LEARNER’S PACKET (LeaP)

Student
Section:
Name:
Subject
Adviser:
Teacher:
Learning Area Practical Research 2

12 Quarter
Learning Days
SECOND QUARTER
Monday-Wednesday
Week No.
Date Covered
7B
Jan. 10-14, 2022
I. LESSON TITLE
II. MOST ESSENTIAL
• Uses statistical techniques to analyze data (Study of differences and relationships limited for bivariate
LEARNING
analysis)
COMPETENCIES (MELCs)
III. CORE CONTENT
IV. LEARNING PHASES AND LEARNING ACTIVITITES
I. Introduction:

Statistics is the branch of Mathematics that deals with the collection, organization, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data.
It is any measure computed on the basis of data obtained from a characteristics of a population under study.
Uses of Statistics
• Describe data
• Compare two or more data sets
• Determine if a relationship exists between variables
• Test hypothesis (it is a scientific guess)
• Make estimates about population characteristics.
• Predict past or future behavior of data
Data Collection
• In research, statisticians use data in many different ways.
• Data can be used to describe situations.
• Data can be collected in a variety of ways, BUT if the sample data is not collected in an appropriate way, the data may be so completely
useless that no amount of statistical torturing can salvage them.
II. Development:
Measures of Central Tendency
It is used to describe the characteristics of groups.
Example;
• Your General average describe your performance for the whole semester.
• The teacher used the mean to describe the performance of the students in a certain examination. If the students average scores is above
seventy five percent of the total number of questions therefore she can proceed to the next topics because her previous topic was well
understood.

It is also used to describe the following;

• Income
• Expenditures
• Average daily use of internet. Etc
Mean
The sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores.
• Often referred to as the average.
• Good measure of central tendency.
• Central tendency is simply the location of the middle a distribution of scores.

• The mean can be misleading because it can be greatly influenced by extreme scores (very high, or very low scores).
• For example, the average length of stay at a hospital could be greatly influenced by one patient that stays for 5 years.
Median
A median is the middle of a distribution.
• Half the scores are above the median and half are below the median.
• How do I compute the median?
• If there is an odd number of numbers, the median is the middle number. For example, the median of 5, 8, and 11 is 8.
If there is an even number of numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers. The median of the numbers 4, 8, 9, 13 is (8+9)/2
=8.5.
Mode
• Most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
• Greatly subject to sample fluctuations (statistic takes on different values with different samples).
• Not recommended as the only measure of central tendency.
• Distributions can have more than one mode, called "multimodal."
• Conclusion: Examine your data in order to determine what descriptive statistic is appropriate.
The Weighted Average
• When the arithmetic mean of a set of numbers is computed, it is safe to assume that all observe values are of equal weight. In situations

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 where the numbers are not equally important, a weight that is proportional to its relative importance can be assigned to calculate the
weighted average. The weighted average is computed by dividing the sum of the products of the products of the values and their weights by
the sum of the weights.

Variance
• The variance is a measure of how spread out a distribution is.
• It is the average squared deviation of the observations from their mean (how the observations 'vary' from the mean).
• The larger the variance, the further spread out the data.

Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics are used to draw inferences about a population from a sample.

Population: Group that the researcher wishes to study.

Sample: A group of individuals selected from the population.
Census: Gathering data from all units of a population, no sampling.

Inferential statistics generally require that data come from a random sample. In a random sample each person/object/item of the population
has an equal chance of being chosen.

The goal of statistical analysis is to answer 2 questions:

• Is there a significant effect/association/difference between the variables of interest? (i.e., can we reject the null hypothesis?)
• If there is an effect/association/difference - how big is it?

Hypothesis
• An intelligent guess
• Assumption
• Prediction

Null hypothesis: A hypothesis put forward to argue that a

• relationship or pattern does not exist.
Cholesterol study example: In a Randomized Control Trial, the control group and the treatment group have equal levels of cholesterol at the
end of a study.
• Null hypothesis: Groups A and B are equal.
• Denoted by Ho

Title: The Mathematical Ability of the Male and Female Second Year High School Students of The National Teachers College.
• Ho: There is no significant difference in the mathematical ability of the male and female second year high school students of the National
Teachers College.
• Hi : There is significant difference in the mathematical ability of the male and female second year high school students of the National
Teachers College.

Two kinds of Errors

When null hypothesis is tested one must state beforehand the tendency of making a wrong decision brought about by accepting or
nullifying a null hypothesis. This liability to commit error in decision making is attributed to variation brought about by the sampling
procedure.

Type 1 ERROR
E.g. in a trial of new Drug X, the null hypothesis might be that the new Drug X is no better than the current Drug Y.
- H0: there is no difference between Drug X and Drug Y.
A Type 1 error would occur if we concluded that the two drugs produced different effects when there was no difference between them.

