0021 - Dimension

Dimension
Ideas | Approaches | Accessibility | Availability
Dr. Henry Garrett

Report | Exposition | References | Research #22 2021
Abstract
Dimension is the structure about the situation in that, the elements of the
situation are considered as the mathematical object in the terms of distance
amid these elements. The distances amid elements complete the locations of
some elements which are involved. Simultaneously, the situations are considered
in the way that, they hold the number and the set in the terms of optimal and
non-optimal where they’re collected as a family. By using different literatures,
figures and tables alongside introducing some examples, this outlet wants to
make clear about this notion and in this way, the author use the basic results
which avoid confusion in specific scale. Dimension has too many applications
in locating the elements but the author use the mathematical structure of this
idea and the author try to make clarifications about them by different tools.
Dimension has too many applications in locating the elements but the author use the
mathematical structure of this idea and the author try to make clarifications about them
by different tools.
i
Acknowledgements
The author is going to say his gratitude and his appreciation about the brains
and their hands which are showing the importance of words in the framework
of every wisdom, knowledge, arts and emotions which are streaming in the lines The words of mind and the
from the words, notions, ideas and approaches to have the material which is minds of words, are too
eligible to be in the stage
only the way to flourish the minds, the growing the notions, advancing ways of aknowledgements
and making the stable ways to be amid the events and storms of minds for
surviving from them and making the outstanding experiences about the tools
and ideas to be on the star lines of words and shining like stars, forever.
iii
Contents
Abstract i
Acknowledgements iii
Contents v
List of Figures vi
List of Tables ix
1 Preliminaries 1
2 Definitions 9
3 Classes 29
v
List of Figures
1.1 g1 g2 g3 isn’t path because there’s no separator “, ” amid vertices

but g1 , g2 , g3 is a path from g1 to g3 with the length 2. g1 , g2 g3 isn’t
path because there’s one edge g2 g3 amid vertices but g1 g2 g3 is a
path from g1 to g3 with the length 2. g1 , g2 , g6 isn’t path from g1 to
g6 because g2 and g6 aren’t consecutive vertices but g1 , g2 , g7 , g5 , g6
is a path from g1 to g6 with the length 4. g1 , g2 , g7 , g5 , g6 isn’t a
shortest path from g1 to g6 with the distance 4 but g1 , g6 are a
shortest path from g1 to g6 with the distance 2. Also, g2 , g7 , g5 , g6
isn’t a shortest path from g2 to g6 with the distance 3 but g2 , g7 , g6
and g2 , g1 , g6 are a shortest path from g2 to g6 with the distance 2. 1
1.2 Complete graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. For any n ≤ 4, complete
graphs are planar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Cycle graphs are defined for any n ≥ 3. For any n ≥ 3, cycle graphs
are planar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Empty graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. For any n ≥ 1, empty
graphs are planar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Complete bipartite graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. K2,2 and K2,3
are planar but K3,3 isn’t planar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.6 Star graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. For any n ≥ 1, star graphs
are planar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.7 Diameter of graph K is 13. Thus D(K) = 13. k8 is a neighbor of k7

hence k8 ∼ k7 but k8 isn’t a neighbor of k9 hence k8 6∼ k9 . k8 and
k7 don’t have the same open neighborhood then N (k8 ) 6= N (k7 )
but k8 and k9 don’t have the same open neighborhood therefore
N (k8 ) 6= N (k9 ). K has no twin vertices hence k7 and k8 , k9 and
k10 , k11 and k12 , k13 and k14 , aren’t twin vertices and there’s
no twin vertices. Thus the set of all twin vertices in K isn’t
{{k7 , k8 }, {k9 , k10 }, {k11 , k12 }, {k13 , k14 }}. Since they’ve different
open neighborhood and different closed neighborhood. . . . . . . . 3
vi
List of Figures
1.8 k8 is a neighbor of k6 hence k8 ∼ k6 but k8 isn’t a neighbor of

k9 hence k8 6∼ k9 . k8 and k7 have the same open neighborhood
then N (k8 ) = N (k7 ) = {k6 } but k8 and k6 don’t have the
same open neighborhood therefore N (k8 ) 6= N (k6 ). K only
has k7 and k8 , k9 and k10 , k11 and k12 , k13 and k14 , as twin
vertices because of having same open neighborhood and there’s
no more twin vertices beyond them and out of them because
of having same open neighborhood. Thus the set of all twin
vertices in K is {k7 , k8 , k9 , k10 , k11 , k12 , k13 , k14 } Since they’ve
same open neighborhood. Precisely, every two choices from the
set {k7 , k8 , k9 , k10 , k11 , k12 , k13 , k14 } form twin vertices because of
having same open neighborhood. K only has k21 and k22 , k24 and
k25 , k26 and k27 , k27 and k21 , as twin vertices because of having same
closed neighborhood and there’s no more twin vertices beyond them
and out of them because of having same closed neighborhood. Thus
the set of all twin vertices in K is {{k21 , k22 , k24 , k25 , k26 , k27 }. Since
they’ve same closed neighborhood. Precisely, every two choices
from the set {{k21 , k22 , k24 , k25 , k26 , k27 } form twin vertices because
of having same closed neighborhood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.9 The set {k7 , k8 , k9 , k10 , k11 , k12 , k13 , k14 } is DS for K1,8 . Thus
DN (K1,8 ) = 7. The set {k22 , k23 , k24 , k25 , k26 , k27 , k28 , k29 } is DS
for K8 . Thus DN (K8 ) = 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.10 The set {c4 , c5 } is DS for C8 . Thus DN (C8 ) = 2. The set {c4 , c7 , c8 }
is RS for C8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.11 The set {p6 } is DS for P6 . Thus DN (P6 ) = 1. The set {p4 , p5 } is
RS for P6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 A family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ), G3 : (V, E3 )}

with common vertex set V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 The set {v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =
{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 The set {v2 , v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =
{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = |V | − 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 The set {v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =
{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = |V | − 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = SDS(H = {G1 , G2 }, {G1 , G3 }, {G2 , G3 }, G) . 24
3.1 The sets V −{u, ui }, V −{v, vj }, V −{x, xs } are DSs for G1 , G2 , G3 ,

however, they aren’t SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . Any set
with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . 33
3.2 The sets V − {xi , xs }, V − {xj , xs }, V − {xt , xs } are DSs for
G1 , G2 , G3 , however, they aren’t SDS for any G containing
G1 , G2 , G3 . Any set with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SDS for any G
containing G1 , G2 , G3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
vii
List of Figures
3.3 The sets V − {x4 , x7 }, V − {x4 , x7 }, V − {x4 , x6 } are DSs for

G1 , G2 , G3 , however, they aren’t SDS for any G containing
G1 , G2 , G3 . Any set with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SDS for any G
containing G1 , G2 , G3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 The set {v1 , v2 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for G = {G1 , G2 } 34
3.5 The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for G = {G1 , G2 } 36
3.6 The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.7 The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.8 The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.9 The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.10 The family P = {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 } contains six path graphs on a
common vertex set {p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 , p6 } containing a common leaf
p1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.11 The family P = {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 } contains six path graphs on a
common vertex set {p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 , p6 } without any common leaf. 41
3.12 Any two given vertices like c1 and c2 resolve any couple of vertices
in cycle graphs C1 , C2 and C3 . Thus the family C = {C1 , C2 , C3 }
has two as its SDN. Thus SDN (C) = 2 and {c1 , c2 } is SDS for C. 43
3.13 Two vertices c1 and c2 aren’t mutually antipodal in cycle graphs
C1 , C2 and C3 . Thus the family C = {C1 , C2 , C3 } has two as its
SDN. Thus SDN (C) = 2 and {c1 , c2 } is SDS for C. . . . . . . . . 43
3.14 For every two given vertices, there exists at least one cycle graphs
from C1 , C2 and C3 . Precisely, We study all two given vertices in
the terms of being mutually antipodal. c1 , c2 in C2 , c1 , c3 in C1 ,
c1 , c4 in C3 , c2 , c3 in C3 , c2 , c4 in C1 and c3 , c4 in C2 are mutually
antipodal. Thus the family C = {C1 , C2 , C3 } has three as its SDN.
Thus SDN (C) = 3 and {c1 , c2 , c4 } is SDS for C. . . . . . . . . . . 43
viii
List of Tables
2.1 Distances of Vertices from the vertex set {v1 , v4 } in Graph G1 . . 10

2.4 Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Graph G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Graph G3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Graph G1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Graph G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Graph G3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.10 Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 }, {v5 }, {v6 }
in Graph G1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
in Graph G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
in Graph G3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
ix
CHAPTER 1
Preliminaries
Concepts are
related to the Definition 1.0.1. (Graph).
basic tools and Let V be a set of objects and any set E of unordered couple objects of V is up.
ideas about the Therefore, G : (V, E) is a graph.
preliminaries.
In this way, the Definition 1.0.2. (Connected Graph).
basic notion
concerning graph
A graph is called connected if there’s path between two given vertices.
theory is
recalled. The
material are
about the
dimension and
its tools, too.
In this chapter,
the material are
provided to give
some senses
about the
material behind
this notion. In
this chapter,
Figures are Figure 1.1: g1 g2 g3 isn’t path because there’s no separator “, ” amid vertices
represented as but g1 , g2 , g3 is a path from g1 to g3 with the length 2. g1 , g2 g3 isn’t path
independent because there’s one edge g2 g3 amid vertices but g1 g2 g3 is a path from g1 to g3
examples and the
with the length 2. g1 , g2 , g6 isn’t path from g1 to g6 because g2 and g6 aren’t
captions of
examples are consecutive vertices but g1 , g2 , g7 , g5 , g6 is a path from g1 to g6 with the length
used to fill the 4. g1 , g2 , g7 , g5 , g6 isn’t a shortest path from g1 to g6 with the distance 4 but
vacant position g1 , g6 are a shortest path from g1 to g6 with the distance 2. Also, g2 , g7 , g5 , g6
of the example
in this chapter
isn’t a shortest path from g2 to g6 with the distance 3 but g2 , g7 , g6 and g2 , g1 , g6
but the are a shortest path from g2 to g6 with the distance 2.
different tools
are applied to
make examples
and makes senses
about the topic.
Figure 1.2: Complete graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. For any n ≤ 4, complete
graphs are planar.
1
1. Preliminaries
Figure 1.3: Cycle graphs are defined for any n ≥ 3. For any n ≥ 3, cycle graphs
are planar.
Figure 1.4: Empty graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. For any n ≥ 1, empty
graphs are planar.
Figure 1.5: Complete bipartite graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. K2,2 and K2,3
are planar but K3,3 isn’t planar.
Definition 1.0.3. (Loop Edge) An edge xy is called loop if x = y.

