Thermal Energy 2021

CHAPTER 2: THERMAL PHYSICS
STATES OF MATTER
The three states of matter are:
Gas Liquid Solid

The following table summarize all properties of the
three states:
Solid liquid gas
Shape and Definite shape Indefinite Indefinite
volume and volume shape but shape and
definite indefinite
volume volume
Order Well ordered Not ordered Not ordered
spaces Very close close widely
spaced
Packing Close packed Fairly packed Not packed
movement Vibrate in Limited Total
position random free random free
motion motion
MS. IMAN QASSEM

✓ Note;
The gaseous state is the easiest state to be compressed
because there is:
i- Wide inter-molecular spaces among molecules.
ii- No repulsion forces among molecules.
✓ Kinetic theory of matter:
1- All matters are built up of small particles (molecules or
atoms).
2- Molecules are in continuous motion as they have kinetic
energy.
3- There are inter-molecular attraction forces between
molecules.
4- There are inter-molecular spaces separating molecules.
Brownian motion:
• Smoke is trapped in a
small box.
• Smoke particles are
seen as bright specks
against dark
background moving in
random directions.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

• Explanation of Brownian motion:

Smoke particles which are large,
heavy and slow are being hit
randomly from all directions by
air molecules which are light and
fast.
• This causes the smoke particles

to move short distances in zigzag
pathway this is Brownian motion.
• As temperature increases the movement will be

faster as air molecules will be more energetic and
faster.
• Where Brownian motion is observed?

- Smoke in air.
- Dust in air.
- Pollen grains in water.
- Ink in water.
So, by Brownian motion scientists explained that

the matter is built up of small particles in
continuous motion.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

✓ Temperature (ᵒc):
- It shows how hot or cold an object is.
- The average kinetic energy of particles.
cold particle hot particles
✓ Gas pressure (pa):

It is a measure of collisions between the
molecules and inner walls of the
container, these collisions exert force per
unit area (pressure).
The harder, more frequent, stronger or faster

collisions with inner walls is greater the pressure.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Pressure, Volume and temperature

➢ As pressure increases
on a specific amount of
gas its volume
decreases at constant
temperature and vice
versa.
PRESSURE AND VOLUME ARE INVERSELY PROPOTIONAL
➢ As temperature
increases on a specific
amount of gas its
pressure increases at
constant volume and
vice versa.
PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE ARE DIRECTLY PROPOTIONAL
➢ As temperature
increases on a specific
amount of gas its
volume increases at
constant pressure and
vice versa.
TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME ARE DIRECTLY PROPOTIONAL
MS. IMAN QASSEM

➢ Gases and the kinetic theory:

The kinetic theory can explain the behavior of gases:
PRESSURE AND VOLUME ARE INVERSELY PROPOTIONAL
At constant temperature
By decreasing the volume of the container, the
collisions between molecules increase causing
increase in the pressure.
PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE ARE DIRECTLY PROPOTIONAL

At constant volume
When a gas temperature rises, the average speed of its
molecules increases, its pressure increases because
molecules produce force on the walls of container in a
specific area.
TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME ARE DIRECTLY PROPOTIONAL
At constant pressure
As the temperature of the gas increase, the speed of
molecules increases so the spaces between molecules
will increase causing increase in volume
MS. IMAN QASSEM
Evaporation
Description:
Some molecules at the surface of the liquid have kinetic
energy more than the other in the bottom, so they can
escape from the surface.
Evaporation is the change from liquid state to gaseous

state at any temperature below boiling point without
heating.
➢ How evaporation happens?
The most energetic particles escape from
the surface of the liquid as they can break
the bonds with the other particles and
overcome intermolecular attraction forces
with other particles causing cooling effect.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Cooling effect:
As liquid evaporates, its temperature decreases because
the most energetic particles escaped from the surface
leaving the least energetic particles behind.
Similarity between evaporation and boiling:
Both of them are a change from liquid to gas.
Difference between evaporation and boiling:

