Phy.

DSCT1
Mechanics & Properties of
Matter

Dr. Francis L , MSc., MPhil., PhD

Assistant Professor in Physics
Govt. First Grade College, K R Puram, B’lore-36
Unit-I
• Units and measurements: System of units (CGS and SI), measurement
of length, mass and time, dimensions of physical quantities, dimensional
formulae[review]. mean deviation, errors and types of errors.

• Momentum and Energy: Work and energy, Conservation of linear

momentum, Conservation of energy with examples, Rocket motion(self
study)

• Frames of reference: Inertial and non- inertial frames, Galilean

transformation, Principle of invariance, accelerated frames and
Michelson -Morley Experiment.

• Special Theory of Relativity: Lorentz transformations, Constancy of

speed of light. Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity. Length
contraction. Time dilation. Relativistic addition of velocities , mass -
energy equivalence (E = mc2)
Unit-II
• Laws of Motion: Newton’s Laws of motion, Dynamics of single
particle and a system of particles, Centre of mass.

• Dynamics of Rigid bodies: Rotational motion about an axis, Relation

between torque and angular momentum, Rotational energy, Moment of
inertia (MI): MI of a rectangular lamina and solid cylinders, Flywheel,
Theory of compound pendulum and determination of g.

• Gravitation: Law of Gravitation. Motion of a particle in a central force

field (motion is in a plane, angular momentum is conserved, areal
velocity is constant). Kepler’s laws (statements). Satellite in a circular
orbit.
• Geosynchronous orbits
Basic idea of global positioning system (GPS). (Self study)
Unit-III
• Elasticity:
Hooke’s law - Stress-strain diagram, elastic moduli-relation
between elastic constants, Poisson’s Ratio-expression for Poisson’s
ratio in terms of elastic constants.
Work done in stretching and work done in twisting a wire-Twisting
couple on a cylinder.
Beams, bending of beams, expression for bending moment, theory
of single cantilever.
Torsional pendulum, expression for time-period of torsional
oscillations, determination of rigidity modulus (static and dynamic
methods) and moment of inertia, determination of q, η and σ by
Searle’s double bar with necessary theory.
• Time period of oscillations of a spring-mass system with non-
negligible mass of the spring.
Unit-IV
• Surface tension: Definition of surface tension. Surface energy,
relation between surface tension and surface energy, pressure
difference across curved surface example, excess pressure inside
spherical liquid drop, angle of contact.

• Viscosity: Viscous force, coefficient of viscosity, units and

dimension, Streamline flow, energy in liquid flow, turbulent flow,
critical velocity and Reynold number, its physical significance.
Equation of continuity, determination of coefficient of viscosity by
Poiseuille’s method, derivation of the formula q = ρPa4/8lh
and experiment Stoke’s method. Stoke’s law, expression for
terminal velocity. Problems

• Determination of viscosity of different liquids and their mixtures.

(Self-study)
Activity 7
Measure surface tension of water and other common liquids and compare and learn
Why water has high ST? think of reasons.
Check whether ST is a function of temperature? You can do it by heating the
water to different temperatures and measure ST.
Plot ST versus T and learn how it behaves.
Mix some quantity of kerosene or any oil to water and measure ST.
Check whether ST for the mixture is more or less than pure water. Think of reasons.

Activity 8
Collect a set of different liquids and measure their viscosity.
Find out whether sticky or non sticky liquids are most viscous. Think of
reasons.
Mix non sticky liquid to the sticky liquid in defined quantities and measure
viscosity. Find out viscosity is increasing or decreasing with increase of non-
sticky liquid concentration.
Do the above experiment by mixing sticky liquid to the non sticky liquid. Find
out change in viscosity with increase of concentration of sticky liquid.
Think why anyone should know viscosity of a liquid.
 References Books
Sl Title of the Book Author(s) Publisher Year of
No Publicat
ion
1 Mechanics D. S. Mathur S.Chand &Co. 2000
2 Mechanics and Vidwan Singh Soni, PHI Learning 2013
Relativity Pvt.Ltd.
(3rd Edition)
3 Mechanics (In SI Charles Kittel, Walter TataMcGraw- 2007
Units): Berkeley Knight, et al Hill
Physics Course Vol 1
4 Properties of Matter Brij Lal&Subrahmanyam S.Chand &Co. 2002

Sl Title of the Author(s) Publisher Year of

No Book Publicati
on
1 Principles of David Halliday, Jearl Walker Wiley India Pvt. 2010
Physics & Robert Resnick Ltd
2 Physics David Halliday & Robert Wiley India Pvt 2008
(8th Edition) Resnick Ltd
Surface tension
The molecules inside the liquid generally
have 6 nearest neighbours. However for
molecules near the surface will have only 4.

This difference in the nearest neighbours

results in the surface tension or
equivalently surface energy at any fluid
surface.

•Because of the shortage of neighbouring molecules near the surface, they tend
to have excess energy associated with them at the surface known as surface
energy.

•The molecules of the liquid near the surface are strongly attracted by the
molecules below. As a result, a layer of the surface molecules behave like an
elastic membrane. A net force acts on the molecule at the interface in the plane
of the surface in all directions and known as surface tension.
Definition of Surface tension:
• The property of a liquid by which it resists an external force when acts on it. It is
also the Surface force per unit length of any liquid or the tangential force per
unit length.