Type 2 error
• is failing to detect an association when one exists, or failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is actually false.
• You kept the null hypothesis when you should not have.
• If Drug X and Drug Y produced different effects, and it was concluded that they produce the same effects.

Levels of Significance ( Alpha)α

• It refers to the probability to commit a type 1 error. In educational research, the most commonly used significance levels are 0.05 and 0.01.
An alpha level of 0.05 implies that the probability of committing a Type 1 error by chance alone is 5 out of 100.

The T test
• T-Test
• Allows the comparison of the mean of 2 groups.
• Compares actual difference between two means in relation to the variation in the data (expressed as the standard deviation of the difference
between the means).
• Ex. A doctor gives two different drugs to a group of diabetics to see if blood sugar lowering times differ, and if the difference between
times are in fact significant.
• Null hypothesis: Drug A and Drug B will have equal blood sugar lowering times (no difference).
• Alternative hypothesis: Drug A and B will have different blood sugar lowering times (difference).
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 • Paired t-tests: When comparing the MEANS of a continuous variable in two non-independent samples (i.e., measurements on the same
people before and after a treatment)
• Ex) Is diet X effective in lowering serum cholesterol levels in a sample of 12 people?
• Ex) Do patients who receive drug X have lower blood pressure after treatment then they did before treatment?
• Independent samples t-tests: To compare the MEANS of a continuous variable in TWO independent samples (i.e., two different groups of
people)
• Ex) Do people with diabetes have the same Systolic Blood Pressure as people without diabetes?
• Ex) Do patients who receive a new drug treatment have lower blood pressure than those who receive a placebo?

ANOVA Definition
• In statistics, analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a collection of statistical models, and their associated procedures, in which the observed
variance in a particular variable is partitioned into components attributable to different sources of variation.
• In its simplest form ANOVA provides a statistical test of whether or not the means of several groups are all equal, and therefore generalizes
t-test to more than two groups.
• Doing multiple two-sample t-tests would result in an increased chance of committing a type I error. For this reason, ANOVAs are useful in
comparing two, three or more means.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

• Allows the comparison of 3 or more groups.
• Looks at the variation within groups, then determines how that variation would translate into variation between groups (considering number
of participants).
• If observed differences are larger than what would be expected by chance, the findings are statistically significant.
• Ex. Are psychotherapy, family therapy and behavior therapy equally effective in treating alcoholism?
Variability is the Key to ANOVA
• Between group variability and within group variability are both components of the total variability in the combined distributions
• When we compute between and within group variability we partition the total variability into the two components.
• Therefore: Between variability + Within variability = Total variability

ANOVA Hypothesis Testing

• Tests hypotheses that involve comparisons of two or more populations
• The overall ANOVA test will indicate if a difference exists between any of the groups
• However, the test will not specify which groups are different
• Therefore, the research hypothesis will state that there are no significant difference between any of the groups
H 0 : μ1=μ2=μ 3

Correlation
• When to use it?
• When you want to know about the association or relationship between
two continuous variables
• Ex) food intake and weight; drug dosage and blood
pressure; air temperature and metabolic rate, etc.
• What does it tell you?
• If a linear relationship exists between two variables, and how strong
that relationship is
• What do the results look like?
• The correlation coefficient = Pearson’s r
• Ranges from -1 to +1
• See next slide for examples of correlation results

Guide for interpreting strength

 0 – 0.25 = Little or no relationship

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  0.25 – 0.50 = Fair degree of relationship
 0.50 - 0.75 = Moderate degree of relationship
 0.75 – 1.0 = Strong relationship
 1.0 = perfect correlation

How do you interpret it?

• If r is positive, high values of one variable are associated with high values of the other variable (both go in SAME direction - ↑↑
OR ↓↓)
• Ex) Diastolic blood pressure tends to rise with age, thus the two variables are positively correlated
• If r is negative, low values of one variable are associated with high values of the other variable (opposite direction - ↑↓ OR ↓ ↑)
• Ex) Heart rate tends to be lower in persons who exercise frequently, the two variables correlate negatively
• Correlation of 0 indicates NO linear relationship
• How do you report it?
• “Diastolic blood pressure was positively correlated with age (r = .75, p < . 05).”

Chi Square
A chi square (X2) statistic is used to investigate whether distributions of categorical (i.e. nominal/ordinal) variables differ from one another.

