10xii21 Wave Optics

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1/1550, M.S.Park, Delhi-32, 93 123 585 35, www.g3classes.com

Chapter–10:
Wave Optics CBSE Marks 7
Wave optics: Wave front and Huygen's
principle, reflection and refraction of plane
wave at a plane surface using wave fronts.
Proof of laws of reflection and refraction

using Huygen's principle.
Interference, Young's double slit experiment

and expression for fringe width, coherent
sources and sustained interference of light,
Diffraction due to a single slit, width of

central maximum,
Resolving power of microscope and

astronomical telescope,
polarisation, plane polarised light, Brewster's

law, uses of plane polarised light and
Polaroids.
Activities
To observe polarization of light using two
Polaroids.
An institution for preparation IIT-JEE, AIPMT,CA CPT, CBSE under guidance Dr.Vashistha M.Sc.,M.Ed.,Ph.D.(Physics)
1/1550,Kala-Niketan, Podhon Wali Gali, & 13 A DDA Flats Main Road Mansarover Park,Delhi-32 P | 1
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To observe diffraction of light due to a thin
slit.
Wave theory of light

In 1678, Dutch scientist Christian Huygens,
suggested that light travels in the form of
longitudinal waves just as sound propagates
through air. He proposed that light waves
propagate through an all-pervading
hypothetical medium, called luminiferous
ether. Later on, the existence of such a
medium was discarded due to its
contradictory properties. Fresnel and Young
showed that light propagates as a transverse
wave. This successfully explained the
reflection, refraction as Well as interference,
diffraction and polarisation of light waves.
A wave front is defined as the continuous

locus of all such particles of the medium
which are vibrating in the same phase at any
instant.
Thus a wave front is a surface of constant
phase. The speed with which the wave front
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moves outwards from the source is called
the phase speed.
Different types of wave fronts.
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Spherical wave front point source,
the wave fronts are spherical in shape. This

is because all such points which are
equidistant from the point source will lie on a
sphere
Cylindrical wavefront, source of light is

linear.
This is because the locus of all such points

which are equidistant from the linear source
will be a cylinder.
Plane wavefront
A small portion of such a wavefront at a large

distance from the source will be a plane
wavefront
The energy of a wave travels in a direction

perpendicular to the wavefront.
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Measure of time the separation between a
pair of wavefronts along any ray, it is found
to be a constant.
General principles:
1. Rays are perpendicular to wavefronts.
2. The time taken for light to travel from one
wavefront to another is the same along any
ray.
HUYGENS' PRINCIPLE OF SECONDARY
WAVELETS
It tells how a wavefront propagates through
a medium. According to
Huygens ‘ Principle, each point on a

wavefront is a source of secondary waves,
which add up to give a wavefront at any later
time.
Assumptions:
1. Each point on a wavefront acts as a fresh
source of new disturbance, called secondary
waves or wavelets.
2. The secondary wavelets spread out in all
directions with the speed of light in the given
medium.
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3. The new wavefront at any later time is
given by the forward envelope (tangential
surface in the forward direction) of the
secondary wavelets at that time.
No backward wavefront is possible. There

cannot be backward flow of energy
REFLECTION ON THE BASIS OF WAVE

THEORY
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Angles of incidence and reflection be i and r
respectively. In ∆ABC and ∆DCB, we have
∠ BAC = ∠CDB [Each is 90°]
BC = BC [Common]
AC = BD [Each is equal to ct]
∴ ∆ABC ≅ ∆DCB
Hence ∠ABC=∠DCB
or ∠i = ∠r
REFRACTION ON THE BASIS OF WAVE
THEORY
then BC = v1t. AD = v2t
the angles of incidence and refraction be i

and r respectively.
From right ∆ABC, we have
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sin ∠ BAC = sin i =
From right ∆ADC, we have
sin ∠ DCA = sin r =
∴ = =
or = = 1μ2 (a constant)
EFFECT ON WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY AND

SPEED DURING REFRACTION
= =
The refractive index of a medium with

respect to vacuum is
= =
Since any medium is optically denser than

vacuum, so
μ>1 Consequently, c > v
BEHAVIOUR OF A PRISM, LENS AND MIRROR
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1. Wavelength in medium, λ ' =
2. Optical path (in vacuum) = × Path in

medium
3. Frequency of light remains unchanged
during its reflection or refraction.
Example 1. The refractive index of diamond
is 2.47 and that of window glass is 1.51. How
much faster does light travel in window glass
than diamond?
Solution. Refractive index of diamond,
×
∴ = = .
= . ×
Refractive index of glass, μd =