Definition 1.0.4. (Parallel Edges).
An edge xy is called parallel if the number of this edge is more than one.
Definition 1.0.5. (Simple Graph).
A graph is called simple if it has neither loops nor parallel edges.
Definition 1.0.6. (Connected Simple Graph).
A graph is called connected simple graph if it’s both connected and simple.
Definition 1.0.7. (Path).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. A consecutive vertices x0 x1 · · · xn
is denoted by Pn and is called a path from v0 to vn with the length n.
2
Figure 1.6: Star graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. For any n ≥ 1, star graphs
are planar.
Figure 1.7: Diameter of graph K is 13. Thus D(K) = 13. k8 is a neighbor

of k7 hence k8 ∼ k7 but k8 isn’t a neighbor of k9 hence k8 6∼ k9 . k8 and k7
don’t have the same open neighborhood then N (k8 ) 6= N (k7 ) but k8 and k9
don’t have the same open neighborhood therefore N (k8 ) 6= N (k9 ). K has no
twin vertices hence k7 and k8 , k9 and k10 , k11 and k12 , k13 and k14 , aren’t
twin vertices and there’s no twin vertices. Thus the set of all twin vertices in
K isn’t {{k7 , k8 }, {k9 , k10 }, {k11 , k12 }, {k13 , k14 }}. Since they’ve different open
neighborhood and different closed neighborhood.
Definition 1.0.8. (Shortest Path).

Let x and y be two given vertices in a connected simple graph. The shortest
path is a path with minimum length amid all paths from x to y.
Definition 1.0.9. (Distance).
A dG : V × V → N ∪ {0} is called distance on connected simple graph G if
3
1. Preliminaries
Figure 1.8: k8 is a neighbor of k6 hence k8 ∼ k6 but k8 isn’t a neighbor

of k9 hence k8 6∼ k9 . k8 and k7 have the same open neighborhood then
N (k8 ) = N (k7 ) = {k6 } but k8 and k6 don’t have the same open neighborhood
therefore N (k8 ) 6= N (k6 ). K only has k7 and k8 , k9 and k10 , k11 and k12 ,
k13 and k14 , as twin vertices because of having same open neighborhood
and there’s no more twin vertices beyond them and out of them because
of having same open neighborhood. Thus the set of all twin vertices in
K is {k7 , k8 , k9 , k10 , k11 , k12 , k13 , k14 } Since they’ve same open neighborhood.
Precisely, every two choices from the set {k7 , k8 , k9 , k10 , k11 , k12 , k13 , k14 } form
twin vertices because of having same open neighborhood. K only has k21
and k22 , k24 and k25 , k26 and k27 , k27 and k21 , as twin vertices because
of having same closed neighborhood and there’s no more twin vertices
beyond them and out of them because of having same closed neighborhood.
Thus the set of all twin vertices in K is {{k21 , k22 , k24 , k25 , k26 , k27 }. Since
they’ve same closed neighborhood. Precisely, every two choices from the set
{{k21 , k22 , k24 , k25 , k26 , k27 } form twin vertices because of having same closed
neighborhood.
dG (x, y) is the length of a shortest path amid x and y where N is positive

integers.
Definition 1.0.10. (Complete).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. It’s called complete if for any
couple of vertices have an edge. It’s denoted by Kn .
Definition 1.0.11. (Cycle).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. It’s called cycle if it’s closed path
and it’s denoted by Cn .
Definition 1.0.12. (Empty).
4
Figure 1.9: The set {k7 , k8 , k9 , k10 , k11 , k12 , k13 , k14 } is DS for K1,8 . Thus
DN (K1,8 ) = 7. The set {k22 , k23 , k24 , k25 , k26 , k27 , k28 , k29 } is DS for K8 . Thus
DN (K8 ) = 7.
Figure 1.10: The set {c4 , c5 } is DS for C8 . Thus DN (C8 ) = 2. The set {c4 , c7 , c8 }
is RS for C8 .
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. It’s called empty if it has no edges
and it’s denoted by Nn .
Definition 1.0.13. (Star).
Let Km.n : (V, E) be a complete bipartite graph. It’s called star if either m = 1
or n = 1 holds.
Definition 1.0.14. (Bipartite) Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. It’s
called bipartite If V is partitioned to vertex set V1 and V2 such that x 6∼ y
satisfy either x, y ∈ V1 or x, y ∈ V2 .
Definition 1.0.15. (Complete Bipartite) Let G : (V = V1 ∪ V2 , E) be a bipartite
graph. It’s called complete bipartite if x ∈ V1 and y ∈ V1 imply x ∼ y. It’s
denoted by Km.n where m = |V1 | and n = |V2 |.
Definition 1.0.16. (Diameter).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. The maximum distance amid the
couple of vertices in G, is called a diameter of G and it’s denoted by D(G).
5
1. Preliminaries
Figure 1.11: The set {p6 } is DS for P6 . Thus DN (P6 ) = 1. The set {p4 , p5 } is
RS for P6 .
Definition 1.0.17. (Neighbor).

Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. A vertex x is called a neighbor of
the vertex y if xy is an edge. It’s denoted by x ∼ y. If there’s no edge between
x and y, it’s denoted by x 6∼ y.
Definition 1.0.18. (Neighborhood).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph and a vertex v ∈ V. A set
N (x) = {y | x ∼ y} is an open neighborhood of x. The set N [x] = N (x) ∪ {x}
is called a closed neighborhood of x.
Definition 1.0.19. (Twin Vertices). Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple
graph. Two vertices x and y is called twin vertices in G if they satisfy either
N (x) = N (y) or N [x] = N [y].
Definition 1.0.20. (Resolving Vertex).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. A vertex RV is called resolving
vertex, for two given vertex x and y if dG (x, RV ) 6= dG (y, RV ).
Definition 1.0.21. (Resolving Set).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. A set of vertices, RS ⊆ V is called
resolving set if for every two given vertices, there’s a vertex from the set RS
which is resolving vertex.
Definition 1.0.22. (Dimension Set).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. A resolving set RS is called a
dimension set DS if it has the minimum cardinality amid all resolving sets RSs
in G.
Definition 1.0.23. (Dimension Number).
6
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. A number DN is called dimension
number if it’s cardinality of a dimension set DS.
7
CHAPTER 2
Definitions
This chapter is
devised to Definition 2.0.1. (Simultaneous Resolving Vertex).
represent the Let G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } be a family of connected simple graph Gi : (V, Ei )
basic results with common vertex set V. A vertex SRV is called simultaneous resolving
and definitions
in the terms of
vertex for vertex x and y if from each Gi , it’s simultaneously RV. It means
the topic. In dGi (x, RV ) 6= dGi (y, RV ), for all i = 1, 2, · · · , k.
this way, the
examples in Definition 2.0.2. (Simultaneous Resolving Set).
hugely diverse Let G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } be a family of connected simple graph Gi : (V, Ei )
ways, have the with common vertex set V. A set of vertices, SRS ⊆ V is called simultaneous
key roles to do
these tasks and
resolving set if for every two given vertices, there’s a vertex SRV from the set
to tackle the SRS.
obstacles which
are in front of Definition 2.0.3. (Simultaneous Dimension Set).
understanding Let G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } be a family of connected simple graph Gi : (V, Ei )
the notions as with common vertex set V. A simultaneous resolving set SRS is called a
soon as
possible. The
simultaneous dimension set SDS if it has the minimum cardinality amid all
focus of this simultaneous resolving sets SRSs in G.
chapter is on
the Definition 2.0.4. (Simultaneous Dimension Number).
clarifications Let G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } be a family of connected simple graph Gi : (V, Ei )
of definitions with common vertex set V. A number SDN is called simultaneous dimension
and related
concepts to
number if it’s cardinality of a simultaneous dimension set SDS.
them.
Figure 2.1: A family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ), G3 : (V, E3 )}

with common vertex set V.
F1 Example 2.0.5. Assume a family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ), G3 :

(V, E3 )} with common vertex set V as figure (2.1). The distance all vertices
from the vertex v1 and v4 is shown as Table (2.1). Different number is every
9
2. Definitions
row is resolved by the corresponded vertex and the same number is any row has
to be resolved by another vertex and the corresponded vertex couldn’t resolve
them.
By Table (2.1), the vertex v1 is a resolving vertex RV for any two given vertices
with two exception: the couple (v2 , v6 ) and the couple (v3 , v5 ). In other words,
the vertex v2 and the vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v1 . The vertex v3 and the
vertex v5 aren’t resolved by v1 .
These exceptions are handled by the vertex v4 as follows:
By Table (2.1), The vertices v2 and v6 aren’t resolved by the vertex v1 because
they’ve same distance, one from v1 but they’re resolved by the vertex v4 because
they’ve different distances, three and six, respectively, from v4 .
with two exceptions: the couple (v1 , v2 ) and the couple (v3 , v6 ). In other words,
they’ve same distance one from v4 but they’ve resolved by the vertex v1 because
they’re different distances, zero and one, respectively, from v1 .
The vertices v3 and v6 aren’t resolved by the vertex v4 because they’ve same
distance, one from v4 but they’re resolved by the vertex v1 because they’ve
different distances, two and six, respectively, from v1 .
By applying the mathematical literature and our literature about this concept,
we have,
∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v2 , v6 ), (v3 , v5 )} : dG1 (vi , v1 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v1 )
dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = dG1 (v6 , v1 ), dG1 (v3 , v1 ) = dG1 (v5 , v1 )