Chi square Test for Independence

• Involves observations greater than 2x2
• Same process for the Chi square test
• Indicates independence or dependence of three or more variables…but that is all it tells

Two Questions…
• What is your favorite color scheme for the website? (Blue, Red, or Green)
• There are three groups (Rock music, Country music, jazz music)

Chi Square

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 Example:
The director of the Personnel Office was interested in knowing whether the voluntary absence behavior of the school's employees was
independent of marital status. The employee files contained data on marital status with categories of married, separated, widower, and single,
and on voluntary absence behavior with categories of often absent, seldom absent, and never absent. The table gives the result for a random
sample of 500 in the form of the number of employees in each cell of a two-way contingency table. Test the hypothesis that voluntary absence
behavior is independent of marital status for this school. Use the alpha 0.05.

What is Bivariate Data?

When you conduct a study that looks at a single variable, that study involves univariate data. For example, you might study a group of college
students to find out their average SAT scores or you might study a group of diabetic patients to find their weights. Bivariate data is when you are
studying two variables. For example, if you are studying a group of college students to find out their average SAT score and their age, you have
two pieces of the puzzle to find (SAT score and age). Or if you want to find out the weights and heights of college students, then you also have
bivariate data. Bivariate data could also be two sets of items that are dependent on each other.
When one measurement is made on each observation, univariate analysis is applied. If more than one measurement is made on each observation,
multivariate analysis is applied.
• The most important graphical summary of bivariate data is the scatterplot. This is simply a plot of the points (Xi,Yi) in the plane. The
following figures show scatterplots of June maximum temperatures against January maximum temperatures, and of January maximum
temperatures against latitude.

A key feature in a scatterplot is the association, or trend between X and Y . Higher January temperatures tend to be paired with higher June
temperatures, so these two values have a positive association. Higher latitudes tend to be paired with lower January temperature decreases, so these
values have a negative association. If higher X values are paired with low or with high Y values equally often, there is no association.

Suppose we would like to numerically quantify the trend in a bivariate scatterplot. The most common means of doing this is the correlation
coefficient (sometimes called Pearson’s correlation coefficient):
• The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson r) The correlation coefficient, also commonly known as Pearson
correlation, is a statistical measure of the dependence or association of two numbers. When two sets of numbers move in the same direction
at the same time, they are said to have a positive correlation. When one series of numbers moves up as the other moves down, they are said
to have a negative correlation. This will result in a negative correlation coefficient.
https://www.myaccountingcourse.com/financialratios/correlation-coefficient .

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 • The spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient (Spearmen Rho) The statistics being used based on ranks or position is the Spearman
Rank Correlation Coefficient represented here by rs. It is a measure of relationship between two variables by ranking the items or
individuals under study according to their position. It represents the extent to which the same individuals or events occupy the same relative
position on two variables.

• Simple Linear Regression Analysis Linear regression is the simplest and commonly used statistical measure for prediction studies. It is
concerned with finding an equation that uses the known values of one or more variables, called the independent or predictor variables, to
estimate the unknown value of quantitative variable called the dependent criterion. It is a prediction when a variable (Y) is dependent on a
second variable (X) based on the regression equation of a given set of data.

III. Engagement:
Directions: Solve the following problems completely as directed:
1. The mental ages (x) and the score on the mathematics aptitude test (y) of fifteen (15) boys were as follows

Compute the Mean of mental ages and mathematics aptitude test score

IV. Assimilation:
Directions: A private school owner had been working to improve students’ satisfaction in her
school. He predicted that she met her goal of increasing student satisfaction from
65% to 80%. Sampled school students from four level were asked if they were
satisfied with the quality of life and services of the school. The results are shown
on the following table:

Compute for the Mean of number of Satisfied students and unsatisfied students.

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 V. Assessment:
1.It involves more than one measurement on each observation.
a. Multivariate analysis
b. Univariate analysis
c. Textual analysis
d. None of the above
2. The correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of the dependence or association of two numbers which commonly known as.
a. ANOVA
c. Pearson r
b. Chi-Square
d. Spearman Rho
3. The most used method of comparing proportions. It is particularly useful in tests evaluating a relationship between nominal or ordinal data.
a. ANOVA
b. Chi-Square
c. Pearson r
d. Spearman Rho
4. It is a measure of relationship between two variables by ranking the items or individuals under study according to their position. It represents
the extent to which the same individuals or events occupy the same relative position on two variables.
a. ANOVA
b. Chi-Square
c. Pearson r
d. Spearman Rho
5. It is used to when you want to compare the means of more than two groups. This test can be used only if the background assumptions are
satisfied such that it has independent random samples, population are normal and population variance are equal.
a. ANOVA
b. Chi-Square
c. Pearson r
d. Spearman Rho

VI. Reflection
The learners will write their personal insights about the lesson using the prompts below.
I understand that _________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.
I realized that______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

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