×
∴ = =
.
= . ×
− =( . − . )×
= . ×
Thus light travels 7.72 × faster in
window glass than in diamond.
Example 2. The optical path of
monochromatic light is the same if it travels
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2.0 cm thickness of glass or 2.25 cm
thickness of water. If the refractive index of
water is 1.33, what is the refractive index of
glass?
Solution. Optical path = μ × Path in medium
∵ Optical path for glass = Optical path for
water
∴μg x 2.0 =1.33 × 2.25
. × .
or μg = = 1.50.
.
Example 3. The number of waves in a 4 cm

thick strip of glass is the same as in 5 cm
thick water layer, when the same
monochromatic light travels in them. If the
refractive index of water is 4/3. What will be
that of glass?
Solution. Number of waves in glass strip
= =
Number of waves in water layer
= =
As given,
== ∴ =
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But wavelength of light in a medium is
inversely related to its refractive index,
therefore
= or =
∴ = × = × = .
Starting Of Class 1002
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
The resultant displacement at any point at a

given instant is equal to the vector sum of
the displacements due to the individual
waves at that point.
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT: YOUNG'S DOUBLE
SLIT EXPERIMENT
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Interference of light
When two light waves of the same frequency
and having zero or constant phase difference
travelling in the same direction superpose
each other, the intensity in the region of
superposition gets redistributed, becoming
maximum at some points and minimum at
others. This phenomenon is called
interference of light.
CONDITIONS FOR CONSTRUCTIVE AND
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
Suppose the displacements of two light

waves from two coherent sources and S, at
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point P on the observation screen at any time
t are given by
y1 = a1 sin ωt and
y2 = a2 sin (ωt + ϕ)
where a1 and a2 , are the amplitudes of the

two waves, Φ is the constant phase
difference between the two waves.
By the superposition principle, the resultant
displacement at point P is
y = y 1 + y2
= a1 sin ωt + a2 sin (ωt + ϕ)
= a1 sin ωt + a2 sin ωt cos ϕ + a2 cos ωt sin ϕ
or
y = (a1 + a2 cos ϕ) sin ωt + a2 (sin ϕ) cos ωt
Put a1 + a2 cos ϕ = A cos θ ...(1)

and a2 sin ϕ = A sin θ .............(2)
Then
y = A cos θ sin ωt + A sin θ cos ωt
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or y = A sin (ωt + θ)
Squaring and adding equations (1) and (2),

we get
A2 cos2 θ + A2 sin2 θ = (a1 + a2 cos ϕ) 2 +
sin2 ϕ
or
A2 = + (cos2 ϕ + sin2 ϕ) + 2a1a2 cos ϕ
or A2 = + + 2a1a2 cos ϕ ...(3)
But intensity of a wave ∝ (amplitude)2

We write I = kA2, I1 = and I2 =
Where k is proportionality constant. The

equation (3) can be written as
kA2 = + +2 cos ϕ
or I = I1 + I2 + 2 cos ϕ ….(4)
I1 and I2 are the intensities which the two

individual sources produce on their own. The
total intensity also contains a third term
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2 cos ϕ • It is called interference term.
Constructive interference.
The resultant intensity at the point P will be
maximum when
cos ϕ = 1 or ϕ = 0,2π, 4π, ....
Destructive interference. The resultant

intensity at the point P will be minimum
when
cos ϕ = -1 or ϕ =π, 3π, 5π, ………
∆
or = π, 3π, 5π, ………
or ∆x= , , ,…… = ( − )
COHERENT & INCOHERENT SOURCES

Two sources of light which continuously emit
light waves of same frequency (or
wavelength) with a zero or constant phase
difference between them are called coherent
sources.
Need of coherent sources
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When two monochromatic waves of intensity
I1, I2 and phase difference Φ meet at a point,
the resultant intensity is given by
I = I1 + I2 + 2 cos ϕ
The last term 2 cos ϕ is called

interference term.
cos ϕ = -1. The sources in this case are
coherent.
The average value of cos ϕ will be zero over
time interval of measurement. Then
interference term averages to zero. There
will be same intensity, I = I1 + I2 at every
point
i.e., there will be general illumination on the

observation screen. The two sources in the
case are incoherent.
Example 4. Two sources of intensity I and 4I