Evaporation Boiling
It doesn’t need heating It needs heating
It occurs at the surface It occurs at any place
only
No bubbles are seen Bubbles are seen
Occurs at any Occurs only at boiling
temperature below point.
boiling point
➢ Factors of increasing rate of evaporation:
1- Increasing temperature of the liquid.
2- Increasing surface area.
3- Decreasing humidity.
MS. IMAN QASSEM
4- Passing air current (draught)

over the surface of water, it will
remove water vapor around the
liquid so it gives a good chance
for extra particles to escape and
evaporate.
➢ Examples of evaporation:
- Sweating cools the bodies by evaporation.
- Hanging the wet clothes causes them to
dry.
-
-
-
- After shave liquids produce strong cooling
effect.
- Perfume.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Thermal Expansion
Generally, all types of matter expand by heating and
contract by cooling.
This expansion or contraction causes a large amount of
force that can never be resisted
So, to avoid buckling we must leave gaps.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

➢ Thermal expansion and kinetic theory:

Molecules of solids for example are in constant
vibration, so they need a space to vibrate freely and the
space needed for vibration of each molecule will
increase.
 Heating a solid causes expansion because:

When a solid is heated, molecules gain
kinetic energy, they vibrate more creating
wider spaces among molecules and this
cause expansion.
 Expansion of liquids:
If a flask of water is heated:
The water level initially falls.

Because, the solid flask expands faster
than the water.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

When heat reaches the water, it expands clearly.

And level of water rises.
The amount of rise water is greater than
the amount of liquid fall.
This means that the liquid expands
slightly more than the solid.
 For the same temperature change:

Expansion in
Gas  Liquids Solid

Because of the inter-molecular spaces between their
particles.
 Expansion uses:
1- Fixing an axle inside a gear.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

2- Opening a metal lid.
3- A bimetallic strip or thermostat.

Scientific base
Bimetallic strip is made of two different metals of
different expansion.
By heating, the bimetallic strip starts to bend in a
specific direction.
❖Uses of bimetallic strip

1- It is used to switch on and off an electric circuit.
Example:
Copper expands more than iron so the bimetallic
strip bends and contact closes.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

2- It is used as temperature controller.

A thermostat keeps the temperature of a room or
an appliance constant.
For example, the iron, when the iron reaches the

required temperature the strip bends down, breaks
the circuit and switches off the heater.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

3- used as a thermometer to measure the

temperature
But in practice it is difficult to use as it is
inaccurate and difficult to calibrate.
Thermometers
It is an instrument used to measure the temperature
To construct a thermometer, we need:

1- A thermometric material it may be solid, liquid or gas.
2- A physical property which changes regularly with
temperature.
3- Fixed points and a scale.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

KINDS OF THERMOMETER
1- Liquid –in- glass thermometer:
Physical property
A thin column of a liquid will increase in
length, as the liquid expands when
temperature increase.
i- Clinical thermometer
ii- lab thermometer
2- resistance thermometer:
Physical property
This thermometer depends on
the increase in electric
resistance of a platinum wire
with the increase in
temperature.
3- Thermistor thermometer:
Physical property
This thermometer depends on
the decrease in electric
resistance of a thermistor with
the increase in temperature
MS. IMAN QASSEM

4- constant – volume gas

thermometer:
Physical property
This thermometer depends
on the increase of gas pressure, with temperature
increase, at constant volume.
5- thermochromic liquid:
Physical property
Some liquids change their
color with changing
temperature.
6- thermocouple:
Physical property
Electric potential difference exists due
to temperature difference between
junctions each made of different
metals.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

A thermocouple consists of wires of different materials

(copper & Iron)
When one junction is at a higher
temperature than the other, an electric
current flow and produces a reading on
a sensitive meter which depends on
temperature difference between the two
junctions.
Note, thermocouple does not measure temperature, it
measures temperature difference between two
junctions.
-If both junctions have the same temperature the
galvanometer will read zero
If the two junctions have different temperature there

will be a potential difference between them, the
galvanometer will read this potential difference.
Uses of thermocouple:
1- with very high and very low temperatures.

2- rapidly changing temperature.
3- small objects.
4- measuring from distance.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

How we use it?
1- put the cold junction in pure

melting ice.
2- put the hot junction on the
object.
3- read the potential difference
between the two junctions.
How do we read the temperature?

By: using a calibration table
Or the galvanometer may be calibrated to show the
corresponding temperature reading direct.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

➢ To calibrate a thermometer, we need:
- Lower fixed point.

Melting point of pure ice = 0ͦ c
- Upper fixed point.