Table 2.1: Distances of Vertices from the vertex set {v1 , v4 } in Graph G1 T1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v1 0 1 2 3 2 1
v4 3 3 2 0 1 2
By Table (2.2), the vertex v1 is a resolving vertex RV for any two given
vertices with one exception: the couple (v3 , v6 ). In other words, the vertex v3
and the vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v1 . The vertex v3 and the vertex v6 aren’t
resolved by v1 .
This exception isn’t handled by the vertex v4 as follows:
they’ve same distance, three, from v1 but they aren’t resolved by the vertex v4
because they’ve same distances, two, respectively, from v4 .
with two exceptions: the couple (v1 , v5 ) and the couple (v3 , v6 ). In other words,
10
One of these exceptions is handled by the vertex v1 as follows:
they’ve same distance, one, from v4 but they’re resolved by the vertex v1 because
they’ve different distances, zero and two, respectively, from v1 .
distance, two, from v4 but they aren’t resolved by the vertex v1 because they’ve
same distances, three, respectively, from v1 .
we have,
∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v3 , v6 )} : dG1 (vi , v1 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v1 )
dG1 (v3 , v1 ) = dG1 (v6 , v1 )

v1 0 4 3 1 2 3
v4 1 3 2 0 1 2
By Table (2.3), the vertex v1 is a resolving vertex RV for any two given
vertices with four exceptions: the couples (v2 , v4 ), (v2 , v6 ), (v4 , v6 ) and the couple
(v3 , v5 ). In other words, the vertex v2 and the vertex v4 aren’t resolved by v1 .
The vertex v2 and the vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v1 . The vertex v4 and the
vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v1 . The vertex v3 and the vertex v5 aren’t resolved
by v1 .
they’ve different distances, one and zero, respectively, from v4 .
distance, one, from v1 but they’re resolved by the vertex v4 because they’ve
different distances, one and two, respectively, from v4 .
different distances, zero and two, respectively, from v4 .
different distances, two and one, respectively, from v4 .
with four exceptions: the couples (v1 , v2 ), (v1 , v5 ), (v2 , v5 ) and the couple (v3 , v6 )
In other words, the vertex v1 and the vertex v2 aren’t resolved by v4 . The
vertex v1 and the vertex v5 aren’t resolved by v4 . The vertex v2 and the vertex
11
2. Definitions
v5 aren’t resolved by v4 . The vertex v3 and the vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v4 .

they’ve different distances, zero and one, respectively, from v1 .
different distances, zero and two, respectively, from v1 .
different distances, one and two, respectively, from v1 .
distance, two, from v4 but they’re resolved by the vertex v1 because they’ve
different distances, two and one, respectively, from v1 .
we have,
∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v2 , v4 ), (v2 , v6 ), (v4 , v6 ), (v3 , v5 )} :
dG1 (vi , v1 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v1 ).
dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = dG1 (v4 , v1 ), dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = dG1 (v6 , v1 ),
dG1 (v4 , v1 ) = dG1 (v6 , v1 ), dG1 (v3 , v1 ) = dG1 (v5 , v1 ).
∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v1 , v2 ), (v1 , v5 ), (v2 , v5 ), (v3 , v6 )} :
dG1 (vi , v4 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v4 ).
dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = dG1 (v2 , v4 ), dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = dG1 (v5 , v4 ),
dG1 (v2 , v4 ) = dG1 (v5 , v4 ), dG1 (v3 , v4 ) = dG1 (v6 , v4 ).
v1 0 1 2 1 2 1
v4 1 1 2 0 1 2
To get SRS, the set with one element has to be identified whether they’re
SRS or not. Every singleton {vi }, i = 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 isn’t SRS because in G1 has
two neighbors. And {v4 } isn’t SRS because the couple (v3 , v6 ) aren’t resolved
by {v4 }. Thus, Every singleton isn’t SRS.
To sum up, {v1 , v4 } is a simultaneous resolving set SRS for family of graphs
G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G3 : (V, E3 )} with common vertex set V because {v1 , v4 }
is a resolving set RS for G1 : (V, E1 ) and G3 : (V, E3 ), simultaneously. But
{v1 , v4 } isn’t simultaneous resolving set SRS for family of graphs G = {G1 :
(V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ), G3 : (V, E3 )} with common vertex set V because, by Table
(2.2) and as mentioned, {v1 , v4 } isn’t RS for G2 : (V, E2 ).
12
The key role of defining the number SDN is the number distance.
Finding different distances make SDN.
The word related to distance is neighbor of the vertex which is a formalization
of the concept edge
Neighbor of the vertex is the vertex which has the number one as its distance
from the vertex.
Another word which crosses from mind is the word twin which is defined on
the concept of neighbor where the twin vertices are the vertices which have the
same neighbors.
An idea which is defined on the notion of twin, is complete graph which is a
graph where each two given vertices are twin.
Another idea which is defined on the notion of twin, is star graph which is a
graph where each two given vertices are twin where the center is only exception.
The center is only neighbor of non-center vertices. Non-center vertices are twin
where the number of vertices’ neighbor is only one and it’s center.
In the terms of neighbors, there’s cycle graph, where n ≥ 3, which every vertex
has two neighbors which have the situation to get discussion about SDN one.
So there’re some interesting questions about SDN one:
(1). What if there’s a relation between the neighbors of the vertex and the vertex
where all graphs of a family are formed to reflect the impacts of neighbors in
the terms of SDN which is one?
(2). What if the graphs of a given family are formed to have twin vertices in
the ways that, SDN one is a matter of mind?
(3). What if the graphs of a given family are formed to have only twin vertices,
this graph is called complete graph, in the ways that, SDN one is a matter of
mind?
(4). What if the graphs of a given family are formed to have only twin vertices
with the exception of one vertex, called center, which is only common neighbor,
this graph is called star graph, in the ways that, SDN one is a matter of mind?
(5). What if the family of graphs are formed in the ways, they are cycle graphs
which the number of neighbors for each vertex is two?
By definition of neighbor, the neighbors of a given vertex have the distance
one from it. In other words, y ∈ N (x) : d(y, x) = 1. Thus, a given
vertex couldn’t resolve two given vertices from its neighborhood. Because
y, z ∈ N (x) : d(y, x) = 1 = d(z, x). Therefore,
Observation 2.0.6. Every vertex isn’t RV for its neighbors.
Observation 2.0.7. If there’s a graph in a given family of graphs such that
every vertex has at least two neighbors, then SDN is at least two.
Observation 2.0.8. Every vertex from twin vertices is a RV for another vertex.
Observation 2.0.9. If there’s a graph in a given family of graphs such that
there’re two styles of twin vertices, then SDN is at least two where n ≥ 3.
Observation 2.0.10. If there’s a complete graph in a given family of graphs,
then SDN is at least two where n ≥ 3.
Observation 2.0.11. If there’s a star graph in a given family of graphs, then
SDN is at least two where n ≥ 3.
Observation 2.0.12. If there’s a cycle graph in a given family, then SDN is
13
2. Definitions
at least two.
There’re some natural questions about this new number with other numbers
arise from the graphs:
(1). What if there’s a relation between the SDN of subfamily of a given family
and SDN of the family?
(2). What if there’s a relation between the number DN s of graphs of a given
family and SDN of the family?
(3). What if there’s a relation between the number of common vertices of a
given family with SDN of the family?
To avoid confusion, for a graph, we use the normal English capital letter but
for family of graphs, we use the mathcal version of LaTeX of English capital
letter. For instance, G, G and H, H.
Thus by these questions, it’s the way to introduce new observation which has
the answer of that three questions which are passed.
1 Observation 2.0.13. For any family G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } of connected graphs

with common vertex set V and any subfamily H of G,
k
X
SDN (H) ≤ SDN (G) ≤ min{|V | − 1, DN (Gi )}.
i=1
In particular,
max {DN (Gi )} ≤ SDN (G).
i∈{1,2,··· ,k}
The above inequalities are sharp. For instance, for the family of graphs
shown in Figure 2.2 we have SDN (G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 2 = dim(G1 ) =
dim(G2 ) = maxi∈{1,2,3} {dim(Gi )}, while for the family of graphs shown in
Figure 2.3 we have SDN (G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = |V | − 1.
Figure 2.2: The set {v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =

{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 2 F2
Observation 2.0.14. Any set with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SRS.

Observation 2.0.15. For any family G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } of connected graphs
Pk
with common vertex set V, any set with the cardinality i−1 DN (Gi ) is SRS.
Observation 2.0.16. There’s a family with |V | − 1 as SDN.
Pk
Observation 2.0.17. There’s a family with i−1 DN (Gi ) as SDN.
14
Figure 2.3: The set {v2 , v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =
{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = |V | − 1. F3
Observation 2.0.18. There’s a subfamily H of family G with SDN (H) as

SDN (G).
Observation 2.0.19. There’s a family with maxi∈{1,2,··· ,k {DN (Gi )} as SDN.
Figure 2.4: The set {v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =

{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 2
F4 Example 2.0.20. Assume a family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 :

(V, E2 ), G3 : (V, E3 )} with common vertex set V as Figure (2.4).
(i) Any of vertices v1 , v2 and v4 has at least two neighbors so by using the idea
of neighbor and applying definition, we have:
N (v1 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v4 ∈ N (v1 ) : dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 = dG1 (v4 , v1 )

⇒ dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = dG1 (v4 , v1 ) ≡ v1 isn’t RV for v2 and v4 ;
N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v4 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG1 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG1 (v4 , v2 )

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v1 ∈ N (v4 ) : dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = 1 = dG1 (v2 , v4 )

dG1 (v1 , v3 ) = 2 = dG1 (v4 , v3 )

⇒ dG1 (v1 , v3 ) = dG1 (v4 , v3 ) ≡ v3 isn’t RV for v1 and v4 .
So it isn’t RS for G1 : (V, E1 ). The vertex v3 has one neighbor but it isn’t RS
for v1 and v4 because dG1 (v1 , v3 ) = 2 = dG1 (v4 , v3 ) so dG1 (v1 , v3 ) = dG1 (v4 , v3 ).
15
2. Definitions
Table 2.4: Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G1 T4
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v1 0 1 2 1
v2 1 0 2 1
v3 2 1 0 2
v4 1 1 2 0
By using the idea of distance and applying Table (2.4), for all vertices, we have:
By G1 : (V, E1 ) ∈ G, the SDN (G) is at least two because SDN (G) ≥ SDN (H =
{G1 }) ≥ 2. Thus every vertex set with two vertices which is SRS, is also SDS.
By G1 : (V, E1 ) ∈ G, the SDN is at least two.
By using Table (2.4), the sets with the cardinality two is investigated to obtain
all DSs for G1 . {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS. Any of sets
which has one of these sets as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
(ii) Any of vertices v1 , v3 and v4 has at least two neighbors so by using the idea
N (v1 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v3 , v4 ∈ N (v1 ) : dG2 (v3 , v1 ) = 1 = dG2 (v4 , v1 )
N (v3 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v4 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG2 (v1 , v3 ) = 1 = dG2 (v4 , v3 )