are used in an interference experiment. Find
the intensity at points where the waves from
two sources superimpose with a phase
difference (i) zero (ii) π/2 and (iii) π.
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Solution. The resultant intensity at a point

where phase difference is ϕ is
= + +
As = and = therefore
= + + √ . = +
(i) When = , = + = .
(ii) When = , = + = .
(iii) When = ,
= + = − = .
Example 5. Find the ratio of the intensity at
the centre of a bright fringe to the intensity
at a point one-quarter of the distance
between two fringes from the centre.
Solution. If I0 is the intensity of either source,
then intensity at a point is given by
I = 2 I0 (1 + cos ϕ)
At the centre ϕ = 0, then intensity will be
I1 =2 I0(1+ cos 0) = 4I0
The phase difference between two
successive fringe 2 .
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So the phase difference at a point distant
one-quarter of the distance between two
fringes from the centre will be π/2. Hence
intensity at this point will be
= + = ∴ = = :
Example 6. In a Young's double slit

experiment, the intensity of light at a point
on the screen where the path difference is λ
is k units. Find the intensity at a point where
the path difference is (i) (ii) and ( ) .
Solution. Intensity at any point on the screen,
= + +
Let be the intensity of either source. Then
= = , and
= ( + )=
When = , =
∴ = = = =
(i) When = , =
∴I= = × = = .
( ) When p== , =
∴ = = × = =
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(iii) When = , = ,
∴ = .
Starting of Class 1003
THEORY OF INTERFERENCE FRINGES:

FRINGE WIDTH
I = I1 + I2 + 2 cos ϕ
∆x= , , ,…… = ( − )
( − )( + )= xd
or − =
In practice, the point lies very close to ,

therefore
≃ ≃ . Hence
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∆ = − =
or ∆ = (path difference)
Positions of bright fringes. For⋅ constructive
interference,
∆ = =
or = where = , 1, 2, 3, …….
Clearly, the positions of various bright fringes
are as follows:
For = , = Central bright fringe
For = , = First bright fringe
For = , = Second bright fringe
For = , = nth bright fringe

Positions of dark fringes. For destructive
interference,
∆ = =( − )
or =( − ) where = , 2, 3,……
Clearly, the positions of various dark fringes
are as follows:
For = , = First dark fringe
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For = , = Second dark fringe
For = , =( − ) nth dark fringe

The central point O is equidistant from S1 and
S2, the path difference p for it is zero. There
will be a bright fringe at the centre O. But as
we move from O upwards or downwards,
alternate dark and bright fringes are formed.
Fringe width It is the separation between two

successive bright or dark fringes,
Width of a dark fringe = Separation between
two consecutive bright fringes
( )
= − = − =
Width of a bright fringe
= Separatlon between two consecutive dark
fringes
= −
=( − ) −[ ( − )− ] =
Both the bright and dark fringes are of equal
width.
Fringe width in Young's double slit
experiment can be written as
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β=
=
INTERFERENCE PATTERN WITH WHITE
LIGHT
Wavelength range from 4000 A to 7000 A .

Different component colours of white light
produce their own interference pattern. Now
fringe width β = Dλ/d i.e., β ∝ λ. Since the
violet colour has the lowest λ, the closest
fringe on either side of the central while
fringe is violet, while the farthest fringe is
red. After a few fringes, the interference
pattern is lost due to large overlapping of the
fringes and uniform white illumination is seen
on the screen.
Example 7. In Young's double experiment,

the two parallel slits are made one millimeter
apart and a screen is placed one meter away.
What is the fringe separation when blue
green light of wavelength 500 nm is used?
[NCERT]
Solution. Here d = 1 mm = 10-3 m, D = 1 m
λ = 500 nm = 500 × 10-9m
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Fringe width,
× ×
= =
=5× 10-4 m = 0.5 mm.