Boiling point of water = 100 ͦ c
- Scale.
The range is divided to 100
divisions, each represent 1 ͦ c
MS. IMAN QASSEM

• Properties of thermometers:
1- sensitivity:
The ability to detect small changes in
temperature.
To increase sensitivity of thermometer:
1- use thinner capillary tube.
2- use larger bulb that can take larger

amount of mercury.
3- use a sensitive liquid to temperature.
2- working range:
This is the range between the minimum and maximum
temperature measured by the
thermometer.
How to increase working range of the
thermometer?
1- use longer capillary tube.
MS. IMAN QASSEM
2- use liquid with less expansivity.

Note, working range is restricted to the freezing and
boiling point of the liquid
Because, if one of them is exceeded, a change in state
occurs and the thermometer won’t work properly.
3- linearity:
Equal spaces between units.
Factors that may affect linearity:
1- non-uniform capillary tube.
2- abnormal physical properties of the
used liquid.
➢ The liquid used in the thermometer must be:

1- Easily seen.
2- Expands and contracts rapidly.
3- Don't stick to inside of the tube.
✓ So, we use alcohol and mercury.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

➢ Precautions during measuring temperature:

1- Stir before reading for even
distribution of heat.
2- Keep the thermometer away from

heater or wall and base of
container.
3- Read from top of mercury

meniscus.
4- The eye should look
perpendicular to avoid parallax
error.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

➢ Precautions against expansion:

1- Telephone lines:
A cut will be observed due to contraction in winter
MS. IMAN QASSEM

They left the wires loosen partially to allow contraction

and expansion.
2- Railway tracks and bridges:

Spaces must be left between railway tracks to allow
expansion without buckling.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Factors that affect

linear expansion:
1- initial length:
MS. IMAN QASSEM

For the same temperature, the longer rod expands more.

2- amount of temperature change:
The more rise in temperature, causes greater expansion.
3- type of material:
Different substances expand differently, even if they have the
same initial length and the same temperature change.
Linear expansivity:
It is the increase in length for 1 m of substance for each 1 ᵒC
rise in temperature.
Heat transfer
MS. IMAN QASSEM
1- Conduction  solids.
2- Convection  liquid and gases.
3- Radiation  gases, vacuum and transparent bodies.
1- Heat transfer by conduction:

Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from high
temperature to low temperature region without actual
movement of the particles of the medium, each particle
just vibrates and passes energy to the next and so on.
➢ Materials are either good conductors or insulators:

- Good conductors: are made of metals such as
aluminum, iron and copper.
They are used whenever heat is required to travel
quickly through
something.
note that, metals show

different conductivity.
MS. IMAN QASSEM
From the opposite figure the match on copper falls first

showing it is the best conductor, followed by aluminum,
brass and then iron.
- Insulators:
Like air, cork, plastic, fur, wool, polystyrene foam,
fiberglass and wood.
Some of these materials are used as lagging to insulate
water pipes, hot water cylinders, ovens, refrigerators
and the walls and roofs of the houses.
2- Heat transfer by convection:
Convection is transfer of thermal
energy from a region of high
temperature to a region of low
temperature by the actual
movement of the particles of the
medium, convections occurs only
in fluids.
Explanation of convection:
As the water above the flame becomes
warmer, it expands.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Become less dense and is pushed upwards.

While the cooler, more dense water sinks to take its
place.
So that,
✓ The best place to put a heater
is as shown
✓ The best place to put a cooler (Air Conditioner) is as

shown
MS. IMAN QASSEM

✓ freezer also as it shown
➢ Note that; liquids and gases also conduct heat but

very slowly,
Water is very bad conductor as shown in figure; the
water at the top of tube can be boiled before the ice at
the bottom melts.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

3- Heat transfer by radiation:

Radiation is the transfer of energy from one point to
another as electromagnetic
waves.
Radiation can occur in a
vacuum; particles of matter
are not involved
Radiation is the way heat reaches us from sun.
Radiation has all properties of electromagnetic waves
e.g. it travels at the speed of light waves.
Thermal radiation is called infra-red radiation.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

When radiation falls on an object,
It is partly reflected, partly absorbed, partly emitted.