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v4 ) : dG2 (v1 , v4 ) = 1 = dG2 (v3 , v4 )

dG2 (v3 , v2 ) = 2 = dG2 (v4 , v2 )

⇒ dG2 (v3 , v2 ) = dG2 (v4 , v2 ) ≡ v2 isn’t RV for v3 and v4 .
all DSs for G2 . {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v3 }, {v2 , v4 } are DS. Any of sets which
has one of these sets as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
(iii) Any of vertices v2 and v3 has at least two neighbors so by using the idea
N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG3 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG3 (v3 , v2 )
16
Graph G2 T5
v1 0 1 1 1
v2 1 0 2 2
v3 1 2 0 1
v4 1 2 1 0
N (v3 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v4 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG3 (v2 , v3 ) = 1 = dG3 (v4 , v3 )

dG3 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 6= 2 = dG3 (v3 , v1 )

⇒ dG3 (v2 , v1 ) 6= dG3 (v3 , v1 ) ≡ v1 is RV for v2 and v3 .
dG3 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 6= 3 = dG3 (v4 , v1 )

dG3 (v3 , v1 ) = 2 6= 3 = dG3 (v4 , v1 )

dG3 (v2 , v4 ) = 2 6= 1 = dG3 (v3 , v4 )

dG3 (v3 , v4 ) = 1 6= 3 = dG3 (v1 , v4 )

dG3 (v2 , v4 ) = 2 6= 3 = dG3 (v1 , v4 )

The graph is called path graph and the vertex with one neighbor in this graph,
is called leaf. Any path has 1 as its DN And its leaf is DS. In path graph,
there are only two DSs which are leaves of it. In path graph, there are two
leaves. Thus DS of path has only one member. In third graph in Figure (2.4),
the vertex v1 and v4 are leaves. To get all DSs, the two sets {v1 } and {v4 } are
only DSs. dG3 (vi , v1 ) = i − 1, dG3 (vi , v4 ) = i − 1. In general, the expression
dPn (vi , v1 ) = i − 1, 1 < i ≤ n and dPn (vi , v1 ) = i − 1, 1 ≤ i < n hold where v1
and vn are only leaves of paths.
17
2. Definitions
Graph G3 T6
v1 0 1 2 3
v2 1 0 1 2
v3 2 1 0 1
v4 3 2 1 0
By G3 : (V, E3 ) ∈ G, the SDN (G) is at least one because SDN (G) ≥ SDN (H =
{G1 }) ≥ 1. But by G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ) ∈ G, the SDN is at least two.
Thus every vertex set with two vertices which is SRS, is also SDS.
By using Table (2.6), the sets with the cardinality one is investigated to obtain
all DSs for G3 . {v1 } and {v4 } are DS. Any of sets which has one of these sets
as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
To sum them up, by Tables (2.1), (2.2) and (2.3) or the results excerpt from
them in the term of DS:
(i): {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G1 .
(ii): {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v3 }, {v2 , v4 } are DS for G2 .
(iii): {v1 } and {v4 } are DS for G3 .
Case (iii) implies every SDS has to have either v1 or v4 so the set {v2 , v3 } isn’t
SDS for }. By applying the results of G3 on cases (i) and (ii):
(i): {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G1 and RS for G3 .
(ii): {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are DS for G2 and RS for G3 .
By applying the results of case (ii) on cases (i):
(i): {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are DS for G1 , DS for G2 and RS for G3 .
Therefore, the cardinality of these sets which are two and any set with cardin-
ality one can’t be RS. Thus as its consequences, it can’t be DS. Then only
attribute to get the SDS is the minimum number of cardinality of the set after
that the set is SRS. The sets {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3
and they’ve the minimal cardinality between other SRSs. Thus
{v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3 .
{v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are SRS for G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }.
{v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are SRS for G.

To clarify the bounds of Observation (2.0.13), there are four numbers, SDS(H),
P3
|V | − 1, i=1 DN (Gi ) and maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )}:
(i). SDS(H) = 2 where
H = {G1 }, {G2 }, {G1 , G2 }, {G1 , G3 }, {G2 , G3 }, {G1 , G2 , G3 }, G
18
thus SDS(H) = 2 = 2 = SDS(G). Therefore, SDS(H) = SDS(G).
(ii). SDS(H) = 1 where H = {G3 } thus SDS(H) = 1 < 2 = SDS(G).

Therefore, SDS(H) 6= SDS(G).
(iii). |V | − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3 thus SDS(G) = 2 < 3 = |V | − 1. Therefore,

SDS(G) 6= |V | − 1.
Pk P3
(iv). i=1 DN (Gi ) = 2 + 2 + 1 = 5 thus SDS(G) = 2 < 5 = i=1 DN (Gi ).
P3
Therefore, SDS(G) 6= i=1 DN (Gi ).
(v). maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} = 2 thus maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} = 2 = 2 =

SDS(G). Therefore, maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} = SDS(G).
The Figure (2.4), and the above computations of cases, (i) and (v) ex-
press some points about Observation (2.0.13): The bounds, SDS(H) and
maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )}, for SDS, are sharp.

{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = |V | − 1.

(i) Any of vertices v1 , v2 , v3 and v4 has at least two neighbors so by using the
idea of neighbor and applying definition, we have:
N (v1 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v4 ∈ N (v1 ) : dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 = dG1 (v4 , v1 )

N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG1 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG1 (v3 , v2 )

N (v3 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v4 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG1 (v2 , v3 ) = 1 = dG1 (v4 , v3 )

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v4 ) : dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = 1 = dG1 (v3 , v4 )

So it isn’t RS for G1 : (V, E1 ). Thus the set with cardinality one, we called
1 − set, isn’t RS for G1 : (V, E1 ).
19
2. Definitions
Graph G1 T7
v1 0 1 2 1
v2 1 0 1 1
v3 2 1 0 1
v4 1 1 1 0
all DSs for G1 . {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v3 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS. Any of sets which
has one of these sets as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
(ii) There’s only the vertex, v2 , which has at least two neighbors so by using
the idea of neighbor and applying definition, we have:
N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 , v4 ∈ N (v2 ) :
dG2 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG2 (v3 , v2 ) ⇒ dG2 (v1 , v2 ) = dG2 (v3 , v2 )
≡ v2 isn’t RV for v1 and v3 ;
dG2 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG2 (v4 , v2 ), ⇒ dG2 (v1 , v2 ) = dG2 (v4 , v2 )
N (v1 ) = 1 ⇒ dG2 (v3 , v1 ) = 2 = dG2 (v4 , v1 )

N (v3 ) = 1 ⇒ dG2 (v1 , v3 ) = 2 = dG2 (v4 , v3 )

N (v4 ) = 1 ⇒ dG2 (v1 , v4 ) = 2 = dG2 (v3 , v4 )

20
Graph G2 T8
v1 0 1 2 2
v2 1 0 1 1
v3 2 1 0 2
v4 2 1 2 0
all DSs for G2 . {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS. Any of sets which has one of
these sets as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
(iii) There’s only the vertex, v4 , which has at least two neighbors so by using
the idea of neighbor and applying definition, we have:
N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v2 , v3 ∈ N (v4 ) :
dG3 (v1 , v4 ) = 1 = dG3 (v3 , v4 ), ⇒ dG3 (v1 , v4 ) = dG3 (v3 , v4 )
N (v1 ) = 1 ⇒ dG3 (v2 , v1 ) = 2 = dG3 (v3 , v1 )

N (v2 ) = 1 ⇒ dG3 (v1 , v2 ) = 2 = dG3 (v3 , v2 )

N (v3 ) = 1 ⇒ dG3 (v1 , v3 ) = 2 = dG3 (v2 , v3 )

21
2. Definitions
Graph G3 T9
v1 0 2 2 1
v2 2 0 2 1
v3 2 2 0 1
v4 1 1 1 0
all DSs for G3 . {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v2 , v3 } are DS. Any of sets which has one of
these sets as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
(i): {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v3 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G1 .
(ii): {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G2 .
(iii): {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v2 , v3 } are DS for G3 .
Case (iii) implies some sets aren’t SDS for G. By applying the results of G3
on cases (i) and (ii):
(i): {v1 , v2 }, {v2 , v3 } are DS for G1 and DS for G3 .
(ii): {v1 , v3 } are DS for G2 and DS for G3 .
By applying the results of case (ii) on cases (i):
(i): none of sets is DS for G1 , DS for G2 and DS for G3 .
So, SDN is at least three. To take it:

(ii): {v1 , v3 } are DS for G2 and DS for G3 .
Every set with cardinality three, 3-set, is on demand. by regarding the cases,
{v1 , v2 , v3 } is SDS and SDN is three.
Now, we find other SDSs.
By applying the results of cases (ii) on cases (i) and (iii):
(iii): {v1 , v3 } are DS for G2 and DS for G3 .
Every set with cardinality three, 3-set, is on demand. By regarding the cases,
{v1 , v3 , v4 } is SDS and SDN is three.
Now, we find other SDSs.