Example 8. In a two slit experiment with
monochromatic light, fringes are obtained on
a screen placed at some distance D from the
slits. If the screen is moved 5 x 10-2 m
towards the slits, the change in fringe width
is 3 × 10~5 m. If the distance between the
slits is 10-3m, calculate the wavelength of the
light used.
Solution. The fringe width in the two cases
will be
= and =
( )
∴ − =
or wavelength,
( − )
=
− ’
But − = ×
− = × , =
× ×
∴ = = × = A
×
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Example 9 .In Young's experiment, the width
of the fringes obtained with light of
wavelength 6000 A is 2.0 mm Calculate the
fringe width if the entire apparatus is
immersed in a liquid medium of refractive
index 1.33.
Solution. Here β =2.0 mm, μ =1.33

Refractive index of liquid,
= =
’
or =
Fringe width in air,
Fringe width in liquid,

.
= = = = .
= . mm.
Example 10. Sodium light has two

wavelengths λ1 = 589 nm and λ2 = 589.6 nm.
As the path difference increases, when is the
visibility of the fringes minimum? [NCERT]
Solution. The visibility of the fringes will be
poorest when the path difference p is an
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integral multiple of λ1 and a half integral
multiple of λ2 As p is increased, this happens
first when
− = or − =
or =
Now = = ×
and = . = . ×
× × . ×
∴ =
( . )×
. ×
= .
.
= . × = . mm.
CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINED
INTERFERENCE
it is necessary that the positions of maxima
and minima do not keep on changing with
time, otherwise the maxima and minima of
intensity will mix up to produce uniform
illumination.
The interference pattern, in which the

positions of maxima and minima of intensity
on the observation screen do not change
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with time, is called a sustained or permanent
interference pattern.
Conditions for sustained interference
1. The two sources should continuously emit

waves of same frequency or wavelength.
2. The two sources of light should be

coherent, i.e., they must vibrate either in the
same phase or with a constant phase
difference between them.
3. For a better contrast between maxima and

minima of intensity, the amplitudes of the
interfering waves should be equal.
4. The two sources should be narrow,

otherwise interference will occur between
waves of different parts of the same source
and contrast will be poor.
5. The interfering waves must travel nearly

along the same direction.
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6. The sources should be monochromatic;
otherwise fringes of different colours will
overlap just to give a few observable fringes.
7. The interfering waves should be in the

same state of polarisation.
8. To have sufficient fringe width, the

distance between the two coherent sources
should be small and the distance between
the two sources and the screen should be
large.
INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION CURVE FOR

INTERFERENCE
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The intensity of a bright fringe will be
Imax = k (a + a)2 = 4ka2 = constant
The intensity of a dark fringe will be
Imin = k (a - a)2 = 0
So all dark fringes will be perfectly dark
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
The phenomenon of bending of light around

the corners of small obstacles or apertures
and its consequent spreading into the
regions of geometrical shadow is called
diffraction of light.
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DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT
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∆p=BP - AP = BN = AB sin θ = a sin θ.
Positions of minima. a sin θ1 = λ
condition for n th dark fringe can be written

as a sinθn = n λ, n= 1,2,3, ………..
We can divide the slit into three equal parts.
The path difference between two
corresponding points of the first two parts
will be . The wavelets from these points will
interfere destructively.
Condition for nth secondary maximum can be

written as
a sin θ'n =(2n + 1) , n = 1,2,3, ..
θ'n ≃ sin θ'n = (2n +1)

The intensity of secondary maxima
decreases as n increases.
: : : … … ..
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WIDTHS OF CENTRAL AND SECONDARY
MAXIMA
θ=
This angle is called half angular width of
central maximum.
∴ Angular width of central maximum =2θ =
Linear width of central maximum.
If D is the distance of the screen from the
single slit, then the linear width of central
maximum will be
β0 = D×2 θ =
( )= =
Width of a secondary maximum The angular

width of nth secondary maximum is the
angular separation between the directions of
nth and
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(n+ 1) th minima.
Displacement of nth minimum, θn = n
th
Displacement of (n + 1) minimum,
=( + )
∴ Angular width of nth secondary maximum
= − =( + ) − =
Hence the linear width of nth secondary

maximum = Angular width ×
or =
Clearly, =
INTERFERENCE vs. DIFFRACTION imp
Interference Diffraction
1. Interference is the Diffraction is the

result of result of
superposition of superposition of
secondary waves secondary waves
starting from two starting from
different wavefronts different parts of the
originating from two same wavefront.
coherent sources.
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2. All bright and dark The width of central
fringes are of equal bright fringe is twice
width. the width of any
secondary
maximum.
3. All bright fringes are Intensity of bright

of same intensity. fringes decreases as
we move away from
central bright fringe
on either side.
4. Regions of dark Regions of dark