The absorbed part raises the temperature of the object.
The amount of reflected, absorbed, and emitted
radiation depends on the color of the surface.
➢ Black surface is a bad reflector, good absorber and

good emitter.
➢ White surface is a good reflector, bad absorber and
bad emitter.
Silvery surface is a good reflector, bad absorber and

bad emitter.
MS. IMAN QASSEM
Silvery surface is even better reflector than white
MS. IMAN QASSEM

✓ Radiation experiment:
(Comparing absorbers of radiation)
Apparatus are arranged as shown
The inside surface of one lid is shiny
and of the other dull black.
coins are stuck on the outside of each
lid with candle wax.
If the heater is midway between the lids, they each
receive the same amount of radiation.
After few minutes the wax on the

black lid melts and the coin falls off
before the coin on the silvery surface
does.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Summary;
✓ Cooling of hot bodies

The rate of cooling of a hot body is directly
proportional with the difference between the
temperature of the body and the temperature of the
surrounding medium.
Hot coffee cools faster when the temperature in the

room is 20ᵒ C.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

❖Application:
1- Roofs of petrol tanks are painted by shiny
aluminum.
2- People wear dark clothes in winter and white
clothes in summer.
3- Vacuum flask:
It keeps hot liquids hot or cold liquids cold.
It is very difficult for heat to travel into or out of the
flask.
It consists of:
- An insulated stopper(cap) to
reduce conduction and
convection.
- A double walled container
with a gap (vacuum) between
walls.
Air has been removed from the
gap to reduce conduction and
convection.
- Walls with silvery surfaces to reduce radiation.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

4- Insulation of homes:
All houses lose heat in winter to the surround, so heat
reduce can be reduced by:
- From roof by glass fiber
- From doors by drought excluder or curtains.
- From windows by curtains, shutters or double
glazing.
- From floors by carpets or wooden floor.
- From walls by cavity wall insulation.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Heat energy
 Specific heat capacity:
The amount of heat energy in joules needed to raise
the temperature of one kilogram of mater by one
degree Celsius.
➢ if you gave the same amount of heat energy to wood and iron,
the iron experiences more raise in
temperature.
✓ Higher temperature change, smaller

specific heat capacity.
Wood Iron
MS. IMAN QASSEM

• Determination of specific heat

capacity of water:
Method (1):
1- determine the mass of water by balance (m).
2- the change of temperature by thermometer
(∆T).
3- measure the amount of energy
We can estimate the amount of energy used to
heat the water by using an electrical heater
As the electrical energy is converted into heat
energy:
And the electrical energy is given by E= P x t
Where, P is power and t is the time taken.
4- Power is written on the heater (P).
5- measure the time by stopwatch (t).
𝑷𝒙𝒕 𝑰𝒙𝒗𝒙𝒕
C= =
𝒎∆𝑻 𝒎 ( 𝑻𝒇−𝑻𝒊)
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Source of error:
The result of specific heat capacity by this way is
greater than the actual values
Reason:
Because of heat energy lost to
the surrounding, so the rising
in temperature is small.
How to reduce the error:
1- lid
2- lagging
3- heat proof mat.
Or use calorimeter.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Method 2:
If we mix a hot solid body with a quantity of cold water,
we will find that:
A quantity of heat energy will be lost from body and
will be gained by cold water
Q lost = Q gained
m iron C iron ∆ T iron = m water C water ∆ T water
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Thermal capacity (Heat capacity)
The amount of heat energy needed for the whole

body to raise it temperature T by 1ᵒC
𝑸
Thermal capacity = = mc
∆𝑻
Unit: J/K or J/ᵒC
Greater mass = greater thermal capacity
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Latent heat
If the ice from a cold freezer at -20 ˚c is put in a warm room, it

absorbs thermal energy.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

The graph above shows what happens to its temperature.

A-Ice only.
B- ice and water.
While melting, the ice goes on absorbing energy, but
its temperature does not change, the energy
absorbed is called the latent heat of fusion and this
temperature is called melting point.
C- water only.
D- water and water vapor.
While boiling, the water goes absorbing energy, but
its temperature does not change, the energy
absorbed is called the latent heat of vaporization and
this temperature in called boiling point.
E- Vapor only.
Latent means hidden; latent heat doesn't cause a
temperature change.
MS. IMAN QASSEM

➢ During heating a solid, liquid or gas:
increases the
so
the heat kinetic
temperature
energy given energy of
increses
molecules
➢ During melting and boiling:

doesnot
increase the so no
the heat
kinetic temperature
energy given
energy of increase
molucules
MS. IMAN QASSEM