22
By applying the results of cases (i) on cases (ii) and (iii):
(ii): {v1 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G1 and DS for G2 .
(iii): {v1 , v2 }, {v2 , v3 } are DS for G1 and DS for G3 .
Every set with cardinality three, 3-set, is on demand. In this By regarding the
cases, {v1 , v2 , v4 } and {v2 , v3 , v4 } are SDS and SDN is three.
Therefore, the cardinality of these sets which are three and any set with car-
dinality either one or two can’t be RS. Thus as its consequences, they can’t be
DS. Then only attribute to get the SDS is the minimum number of cardinality
of the set after that the set is SRS. The sets {v1 , v2 , v3 }, {v1 , v3 , v4 }, {v1 , v2 , v4 }
and {v2 , v3 , v4 } are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3 and they’ve the minimal cardinality
between other SRSs. Thus
{v1 , v2 , v3 }, {v1 , v3 , v4 }, {v1 , v2 , v4 } and {v2 , v3 , v4 } are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3 .
{v1 , v2 , v3 }, {v1 , v3 , v4 }, {v1 , v2 , v4 } and {v2 , v3 , v4 } are SRS for G =

{G1 , G2 , G3 }.
{v1 , v2 , v3 }, {v1 , v3 , v4 }, {v1 , v2 , v4 } and {v2 , v3 , v4 } are SRS for G.
P3
H = {G1 }, {G2 }, {G1 , G2 }, {G1 , G3 }, {G2 , G3 }.
thus SDS(H) = 2 < 3 = SDS(G). Therefore, SDS(H) 6= SDS(G).
(ii). SDS(H) = 3 where

H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }, G
(iii). |V | − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3 thus SDS(G) = 3 = 3 = |V | − 1. Therefore,

SDS(G) = |V | − 1.
Pk Pk
P3
(v). maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} = 2 thus maxi∈{1,2,··· ,k} {DN (Gi )} = 2 < 3 =
SDS(G). Therefore, maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} =
6 SDS(G).
The Figure (2.5), and the above computations of case, (iii) only expresses one
point about Observation (2.0.13): The bound, |V | − 1, is sharp.
23
2. Definitions

{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = SDS(H = {G1 , G2 }, {G1 , G3 }, {G2 , G3 }, G)
(i) Any of vertices v2 , v3 , v4 and v5 has at least two neighbors so by using the
N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG1 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG1 (v3 , v2 )

N (v3 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v4 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG1 (v2 , v3 ) = 1 = dG1 (v4 , v3 )

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v3 , v5 ∈ N (v4 ) : dG1 (v3 , v4 ) = 1 = dG1 (v5 , v4 )

N (v5 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v4 , v6 ∈ N (v5 ) : dG1 (v4 , v5 ) = 1 = dG1 (v6 , v5 )

dG1 (vi , v1 ) = i − 1 6= j − 1 = dG1 (vj , v1 ), i 6= j, i, j 6= 1

⇒ dG1 (vi , v1 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v1 ) ≡ v1 is RV for vi and vj ;
dG1 (vi , v6 ) = 6 − i 6= 6 − j = dG1 (vj , v6 ), i 6= j, i, j 6= 6

⇒ dG1 (vi , v6 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v6 ) ≡ v6 is RV for vi and vj ;
So both sets {v1 } and {v6 } are RS for G1 : (V, E1 ). Thus the set with cardinality
one, we called 1 − set, is RS for G1 : (V, E1 ).
By using the idea of distance and applying Table (2.10), for all vertices, we
have:
{G1 }) ≥ 1. Thus every vertex set with one vertex which is SRS, is also SDS.
By G1 : (V, E1 ) ∈ G, the SDN is at least one.
(ii) Any of vertices v1 , v3 , v4 and v6 has at least two neighbors so by using the
N (v1 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v3 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG2 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 = dG2 (v3 , v1 )
24
Table 2.10: Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets
{v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 }, {v5 }, {v6 } in Graph G1 T10
v1 0 1 2 3 4 5
v2 1 0 1 2 3 4
v3 2 1 0 1 2 3
v4 3 2 1 0 1 2
v5 4 3 2 1 0 1
v6 5 4 3 2 1 0
N (v3 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v4 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG2 (v1 , v3 ) = 1 = dG2 (v4 , v3 )

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v3 , v6 ∈ N (v4 ) : dG2 (v3 , v4 ) = 1 = dG2 (v6 , v4 )

N (v6 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v4 , v5 ∈ N (v5 ) : dG2 (v4 , v6 ) = 1 = dG2 (v5 , v6 )

dG2 (vi , v2 ) 6= dG2 (vj , v2 ) ≡ v2 is RV for vi and vj ;
have:
(iii) Any of vertices v2 , v1 , v6 and v5 has at least two neighbors so by using the
N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG3 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG3 (v3 , v2 )

25
2. Definitions

v2 0 1 2 3 4 5
v1 1 0 1 2 3 4
v3 2 1 0 1 2 3
v4 3 2 1 0 1 2
v6 4 3 2 1 0 1
v5 5 4 3 2 1 0
N (v1 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v6 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG3 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 = dG3 (v6 , v1 )

N (v6 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v5 ∈ N (v6 ) : dG3 (v1 , v6 ) = 1 = dG3 (v5 , v6 )

N (v5 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v4 , v6 ∈ N (v5 ) : dG3 (v4 , v5 ) = 1 = dG3 (v6 , v5 )

have:
(i): {v1 }, {v6 } are DS for G1 .
(ii): {v2 }, {v5 } are DS for G2 .
(iii): {v3 }, {v4 } are DS for G3 .
Cases imply some sets aren’t SDS for G.
Every set with cardinality two, 2-set, is on demand. by regarding the cases,
26
v3 0 1 2 3 4 5
v2 1 0 1 2 3 4
v3 2 1 0 1 2 3
v6 3 2 1 0 1 2
v5 4 3 2 1 0 1
v4 5 4 3 2 1 0
{vi , vj } is SDS and SDN is two.
Therefore, the cardinality of these sets which are two and any set with
cardinality one can’t be RS. Thus as its consequences, they can’t be DS. Then
only attribute to get the SDS is the minimum number of cardinality of the
set after that the set is SRS. The 2-sets, {vi , vj }, are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3 and
they’ve the minimal cardinality between other SRSs. Thus
{vi , vj }s are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3 .
{vi , vj }s are SRS for G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }.
{vi , vj }s are SRS for G.
P3
H = {G1 }, {G2 }, {G3 }
thus SDS(H) = 1 < 2 = SDS(G). Therefore, SDS(H) 6= SDS(G).
(ii). SDS(H) = 2 where
H = {G1 , G2 }, {G1 , G3 }, {G2 , G3 }, {G1 , G2 , G3 }, G
(iii). |V | − 1 = 6 − 1 = 5 thus SDS(G) = 2 < 5 = |V | − 1. Therefore,

SDS(G) 6= |V | − 1.
Pk Pk
27
2. Definitions
P3
(v). maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} = 1 thus maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} = 1 < 2 =

SDS(G). Therefore, maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} =
6 SDS(G).
The Figure (2.6), and the above computations of case, (ii) only expresses
one point about Observation (2.0.13): The bound, SDS(H), is sharp.
Observation 2.0.23. Any of sets which has one of DSs as its proper subset, is
RS but it isn’t DS.
28
CHAPTER 3
Classes
The last chapter

is assigned to The following result is a direct consequence of Observation (2.0.13).
gives us more
2
perspective in Corollary 3.0.1. Let G be a family of connected graphs with the same vertex
the terms of set. If Kn ∈ G, then SDN (G) = n − 1.
results. In that
way, many As shown in Figure (2.3), the converse of Corollary (3.0.1) does not hold.
results are In a complete graph, every given vertex is neighbor to any given vertex. So the
given and
dG (x, y) = 1 for any given vertices x and y. So there’s no vertex to be resolved.
results have the
big tasks to Thus, the only choice for SD and RS is the set V \ {v} for every given vertex v.
tackle the In this case, the situation is provided to have only vertex so the possibility for
obstacles in the resolving is ruined. So with this choice of set, there’s no pair of vertices to be
front of better
understanding
resolved. Because the notion of resolving is about the pair of vertices therefore,
this notion as in this case, one of pair is deleted. It’s obvious the set V is RS but it is neither
soon as SD nor DS. For doing the operation of resolving, there’s a need to have two
possible. The vertices out of the set RS. So if any two given vertices are twin, then operation
design of this
chapter is about
of resolving is impossible so there’s a need to change the structure of RS by
obtaining making the situation in that, there’s no two vertices out of RS to be resolved
results and in so there’s two choices. One is having no vertex out of RS which is possible
this case, some when RS= V . Second is having one vertex out of RS which is possible when
different family
of graphs are
RS = V \ {v}, for every given vertex. So there are |V | + 1 = n + 1 number of
studied to RSs and there are |V | = n number of DS.
obtain results The basis is a graph which is general, precisely a given graph. And we find the
about them and
special graphs.
from them.
Observation 3.0.2. For any given graph, there are two RSs.
Sometimes, the basis is a graph and we find the special set but sometimes,
the set is basis and we find the graph.
Observation 3.0.3. V and V \ {v} for every given vertex v are RSs for any
given graph.
Complete graph is a reflection of a graph which has the extension of the
twin vertices. So we can assign the results of twin vertices to complete graph
as follows.
Observation 3.0.4. Let Kn : (V, E) be a complete graph. Then DN = |V | − 1 =
n − 1.
Observation 3.0.5. Let Kn : (V, E) be a complete graph. Then DSV \ v where
v is arbitrary vertex.
29
3. Classes
Observation 3.0.6. Let Kn : (V, E) be a complete graph. Then the number of