fringes are perfectly fringes are not
dark. So there is a perfectly dark. So
good contrast there is a poor
between bright and contrast between
dark fringes. bright and dark
fringes.
5. At an angle of At an angle of
λ / d, we get a bright λ / a, we get the first
fringe in the dark fringe in the
interference pattern diffraction pattern of
of two narrow slits a single slit of width
separated by a a.
distance d.
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VALIDITY OF RAY OPTICS: FRESNEL'S
DISTANCE
Beam after travelling a distance of 3 m will
get diffracted through a width
× ×
= =
×
If D < DF, then there will not be too much
broadening by diffraction i.e., the light will
travel along straight lines and the concepts
of ray optics will be valid.
< < > √
Example 11. Light of wavelength 600 nm falls

normally on a slit of width 1.2 μm producing
Fraunhoffer diffraction pattern on a screen.
Calculate the angular position of the first
minimum and the angular width of the central
maximum.
Solution. Here λ = 600 nm = 600 × 10-9 m, a =
1.2 μm =1.2 × 10-6 m
The angular position θ of the first dark fringe
is given by
×
= = =
. ×
∴ θ = 30°.
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Angular width of central maximum = 2θ = 60°.
Example 12. Microwaves of frequency 24,000
MHz are incident normally on a rectangular
slit of width 5 cm. Calculate the angular
spread of the central maximum of the
diffraction pattern of the slit.
Solution. Here f =24,000 MHz =24 × 109 Hz, a
= 5 cm = 5 x 10-2 m
Angular spread of central maximum is 2X
× ×
2 = = = = rad.
× × ×
Example 13. For what distance is ray optics a

good approximation when the aperture is 3
mm wide and the wavelengfh is 500 ?
[NCERT]
Solution. Here = mm = × ,
= = ×
The distance up to which a beam of light can
travel without significant broadening is
called Fresnel distance and its value is given
by
( × )
= = = .
×
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DIFFRACTION AS A LIMIT ON RESOLVING

POWER
Rayleigh's criterion, the images of two point

objects are just resolved when the central
maximum of the diffraction pattern of one
falls over the first minimum of the diffraction
pattern of the other, as shown in Fig. When
seen through the telescope, the resultant
diffraction pattern has a well-marked
depression at the top, showing that these are
really two stars and not one. Thus the
images of two stars have been just resolved.
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RESOLVING POWER OF MICROSCOPE
Resolving power of a microscope = =

RESOLVING POWER OF TELESCOPE
.
=
∴ Resolving power of a telescope = = .
Example 14. Assume that light of wavelength

6000 A is coming from a star. What is the
limit of resolution of a telescope whose
objective has a diameter of 100 inch?
[NCERT]
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Solution. The limit of resolution of a
telescope,
.
dθ =
Here D = 100 inch =254 cm,
X =6000A =6 × 10-5 cm
. × ×
dθ = = 2.9 × 10 rad.
Example 15.A telescope has an objective of
diameter 60 cm. The focal lengths of the
objective and eye-piece are 2.0 m and 1.0 cm
respectively. The telescope is directed to
view two distant almost point sources of
light (e.g. two stars of a binary). The sources
are at roughly the same distance (=104 light
years) along the line of sight but are
separated transverse to the line of sight by a
distance of 1010 m. Will the telescope resolve
the two objects i.e. will it see two distinct
stars? [NCERT]
Solution. Separation between the two stars
is
y = 1010 m
Distance of the stars from the earth is
= light years = × . ×
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∴ Angle subtended the line joining the two
stars on the objective lens (or on eye) is
= = = . × rad
× . ×
Now diameter of objective, = = .

For mean yellow colour, = = ×
According to Rayleigh’s criterion, the Iimit of
resolution of the telescope is
. × × ó
= = .
= . × rad
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN
INTERFERENCE
∝( + ) and ∝( − )
( ) ( )
∴ ∝ or ∝ +
If there is no interference between the light

waves from the two sources, then intensity
at every point would be same. That is,
= + ∝ +
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Which is same as I in the interference
pattern. So there is no violation of the law of
conservation of energy
COMPARISON OF INTENSITIES AT MAXIMA

AND MINIMA
As Intensity ∝ Amplitude2 ∴ =
Amplitude at a maximum in interference

pattern = +
Amplitude at a minimum in interference

pattern = −
Therefore, the ratio of intensities at maxima

and minima is
( )
= = or =
( )
where = = =amplitude ratio of the two

waves.
Example 16. If the two slits in Young's
double-slit experiment have width ratio 4 : 1,
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deduce the ratio of intensity at maxima and
minima in the interference pattern.
Solution. Amplitude ratio of the interfering
waves,
= = = = =
∴ = = = = : .
Example17. Two coherent sources, whose

intensity ratio is 16:1, produce interference
fringes. Calculate the ratio of intensity of
maxima and minima in the fringe system.
(Ans. 25: 9)
= = = =
+ +
= = = :
− −
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INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
p = (AB + BC) in thin film - AE in air