So where is the heat energy given by heater if

temperature does not increase??
Heat energy here is used as ‘WORK DONE’ to

break bonds and separate molecules from each other
and change state
➢ Now it’s your turn, complete the following cooling curve of water.
Heat added
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Specific latent heat of fusion
It is the amount of heat energy needed for 1 Kg mass of

substance to melt, with no change in temperature.
Note;
If the latent heat is a large value this means that the bonds
between the molecules of the solid are strong and vice versa.
To find specific latent heat of fusion of

ice:
1- Get some crushed ice in a funnel,
2- Immerse an electric heater in the
crushed ice.
3- Turn the heater on and wait until
constant rate of dripping,
4- Immediately start the stopwatch and put
a beaker to receive the melted ice.
5- After a certain time, stop the stopwatch
and remove the heater and funnel.
6- Weigh the water in the beaker (melted
ice)
𝑷𝒙𝒕 𝑰𝑽𝒕
𝑳𝒇 = =
𝒎 𝒎
MS. IMAN QASSEM
Precautions:
1- Use finely crushed ice to obtain larger surface area and
provide better contact between heater and ice with no air gaps.
2- Wait until ice reaches constant rate of dripping to be sure
that the heater has reached its maximum temperature.
3- Be sure that ice is at zero ° C because the latent heat is
only during the melting process at constant temperature
(melting point)
Source of error:
The results of specific latent heat of fusion by this way is
smaller than actual value
Because of heat gained from surrounding
Specific heat of vaporization

1- Weigh amount of water that is 100 ° C (m1)
2- Immerse the electric heater
in the water and start the
stopwatch.
3- Keep the heater on for a
known time as water
vaporizes.
4- Remove the heater and
stop the stopwatch.
5- Weigh the water left after
vaporization (m2)
E=Q=Pxt
𝑷𝒙𝒕
Lv =
𝒎𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐
Note that the results of specific latent heat of vaporization by this

way is higher than actual value
MS. IMAN QASSEM

Because of heat lose to the surroundings.

⚫ Summary:
MS. IMAN QASSEM

MS. IMAN QASSEM

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Thermal Energy 2021

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CHAPTER 2: THERMAL PHYSICS

Gas Liquid Solid

MS. IMAN QASSEM

MS. IMAN QASSEM

• Explanation of Brownian motion:

• This causes the smoke particles

• As temperature increases the movement will be

• Where Brownian motion is observed?

So, by Brownian motion scientists explained that

MS. IMAN QASSEM

cold particle hot particles

✓ Gas pressure (pa):

The harder, more frequent, stronger or faster

MS. IMAN QASSEM

Pressure, Volume and temperature

TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME ARE DIRECTLY PROPOTIONAL

MS. IMAN QASSEM

➢ Gases and the kinetic theory:

PRESSURE AND VOLUME ARE INVERSELY PROPOTIONAL

PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE ARE DIRECTLY PROPOTIONAL

TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME ARE DIRECTLY PROPOTIONAL

Evaporation is the change from liquid state to gaseous

MS. IMAN QASSEM

Difference between evaporation and boiling:

2- Increasing surface area.

4- Passing air current (draught)

MS. IMAN QASSEM

MS. IMAN QASSEM

➢ Thermal expansion and kinetic theory:

 Heating a solid causes expansion because:

The water level initially falls.

MS. IMAN QASSEM

When heat reaches the water, it expands clearly.

 For the same temperature change:

Gas  Liquids Solid

MS. IMAN QASSEM

2- Opening a metal lid.

3- A bimetallic strip or thermostat.

❖Uses of bimetallic strip

MS. IMAN QASSEM

2- It is used as temperature controller.

For example, the iron, when the iron reaches the

MS. IMAN QASSEM

3- used as a thermometer to measure the

It is an instrument used to measure the temperature

To construct a thermometer, we need:

MS. IMAN QASSEM

MS. IMAN QASSEM

4- constant – volume gas

MS. IMAN QASSEM

A thermocouple consists of wires of different materials

If the two junctions have different temperature there

1- with very high and very low temperatures.

MS. IMAN QASSEM

How we use it?

1- put the cold junction in pure

How do we read the temperature?

MS. IMAN QASSEM

➢ To calibrate a thermometer, we need:

- Lower fixed point.

- Upper fixed point.

MS. IMAN QASSEM

To increase sensitivity of thermometer:

1- use thinner capillary tube.