RS is |V | + 1 = n + 1.
Observation 3.0.7. Let Kn : (V, E) be a complete graph. Then the number of
DS is |V | = n.
Observation 3.0.8. Let Kn : (V, E) be a complete graph. Then every pair
u, v ∈ V are twin vertices.
The styles of twin vertices are about equality, N [x] = N [y] for any two
given vertices. The curious question is when the another style is satisfied. The
equality N (x) = N (y) holds if the complete graph is bipartite but in this case,
any two given vertices in the same part, are twin. So it’s natural extension to
another classes of complete graphs which are bipartite.
Observation 3.0.9. For any given graph which is bipartite, there are three RSs
where RSs have different cardinalities.
The kind decomposition of n into n1 , n2 , · · · , nt when the results are about
the classes of complete graphs which are multipartite.
Observation 3.0.10. V and V \ {v1 , v2 } for every given vertices v1 ∈ V1 and
v2 ∈ V2 are RSs for any given complete graph which is bipartite.
Observation 3.0.11. Let Kn1 ,n2 : (V1 ∪ V2 , E) be a complete graph which is
bipartite. Then DN = |V | − 2 = n − 2.
Observation 3.0.12. Let Kn1 ,n2 : (V, E) be a complete graph which is bipartite.
Then DSV \ {v1 , v2 } for every arbitrary vertices v1 ∈ V1 and v2 ∈ V2 .
Then the number of RS is n1 .n2 + |V | + 1 = n1 .n2 + n + 1 = n1 .n2 + n1 + n2 + 1.
Then the number of DS is n1 .n2 .
Then the DS is |V | − 2 = n − 2.
Then every pair u, v ∈ V are twin vertices where u and v have different parts.
There’s a natural extension to another class of complete graphs which are
multipartite.
Observation 3.0.17. For any given complete graph which is multipartite, there
are t + 1 RSs where RSs have different cardinalities and t is the number of
parts.
Observation 3.0.18. For any given complete graph which is multipartite, the
sequences |V |, |V | − 1, |V | − 2, |V | − 3, · · · , |V | − t are the cardinality of RSs
where t is the number of parts.
Observation 3.0.19. V, V \ {v1 }, V \ {v1 , v2 }, V \ {v1 , v2 , v3 }, · · · , V \
{v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vt } for every given vertices v1 ∈ V1 , v2 ∈ V2 , v3 ∈ V3 , · · · , vt ∈
Vt , are RSs for any given complete graph which is multipartite.
30
Observation 3.0.20. Let Kn1 ,n2 ,··· ,nt : (V1 ∪ V2 ∪ · · · ∪ Vt , E) be a complete
graph which is multipartite. Then DN = |V | − t = n − t.
graph which is multipartite. Then DSV \ {v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vt } for every arbitrary
vertices v1 ∈ V1 , v2 ∈ V2 , v3 ∈ V3 , · · · , vt ∈ Vt .
graph which is multipartite. Then the number of RS is n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt +
n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt−1 + n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt−2 + 1.|V | + 1 = n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt +
n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt−1 + n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt−2 + n + 1 = n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt +
n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt−1 + n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt−2 + n1 + n2 + n3 + · · · + nt .
graph which is multipartite. Then the number of DS is n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt .
graph which is multipartite. Then DS is |V | − t.
graph which is multipartite. Then every pair u, v ∈ V are twin vertices where u
and v have different parts.
Guv isn’t Guv : (V − {u, v}, E). Guv is G in such a way that, V − {u, v}
isn’t RS for G = Guv .
Observation 3.0.26. If for any x ∈ V − {u, v}, dGuv (u, x) = dGuv (v, x), then
N (v) = N (u).
Observation 3.0.27. If for any x ∈ V − {u, v}, dGuv (u, x) = dGuv (v, x), then
u and v are twin vertices in Guv .
Observation 3.0.28. If u and v are twin vertices, then either u ∈ DS or v ∈
DS.
We want to generalize the concept of twin vertices. The kind of extension
of the complete graph on the all graphs on a given family. If there’s a complete
graph, then every pair of vertices are twin vertices but the generalization of
this concept is as follows. For every pair of vertices, there exists one graph such
that the pair of vertices are twin vertices. It can be considered as the complete
notion of a family. It’s like the complete family in comparison to one graph.
If one graph is complete, then DN = |V | − 1. If one family is complete, then
SDN = |V | − 1.
3 Theorem 3.0.29. Let G be a family of connected graphs with the same vertex
set V. Then SDN (G) = |V | − 1 if and only if for every pair u, v ∈ V, there
exists a graph Guv ∈ G such that u and v are twin vertices in Guv .
Proof. By SDN (G) = |V | − 1, the set V − {v} is DS for every G ∈ G and the
set V − {v} is SDS for G and for every v ∈ V. Thus for every u ∈ V − {v}, there
exists a graph Guv ∈ G such that V − {u, v} isn’t RS for Guv and for every
x ∈ V − {u, v}, dGuv (u, x) = dGuv (v, x). Therefore, u and v are twin vertices in
Guv . To warp it up,
• u and v are twin vertices in Guv .
31
3. Classes
• pick V − {v};
• choose u ∈ V − {v};
• pick Guv ;
• using the definition of isn’t RS for Guv ;
• choose x ∈ V − {u, v};
• u and v aren’t resolved by any x ∈ V − {u, v};
• for any x ∈ V − {u, v}, dGuv (u, x) = dGuv (v, x);
• for any x ∈ N (u) ⊆ V − {u, v}, 1 = dGuv (v, x) so x ∈ N (v) thus
N (u) ⊆ N (v);
• for any x ∈ N (v) ⊆ V − {u, v}, dGuv (u, x) = 1 so x ∈ N (u) thus
N (v) ⊆ N (u);
• N (v) = N (u);
• u and v are twin vertices in Guv .
Conversely. suppose S is SRS for G. By for every pair u, v ∈ V, there exists
a graph Guv ∈ G such that u and v are twin vertices in Guv , either u ∈ S or
v ∈ S. Thus |S| ≥ |V | − 1. By Observation (2.0.13), |S| ≤ |V | − 1. Therefore,
we conclude that |S| = |V | − 1.
Observation (2.0.13), gives us a bound which is sharp. Sharpness of this

bound is passed by specific Examples, and in other ways by Corollary (3.0.1),
and Theorem (3.0.29). Actually, Corollary (3.0.1), introduces us some good
collections for showing that the bound in Observation (2.0.13), is sharp. For
every given family of connected graphs with the same vertex set, if a complete
graph is in this family, if a complete graph belongs to family, the bound is sharp.
The next result introduces another graph which makes the bound to be sharp
if it’s in the family in the specific number.
Another point about giving the order of results, Corollary (3.0.1) is a
consequence of Theorem (3.0.29). Complete graphs has only twin vertices
so for every given vertices complete graph in the family, is the intended graph,
Guv , which is graph containing u and v as twin vertices.
Observation 3.0.30. All non-center vertices have the same neighbors which is
the center in any given star.
Observation 3.0.31. All non-center vertices are twin in any given star.
The notion of subgraph is extended to be subfamily.
4 Corollary 3.0.32. Let G be a family of connected graphs with the same vertex
set V. If G contains three distinct star graphs, then SDN (G) = |V | − 1.
Proof. To get more clarification, consider Figure (3.1) and the common vertex
set as V = {u, u1 , u2 , · · · , un } = {v, v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } = {x, x1 , x2 , · · · , xn }.
Let H = {G1 , G2 , G3 } be a subfamily of the family G where Gi is a star
with same vertex set V, for any i = 1, 2, 3. Let u, v, x be the centers of
32
Figure 3.1: The sets V −{u, ui }, V −{v, vj }, V −{x, xs } are DSs for G1 , G2 , G3 ,
however, they aren’t SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . Any set with the
cardinality |V | − 1 is SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . F15
G1 , G2 , G3 , respectively and ui , vi , xi are non-center vertices of G1 , G2 , G3 ,

respectively. If we prove that SDN (H) is |V | − 1, then by Observation (2.0.13),
SDN (H) ≤ SDN (G) ≤ |V | − 1 which implies |V | − 1 ≤ SDN (G) ≤ |V | − 1
which means SDN (G) = |V | − 1, straightforward.
Any set V − {u, ui } is SDS for G1 where u is the center of G1 and ui is
the non-center vertex of G1 . Consider G2 . If u = v, then the result is
straightforward because G1 = G2 . Otherwise, G1 6= G2 . Suppose the set
V − {u, ui } = V − {v, vi } that implies u = vi and v = ui . So V − {u, ui } is
SDS for {G1 , G2 }. If u 6= v 6= x, then the set V − {u, ui } isn’t RS for G3 ,
however it’s RS for G1 , G2 and it’s SRS for {G1 , G2 }. Because u and ui are
non-center vertices in G3 , however, they aren’t non-center vertices in G1 , G2 .
It implies u and ui are twin vertices in G3 , however, they aren’t non-center
vertices in G1 , G2 . It induces either u or ui are in any DS for G3 and as its
consequence, either u or ui in any SDS for H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. So arbitrary
set V − {u, ui } isn’t SDS for H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. It implies set V − {t}, t ∈ V
is SDS for H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }) ≥ |V | − 1.
By Observation (2.0.13), SDN (H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }) ≤ |V | − 1. Therefore,
SDN (H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }) = |V | − 1. If the case, u 6= v 6= x, doesn’t hold,
the situation is impossible because there exist at least two same graphs and this
is contradiction with the supposition about three distinct star graphs. To sum
it up, SDN (H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }) = |V | − 1 ≤ SDN ({G | H = {G1 , G2 , G3 } ⊆
G}) ≤ |V | − 1. Thus SDN ({G | H = {G1 , G2 , G3 } ⊆ G}) = |V | − 1.
Figure 3.2: The sets V − {xi , xs }, V − {xj , xs }, V − {xt , xs } are DSs for
G1 , G2 , G3 , however, they aren’t SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . Any set
with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . F7
33
3. Classes
Figure 3.3: The sets V − {x4 , x7 }, V − {x4 , x7 }, V − {x4 , x6 } are DSs for
G1 , G2 , G3 , however, they aren’t SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . Any set
with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . F14
5 Theorem 3.0.33. Let G be a family of graphs with common vertex set V that
have a shortest path of length d in common. Then
SDN (G) ≤ |V | − d.
Proof. Assume that P : v0 , v1 , v2 , · · · , vd is a shortest path of length d in
common. Let S be the set V − {v1 , v2 , · · · , vd }. Since dGj (v0 , vi ) = i, for
any i ∈ {1, 2, · · · , d}, every vertex vi is resolved by vertex v0 . Thus S is RS
for every Gj and as its consequence, S is SRS for every G. By definition,
SDN (G) ≤ |S| = |V | − d.
Figure 3.4: The set {v1 , v2 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for G = {G1 , G2 } F8
Example 3.0.34.
• Consider three graphs, complete graph, star graph and path graph. We
want to create two graphs with common vertex V having a shortest path
of length d.
34
• G1 is obtained by joining the a leaf of path to a vertex of complete graph
and G2 is obtained by joining the a leaf of path to a center of star graph.
• To get it more precisely. Let r ≥ 3 be an integer. Label the vertices of Kr

and K1,r−1 with the same set of labels and suppose c is the label of the
center of the star K1,r−1 . Let Pd , d ≥ 2, be an a − b path of order d whose
vertex set is disjoint from that of Kr . Let G1 be the graph obtained from
complete graph Kr = (V 0 , E 0 ), r ≥ 3, and the path graph Pd , d ≥ 2, by
identifying the leaf a of Pd , with the vertex c of Kr and calling it c, and let
G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of Pd with the center
c of the star K1,r−1 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have
the same vertex set V (where |V | = d + r − 1). For any v ∈ V (Kr ) = {c}
we have dG1 (b, v) = dG2 (b, v) = d and V (Pd ) ∪ {v} is a shortest path of
length d in both graphs G1 and G2 . Moreover, W = (V 0 − {v, c}) ∪ {b} is
a SDS of {G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d. Therefore, the above
bound is sharp.
• To clarify, let r, d = 4. Consider Figure (3.4), Label the vertices of K4 and

