such T is the normal boiling point.

7.3.3 Clausius–Clapeyron equation

   
p2 ∆vap H 1 1
p = Ae−∆vap H/RT ⇐⇒ ln = −
p1 R T1 T2

7.4 Solids
Solids are categorized either as:
• crystalline: well-defined shape due to orderly particle arrangement

• amorphous: poorly defined shape due to lack of orderly particle arrangement

A crystal is a solid composed of particles in an orderly 3-D array called the crystal lattice.