= μ (AB + BC) in air - AE in air
or p = 2 μt cos r
As the ray R1 is reflected by the upper

surface of thin film (denser medium), it
suffers an extra path difference of λ/2.
Assume thickness of film.
Net path difference =2μt cos r +
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For a bright fringe:
2 μt cos r+ =nλ
or 2 μt cos r = (2n -1)
or 2 μt cos r = (2n +1) , n = 0,1,2,3,...

For a dark fringe :
2 μt cos r + = (2n + 1)
or 2μt cos r = n λ, n = 0,1,2,3,....
p = 2 μt cos r
For Transmitted
∴ For a bright fringe,
2 μt cos r = n λ
For a dark fringe,
2μt cos r = (2n +1)
Example 18. White light may be considered

to have λ from 4000 A to 7500
A If an oil film has thickness 10-6 m, deduce
the wavelengths in the visible region for
which the reflection along the normal
direction will be (i) weak, (ii) strong. Take μ
of the oil as 1.40.
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Solution. The condition for dark fringe or
weak reflection when seen in reflected light
is
2 μt cos r = nλ where n is an integer.
For normal incidence, r =0 and cos r = 1 so
that 2 μt = n λ or λ = 2 μ t / n
Substituting the values of μ and f, we get
× . × ×
=
For values of < 4 or > , the values of do
not lie in the visible range 4000 A to 7500 A
But for values of = , 5, 6, 7, the following
wavelengths lie in the visible region :
(i) = = . × = A
(ii) = = . × = A
(iii) = = . × = A
(iv) = = . = A.
The condition for bright fringe or strong
reflection is
( )
2 = =
( )
Substitutin the values of and , we get
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.
= =
For values of < 4 or > , the values of do
not lie in the visible range. But for = , 5, 6
the following wavelengths lie in the visible
range:
×
() = = . × = A
×
×
(ii) = = . × = A
(iii) = = . × = A
×
DISPLACEMENT OF INTERFERENCE FRINGES
∆p = Length t in transparent medium - Length
t in air = μt - t = (μ -1) t
Suppose the present position of the
particular fringe is
Then the new position of the same fringe will

be
x' = (p+ ∆p)
Hence the lateral displacement of the
particular fringe on the screen is
= ′− =
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or = ( − ) = ( − )
= ∴ =
As the shift is independent of n, every fringe
(including the central fringe) or the entire
fringe system is laterally displaced by ∆x.
Example 19. Monochromatic light of

wavelength 600 nm is used in a Young's
double slit experiment. One of the slits is
covered by a transparent sheet of thickness
1.8 x 10-5m made of a material of refractive
index 1.6. How many fringes will shift due to
the introduction of the sheet?
Solution. Extra path difference introduced
due to insertion of glass plate of thickness t,
p=(μ -1)t
If the insertion of glass plate causes shift of
n bright fringes, then
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p = (μ -1) t = n λ
( − ) ( . − )× . ×
= = = .
×
POLARISATION OF WAVES
INTRODUCTION
A transverse wave in which vibrations are
present in all possible directions, in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation,
is said to he unpolarised. If the vibrations of
a wave are present in just one direction in a
plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation, the wave is said to be polarised
or plane polarised. The phenomenon of
restricting the oscillations of a wave to just
one direction in the transverse plane is
called polarisation of waves.
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UNPOLARISED AND PLANE POLARISED

LIGHT
Plane polarised or linearly polarised light.
If the electric field vector of a light wave

vibrates just in one direction perpendicular
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to the direction of wave propagation, then it
is said to be linearly polarised. Since in a
linearly polarised wave, the vibrations at all
points, at all times, lie in the same plane, so
it is also called a plane polarised wave
POLARISERS
A device that plane-polarises the unpolarised
light passed through it is called a polariser.
Tourmaline crystal.
Nicol prism.
Polaroid.
LAW OF MALUS
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I = I0 cos2 θ
Example 20. Two polarising sheets have their
polarising directions parallel so that the
intensity of the transmitted light is
maximum. Tnrough what angle must the
either sheet be turned if the intensity is to
drop by one-half ?
Solution. Here I =
Using Malus law, I = I0 cos2 θ
∴ = cos2 θ or cos θ = ± =
√
Hence θ = ±45°, ±135°