K1,3 with the same set of labels {v1 , v2 , v, c} and suppose c is the label
of the center of the star K1,3 . Let P4 be an a − v 0 path of order 4 whose
vertex set is disjoint from that of K4 . Let G1 be the graph obtained from
complete graph K4 = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v, c}, E 0 ) and the path graph P4 by
identifying the leaf a of P4 , with the vertex c of K4 and calling it c, and let
G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of P4 with the center
c of the star K1,3 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have the
same vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , v, c, v20 , v10 , v 0 } (where |V | = 4 + 4 − 1 = 7).
For any v ∈ V (K4 ) = {c} we have dG1 (v 0 , v) = dG2 (v 0 , v) = 4 and
V (P4 ) ∪ {v} is a shortest path of length 4 in both graphs G1 and G2 .
Moreover, W = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v, c} − {v, c}) ∪ {v 0 } = {v1 , v2 , v 0 } is a SDS
of {G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d = 7 − 4 = 3.
Example 3.0.35. Let r = 5 and d = 4. Consider Figure (3.5), Label the vertices
of K5 and K1,4 with the same set of labels {v1 , v2 , v3 , v, c} and suppose c is
the label of the center of the star K1,4 . Let P4 be an a − v 0 path of order 4
whose vertex set is disjoint from that of K5 . Let G1 be the graph obtained
from complete graph K5 = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v, c}, E 0 ) and the path graph
P4 by identifying the leaf a of P4 , with the vertex c of K5 and calling it c,
and let G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of P4 with the
center c of the star K1,4 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have
the same vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v, c, v20 , v10 , v 0 } (where |V | = 5 + 4 − 1 = 8).
V (P4 ) ∪ {v} is a shortest path of length 4 in both graphs G1 and G2 . Moreover,
W = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v, c} − {v, c}) ∪ {v 0 } = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v 0 } is a SDS of
{G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d = 8 − 4 = 4.
of K6 and K1,5 with the same set of labels {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v, c} and suppose c
is the label of the center of the star K1,5 . Let P4 be an a − v 0 path of order
4 whose vertex set is disjoint from that of K6 . Let G1 be the graph obtained
from complete graph K6 = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v, c}, E 0 ) and the path graph
35
3. Classes
Figure 3.5: The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for G =
{G1 , G2 } F9
Figure 3.6: The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } F10
P4 by identifying the leaf a of P4 , with the vertex c of K6 and calling it c, and

let G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of P4 with the center c
of the star K1,5 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have the same
36
vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v, c, v20 , v10 , v 0 } (where |V | = 6 + 4 − 1 = 9).
W = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v, c} − {v, c}) ∪ {v 0 } = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v 0 } is a SDS of
{G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d = 9 − 4 = 5.
Figure 3.7: The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } F11
of K7 and K1,6 with the same set of labels {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v, c} and suppose
c is the label of the center of the star K1,6 . Let P4 be an a − v 0 path of order 4
whose vertex set is disjoint from that of K7 . Let G1 be the graph obtained from
complete graph K7 = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v, c}, E 0 ) and the path graph P4
by identifying the leaf a of P4 , with the vertex c of K7 and calling it c, and
let G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of P4 with the center c
of the star K1,6 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have the same
vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v, c, v20 , v10 , v 0 } (where |V | = 7 + 4 − 1 = 10).
W = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v, c} − {v, c}) ∪ {v 0 } = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v 0 } is a
SDS of {G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d = 10 − 4 = 6.
of K8 and K1,7 with the same set of labels {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c} and suppose
complete graph K8 = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c}, E 0 ) and the path graph
P4 by identifying the leaf a of P4 , with the vertex c of K8 and calling it c, and
let G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of P4 with the center c of
37
3. Classes
Figure 3.8: The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } F12
Figure 3.9: The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } F13
the star K1,7 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have the same vertex
set V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c, v20 , v10 , v 0 } (where |V | = 8 + 4 − 1 = 11).
38
W = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c} − {v, c}) ∪ {v 0 } = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v 0 }
is a SDS of {G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d = 11 − 4 = 7.
of K8 and K1,7 with the same set of labels {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c} and suppose
complete graph K8 = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c}, E 0 ) and the path graph
P6 by identifying the leaf a of P6 , with the vertex c of K8 and calling it c, and let
G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of P6 with the center c of the
star K1,7 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have the same vertex set
V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c, v40 , v30 , v20 , v10 , v 0 } (where |V | = 8 + 4 − 1 = 11).
W = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c} − {v, c}) ∪ {v 0 } = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v 0 }
is a SDS of {G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d = 11 − 6 = 5.
Remark 3.0.40. It’s meaningful to use same notations for the vertices of
a specific graph with using the name of the graph in small letter and
applying the numbers as their indexes. For instance, the complete graph
Kn has the vertex set V = {k1 , k2 , . . . , kn }. For example, a star graph Sn
has the vertex set V = {s, s1 , s2 , . . . , sn−1 }. A wheel graph Wn has the
vertex set V = {w, w1 , w2 , . . . , wn−1 }. A cycle graph Cn has the vertex set
V = {c1 , c2 , . . . , cn } and also it’s denoted by Cn : c1 , c2 , . . . , cn . A path
graph Pn has the vertex set V = {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn } and also it’s denoted by
Pn : p1 , p2 , . . . , pn . A general graph G has the vertex set V = {g1 , g2 , . . . , gn }.
If the collection of graphs has the same style of graphs, then it’s meaningful to
use these types of notations for the common vertex set.
There’s a natural question about what’s going on the graphs which have
the DN which is as small as possible. It motivates us to study the families of
graphs for which SDN is as small as possible.
If Pn : p0 , p1 , · · · , pn−1 is a p0 − pn−1 path of order and length of n, then
leaves are DSs so in this case, the path has only two minimal DS which
are 1-sets including one leaf, independently. In this case, p0 and pn−1 are
the leaves of path. Thus only two minimal DSs for p0 − pn−1 path Pn are
{p0 } and {pn−1 }. Because, dPd (p0 , pi ) = i where i is positive integer such
that 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. Therefore, for every given distinct vertices vi and vj ,
dPd (p0 , pi ) = i 6= j = dPd (p0 , pi ) thus every two given vertices are resolved by
leaf p0 . {pn−1 } is DS for p0 − pn−1 path Pn . Since dPd (pn−1 , pi ) = n − 1 − i
where i is positive integer such that 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 2. Therefore, for every given
distinct vertices pi and pj , dPd (pn−1 , pi ) = n − 1 − i 6= n − 1j = dPd (p0 n − 1, pi )
thus every two given vertices are resolved by leaf pn−1 . Thus there are some
Observations.
Observation 3.0.41. Every given vertex which isn’t leaf, from a given path,
doesn’t resolve its neighbors.
Observation 3.0.42. Every 2-set is RS for every given path.
39
3. Classes
Observation 3.0.43. Every 1-set containing one leaf is a minimal DS for every
given path.
Observation 3.0.44. Every leaf resolves every couple vertices belong to a given
path.
Observation 3.0.45. Every given path has only two minimal DSs.
Observation 3.0.46. DN is one for every given path.
Observation 3.0.47. DN is one if and only if the graph is path.
In the next result, the graphs with SDN equals to one is characterized.
6 Theorem 3.0.48. Let G be a family of connected graphs on a common vertex
set. Then
(i). SDN (G) = 1 if and only if G is a collection of paths that share a common
leaf.
(ii). If G is a collection of paths, then 1 ≤ SDN (G) ≤ 2.
Proof. (i). (⇒). If SDN (G) = 1, then G has 1-set which is SDS for G. It
implies 1-set is DS for every given G from G. Thus DN for every G is one. It
induces DN (G) = 1 which means G is a path. For every given G from G, G
is path. Thus G is a family consists of paths. By SDN (G) = 1, G is a family
consists of paths that share a common leaf.
(⇐). There’s a common leaf amid any G belongs to G. It implies common
leaf resolves every couple vertices from any G, simultaneously. Thus, 1-set
containing only a common leaf is DS for any G, simultaneously. It implies 1-set
containing only a common leaf is SDS for G. Therefore, SDN (G) = 1
(ii). For every given path graph P, DN (P ) = 1. Hence Observation (2.0.13),
SDN (H = {P }) = 1 ≤ SDN (G ⊇ H = {P }). Also, every given couple of
distinct vertices of a path graph P is an SDS for any given family of path
graphs. Thus by using the Definition of SDN which implies having the minimum
set, SDN (G) ≤ SRN (G) = 2 where SRN is the cardinality of any given SRS.
Therefore, by 1 ≤ SDN (G) and SDN (G) ≤ 2, we have 1 ≤ SDN (G) ≤ 2.
Theorem 3.0.49. Let G be a family of connected graphs on a common vertex

set V such that G does not only consist of paths. Let H be the collection of
elements of G which are not paths. Then
SDN (G) = SDN (H).
Proof. It’s enough to show SDN (H) ≤ SDN (G) and SDN (G) ≤ SDN (H). By
Observation (2.0.13), SDN (H) ≤ SDN (G). By applying negation of Theorem
(3.0.48) (i) and H doesn’t contain any of path, SDN (H) ≥ 2. It implies every
SDS for H, is SRS for G. Thus SDN of G, is smaller than SDN of H. It implies
SDN (G) ≤ SDN (H). By SDN (H) ≤ SDN (G) and SDN (G) ≤ SDN (H),
SDN (G) = SDN (H).
Example 3.0.50. In Figure (3.10), SDN (P) = 1 and SDS(P) = {p1 } but in
Figure (3.11), SDN (P) = 2, SDS(P) = {p1 , p2 }. SDS(P) is also any given
couple of distinct vertices of Pi ∈ P.
40
Figure 3.10: The family P = {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 } contains six path graphs on a
common vertex set {p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 , p6 } containing a common leaf p1 . F16
Figure 3.11: The family P = {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 } contains six path graphs on a

common vertex set {p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 , p6 } without any common leaf. F17
We recall that a graph C is 2-antipodal graph if for every vertex c, there

exists a vertex c1 such that dC (c, c1 ) = D(C) where D(G) is diameter of the
graph C. Thus we give some Observations about cycle graphs and the notions
of being mutually antipodal.
Observation 3.0.51. If n is even in a cycle graph, then for every vertex, there
exists exactly one vertex which is mutually antipodal with it.
Observation 3.0.52. If n is even in a cycle graph, then the cycle graph is
2-antipodal graph.
Let n be even. Let two vertices are mutually antipodal. Thus these two
vertices don’t any other two given vertices which are mutually antipodal and
have specific properties. Therefore, by n is given, there exists exactly one vertex
which is mutually antipodal to a given vertex. In other words, for every vertex,
there exists exactly one vertex which the intended vertex is mutually antipodal
with it.
41
3. Classes
Observation 3.0.53. Let n be even. If the couple of vertices are mutually

antipodal in a cycle graph, then any of these two vertices only resolves the two
vertices which aren’t mutually antipodal.
Observation 3.0.54. Let n be even. If the couple of vertices are mutually
antipodal in a cycle graph, then any of these two vertices only resolves the two
vertices which aren’t mutually antipodal.
Observation 3.0.55. Let n be even. The vertex which doesn’t have the distance
n
2 from two given vertices, resolves them.
n
Observation 3.0.56. Let n be even. The vertex which has the distance 2 from
two given vertices, doesn’t resolve them.
Observation 3.0.57. Let n be even. Two mutually antipodal vertices are
resolved by one vertex which doesn’t have the distance n2 from them.
Observation 3.0.58. For every given vertex, there exists at most one vertex in
a cycle graph which is mutually antipodal to it.
Theorem 3.0.59. Let C = {C1 , C2 , · · · , Ck } be a family of cycles on a common
vertex set V. Then the following assertion hold:
(i) if |V | is odd, then SDN (C) = 2.
(ii) if |V | is even, then 2 ≤ SDN (C) ≤ 3. Moreover, SDN (C) = 2 if and only
if there are two vertices c1 , c2 ∈ V which aren’t mutually antipodal in Ci
for every i ∈ {1, 2, · · · , k}.
Proof. (i) Since the statement, DN (P ) = 1 if and only if P is a path graph,

we have DN (C) > 1 where C is a given cycle graph. It’s enough to show
that given vertices c1 , c2 are RS for every cycle graph C. Suppose n = 3, then
the result is clear. Consider n ≥ 4 and n is odd. In this case, we have either
dC (c1 , c3 ) 6= dC (c1 , c4 ) or dC (c2 , c3 ) 6= dC (c2 , c4 ) where c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 are four
given vertices which are distinct. Thus {c1 , c2 } is RS for any given cycle graph
C which, by DN (C) > 1, implies DN (C) = 2. For every given cycle graph C,
every set containing two given distinct vertices {c1 , c2 } is DS for every cycle
graph C ∈ C which implies {c1 , c2 } is SDS for C. Thus SDS(C) = 2 where n is
odd.
(ii) Suppose n is even. It implies every C ∈ C is 2-antipodal graph. We recall
that a graph C is 2-antipodal graph if for every vertex c, there exists a vertex c1
such that dC (c, c1 ) = D(C) where D(G) is diameter of the graph C. Consider
c1 and c2 aren’t mutually antipodal in any C ∈ C. Any set containing two
given distinct vertices {c1 , c2 } is DS for every cycle graph C ∈ C which implies
{c1 , c2 } is SDS for C. Thus SDS(C) = 2 where n is even and c1 and c2 aren’t
mutually antipodal in every C ∈ C.
Now consider for every two given distinct vertices c1 and c2 , there exists a
cycle graph C ∈ C such that c1 and c2 are mutually antipodal in C ∈ C. Thus
DN (C) > 2. Let c1 , c2 and c3 are three vertices which only two of them are
mutually antipodal in a cycle graph C ∈ C. It’s possible because for every
given vertex, there exists at most one vertex in a cycle graph C ∈ C which is
mutually antipodal C ∈ C. Take any set containing three given distinct vertices
{c1 , c2 , c3 } is DS for every cycle graph C ∈ C which implies {c1 , c2 , c3 } is SDS
for C. Thus SDS(C) = 3.
42
Figure 3.12: Any two given vertices like c1 and c2 resolve any couple of vertices
in cycle graphs C1 , C2 and C3 . Thus the family C = {C1 , C2 , C3 } has two as its
SDN. Thus SDN (C) = 2 and {c1 , c2 } is SDS for C.
Figure 3.13: Two vertices c1 and c2 aren’t mutually antipodal in cycle graphs
C1 , C2 and C3 . Thus the family C = {C1 , C2 , C3 } has two as its SDN. Thus
SDN (C) = 2 and {c1 , c2 } is SDS for C.
Figure 3.14: For every two given vertices, there exists at least one cycle graphs
from C1 , C2 and C3 . Precisely, We study all two given vertices in the terms
of being mutually antipodal. c1 , c2 in C2 , c1 , c3 in C1 , c1 , c4 in C3 , c2 , c3 in
C3 , c2 , c4 in C1 and c3 , c4 in C2 are mutually antipodal. Thus the family
C = {C1 , C2 , C3 } has three as its SDN. Thus SDN (C) = 3 and {c1 , c2 , c4 } is
SDS for C.
43

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Dimension

Ideas | Approaches | Accessibility | Availability

Dr. Henry Garrett

1.1 g1 g2 g3 isn’t path because there’s no separator “, ” amid vertices

1.7 Diameter of graph K is 13. Thus D(K) = 13. k8 is a neighbor of k7

1.8 k8 is a neighbor of k6 hence k8 ∼ k6 but k8 isn’t a neighbor of

2.1 A family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ), G3 : (V, E3 )}

3.1 The sets V −{u, ui }, V −{v, vj }, V −{x, xs } are DSs for G1 , G2 , G3 ,

3.3 The sets V − {x4 , x7 }, V − {x4 , x7 }, V − {x4 , x6 } are DSs for

2.1 Distances of Vertices from the vertex set {v1 , v4 } in Graph G1 . . 10

Definition 1.0.3. (Loop Edge) An edge xy is called loop if x = y.

Figure 1.7: Diameter of graph K is 13. Thus D(K) = 13. k8 is a neighbor

Definition 1.0.8. (Shortest Path).

Figure 1.8: k8 is a neighbor of k6 hence k8 ∼ k6 but k8 isn’t a neighbor

dG (x, y) is the length of a shortest path amid x and y where N is positive

Definition 1.0.17. (Neighbor).

Figure 2.1: A family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ), G3 : (V, E3 )}

F1 Example 2.0.5. Assume a family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ), G3 :

∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v2 , v6 ), (v3 , v5 )} : dG1 (vi , v1 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v1 )

dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = dG1 (v6 , v1 ), dG1 (v3 , v1 ) = dG1 (v5 , v1 )

∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v3 , v6 )} : dG1 (vi , v1 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v1 )

dG1 (v3 , v1 ) = dG1 (v6 , v1 )

v5 aren’t resolved by v4 . The vertex v3 and the vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v4 .

∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v2 , v4 ), (v2 , v6 ), (v4 , v6 ), (v3 , v5 )} :

dG1 (vi , v1 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v1 ).

dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = dG1 (v4 , v1 ), dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = dG1 (v6 , v1 ),

dG1 (v4 , v1 ) = dG1 (v6 , v1 ), dG1 (v3 , v1 ) = dG1 (v5 , v1 ).

∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v1 , v2 ), (v1 , v5 ), (v2 , v5 ), (v3 , v6 )} :

dG1 (vi , v4 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v4 ).

dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = dG1 (v2 , v4 ), dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = dG1 (v5 , v4 ),

dG1 (v2 , v4 ) = dG1 (v5 , v4 ), dG1 (v3 , v4 ) = dG1 (v6 , v4 ).

1 Observation 2.0.13. For any family G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } of connected graphs

Figure 2.2: The set {v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =

Observation 2.0.14. Any set with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SRS.

Observation 2.0.18. There’s a subfamily H of family G with SDN (H) as

Figure 2.4: The set {v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =

F4 Example 2.0.20. Assume a family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 :

N (v1 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v4 ∈ N (v1 ) : dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 = dG1 (v4 , v1 )

N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v4 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG1 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG1 (v4 , v2 )

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v1 ∈ N (v4 ) : dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = 1 = dG1 (v2 , v4 )

dG1 (v1 , v3 ) = 2 = dG1 (v4 , v3 )

N (v3 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v4 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG2 (v1 , v3 ) = 1 = dG2 (v4 , v3 )

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v4 ) : dG2 (v1 , v4 ) = 1 = dG2 (v3 , v4 )

dG2 (v3 , v2 ) = 2 = dG2 (v4 , v2 )

⇒ dG3 (v1 , v2 ) = dG3 (v3 , v2 ) ≡ v2 isn’t RV for v1 and v3 ;

N (v3 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v4 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG3 (v2 , v3 ) = 1 = dG3 (v4 , v3 )

dG3 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 6= 2 = dG3 (v3 , v1 )

dG3 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 6= 3 = dG3 (v4 , v1 )

dG3 (v3 , v1 ) = 2 6= 3 = dG3 (v4 , v1 )

dG3 (v2 , v4 ) = 2 6= 1 = dG3 (v3 , v4 )

dG3 (v3 , v4 ) = 1 6= 3 = dG3 (v1 , v4 )

dG3 (v2 , v4 ) = 2 6= 3 = dG3 (v1 , v4 )

{v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3 .

{v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are SRS for G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }.

{v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are SRS for G.

(i). SDS(H) = 2 where

H = {G1 }, {G2 }, {G1 , G2 }, {G1 , G3 }, {G2 , G3 }, {G1 , G2 , G3 }, G

(ii). SDS(H) = 1 where H = {G3 } thus SDS(H) = 1 < 2 = SDS(G).