The same effect occurs no matter which
sheet is rotated or in which direction it is
Example 21. two polaroids are placed 90° to

each other. What happens when N -1 more
polaroids are inserted between two crossed
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polaroids (at 90° to each other). Their axes
are equally spaced. How does the
transmitted intensity behave for large N?
[NCERT]
Solution. Transmitted intensity through first
polaroid is
I1 = I0 cos2 θ
where I0, is the original intensity. Similarly,
the transmitted intensity through second
polaroid will be
l2 = I1 cos 2 θ = I0 cos4 θ
If N polaroids are used, then IN = I0 (cos θ)2N
As the optic axes of the polaroids are equally
inclined, so angle of rotation θ is same for
each polaroid.
Thus =( )
But angle between successive polaroids is

= = radians
∴ = − +. . . = − +⋯
which approaches 1 for large . Hence
fractional intensity,
= or =
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METHODS OF PRODUCING PLANE

POLARISED LIGHT
1. Reflection 2. Scattering
3. Double refraction 4. Selective absorption.
POLARISATION BY REFLECTION : BREWSTER
LAW
the reflected and transmitted rays are

perpendicular to each other,
= = ∘ = or = tan ip
( )
Example 22. Unpolarized light is incident on

a plane glass. What should be the angle of
incidence so that the reflected and refracted
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rays are perpendicular to each other?
[NCERT]
Find the Brewster angle for air-glass
interface, when the refractive index of glass
= 1.5.
Solution. Here i + r = 90°. Therefore,
tan ip =μ =1.5
or ip =56.3°.
Example 23. The velocity of light in air is 3 ×
108 ms-1 and that in water is 2.2 × 108 ms-1.
Find the polarising angle of incidence.
Solution. The refractive index of water is
given by
×
= = ×
= .3636
Using Brewster law, = = .

∴ = ( . )
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POLARISATION BY SCATTERING
POLARISATION BY DOUBLE REFRACTION :

NICOL PRISM
G-3 Classes

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Proof of laws of reflection and refraction

Interference, Young's double slit experiment

Diffraction due to a single slit, width of

Resolving power of microscope and

polarisation, plane polarised light, Brewster's

Wave theory of light

A wave front is defined as the continuous

Different types of wave fronts.

the wave fronts are spherical in shape. This

Cylindrical wavefront, source of light is

This is because the locus of all such points

A small portion of such a wavefront at a large

The energy of a wave travels in a direction

Huygens ‘ Principle, each point on a

No backward wavefront is possible. There

REFLECTION ON THE BASIS OF WAVE

then BC = v1t. AD = v2t

the angles of incidence and refraction be i

EFFECT ON WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY AND

The refractive index of a medium with

Since any medium is optically denser than

2. Optical path (in vacuum) = × Path in

Refractive index of glass, μd =

Example 3. The number of waves in a 4 cm

Number of waves in water layer

The resultant displacement at any point at a

Suppose the displacements of two light

where a1 and a2 , are the amplitudes of the

Put a1 + a2 cos ϕ = A cos θ ...(1)

Squaring and adding equations (1) and (2),

But intensity of a wave ∝ (amplitude)2

Where k is proportionality constant. The

I1 and I2 are the intensities which the two

Destructive interference. The resultant

COHERENT & INCOHERENT SOURCES

The last term 2 cos ϕ is called

i.e., there will be general illumination on the

Example 4. Two sources of intensity I and 4I

Solution. The resultant intensity at a point

Example 6. In a Young's double slit

Starting of Class 1003

THEORY OF INTERFERENCE FRINGES:

In practice, the point lies very close to ,

For = , = Second bright fringe

For = , = nth bright fringe

For = , =( − ) nth dark fringe

Fringe width It is the separation between two

Wavelength range from 4000 A to 7000 A .

Example 7. In Young's double experiment,

=5× 10-4 m = 0.5 mm.

Solution. Here β =2.0 mm, μ =1.33

Fringe width in air,

Fringe width in liquid,

Example 10. Sodium light has two

The interference pattern, in which the

Conditions for sustained interference

1. The two sources should continuously emit

2. The two sources of light should be

3. For a better contrast between maxima and

4. The two sources should be narrow,

5. The interfering waves must travel nearly