• SI unit of surface tension (T) is Nm-1

• The dimensional formula is [M1 T-2]
• Surface tension is also defined a the work done on the surface to an unit area,
surface tension is a scalar quantity.
 Surface energy (σ ): It is the equivalent attractive force per unit length of a
liquid or it is the surface energy per unit increase in the area of the surface at
constant temperature.
• It is measured by contact angle measurements, sessile drop measurements,
Force tensiometers.
• Surface energy as the same dimensions and unit as of surface tension. It can also
be expressed in Jm-2 .
 Relation between surface tension and surface energy
•Consider a U shaped wire frame with a slider on
one of its arm.
•Dip the frame in soap solution and take it out. A
soap film is formed on the frame and have two
surfaces.
•As both the surfaces are in contact with the
sliding wire, surface tension acts on the wire due
to both the surface.
•Let ‘T’ be the surface tension of the soap solution
and ‘L’ be the length of the wire.
•The force exerted by each surface on the wire is T x L ….(1)
•The total force on the wire due to both sides is 2T x L….(2)
•Let the slider be now pushed to a small distance Δx, The work done on the film
is , W = F . Δx = 2TL .Δx …..(3)
•But 2L. Δx is the total area of both the surfaces of the film. ie. 2L. Δx = ΔA
Substituting,
W = T .ΔA …….(4) or T =W/ ΔA …..(5)
Hence, surface tension of a liquid is equal to the work done in increasing the
surface area of its free surface by one unit. In other words, surface tension is
equal to surface energy per unit area.
 Angle of contact (θ ): It is the angle in the liquid b/w the solid surface and
the contact line.
• Contact line- When a liquid is in contact with the solid surface, The line at
which the solid, liquid and the gas (Air) meet.
• If θ is < 90o , the liquid wets the surface. Perfect wetting happens when θ = 0o
• If θ is > 90o , the liquid does not wet the surface.
• θ for air - water – glass is ̴ 0o , θ for air - Mercury – glass is ̴ 140o
• If θ is < 90o , the liquid wets the surface and the liquid spreads on the surface, the
level of the liquid within the tube rises due to capillary action and the surface of
the liquid inside is concave.

• If θ is > 90o , the liquid does not wet the surface. The liquid level within the tube
will be below the liquid-gas interface outside the tube. The surface inside the
tube will be convex.
 Pressure difference across a curved surface
• Consider a small spherical droplet at rest in another liquid. Let the pressure
inside the drop be uniform and Pi. Let Po be the pressure outside the droplet. For
the droplet in equilibrium the net forces acting on it should be zero.
• The net force due to the pressure difference ie. pressure inside – pressure
outside acting upwards = the force due to surface tension of the liquid droplet
pulling down on the edge of the hemi-spherical surface of radius ‘r’.
• Surface Tension ‘T’ acts on the circumference of the sphere.
 Pressure difference b/w the inside and the outside of the curved
surface in general is ΔP = Pi – Po = σ(1/r1+1/r2)
• For a cylindrical surface, r1 = r and r2 = ∞ , ΔP = σ/r
• For a soap bubble having air inside as well as outside separated by thin film of
solution. Because of its huge thickness compared to its molecule, the film is
considered to be bulky bounded by two surface layers. The two liquid –air
interface gives a pressure difference of double the value.
• ΔP = 2(2σ/r ) = 4T/r
• For large bubbles the pressure difference is small. Hence it gets deformed with a
slight breeze.
• For a given drop or a bubble, higher surface tension produces a greater pressure
difference.
Methods of measuring Surface Tension
 Measurement of Surface Tension by Capillary rise method
Consider a capillary tube held vertically in a beaker
containing water; the water rises in the capillary tube
to a height h due to surface tension. The surface
tension force FT, acts along the tangent at the point of
contact downwards and its reaction force upwards.
Surface tension T, is resolved into two components
i) Horizontal component T sinθ and ii) Vertical
component T cosθ acting upwards, all along the
whole circumference of the meniscus.
Total upward force = (T cosθ) (2πr) = 2πrT cosθ
where ‘θ’ is the angle of contact, ’r’ is the radius of the tube. Let ‘ρ’ be the density of
water and ’h’ be the height to which the liquid rises inside the tube.
 The upward force supports the weight of
the liquid column above the free surface,
therefore,

If the capillary is a very fine tube of radius (i.e., radius is very small) then r/3 can
be neglected when it is compared to the height h. Therefore,

This implies that the capillary rise (h) is inversely proportional to the radius
(r) of the tube. i.e, the smaller the radius of the tube greater will be the
capillarity.
Surface Tension by Drop weight method
a) Surface tension of water in air
• The forces acting on the water drop at the end of the tube are,
• i) Weight of the drop acting downwards
• ii) Surface tension of water along the circular orifice of radius r. Which is
T2πr acting upwards

Excess pressure inside the drop on the area πr2 given by P r
2
•
downwards.

According to Newton’s 2nd law, from the force balance equation in the
vertical direction, mg  P 2  T 2 r
r
T
Excess pressure in a cylindrical drop is P  Tr ; substituting;mg  r  r  T 2 r
2

mg
T  r

Applying Lord Rayleigh’s correction, T  mg

3.8 r
Interfacial Tension of a liquid in another liquid by Drop weight method
b) Interfacial tension of two immiscible liquids
• The forces acting on the water drop at the end of the tube are,
• i) Weight of the drop m'g of liquid 1 inside liquid 2 acting downwards
• ii) The buoyant force m''g acting upwards where m'' is the mass of liquid 2
displaced by liquid 1 at constant volume
• ii) Surface tension T 'of liquid 1 in liquid 2 along the circular orifice of
radius r. Which is T '2r acting upwards
iv)Excess pressure P inside the drop on the area πr2 given by P r
2
•
downwards.
According to Newton’s 2nd law, from the force balance equation in the
vertical direction, m'g  P  T '2 r  m''g
2
r
If  and  ' be the densities of the 2 immiscible liquids such that  '   the
effective mass of the drop of 1 liquid in other is  
m' m''  m' 1   
  ' 
 
m' 1   g
' '
Excess pressure in a cylindrical drop is P  Tr ; substituting; T   3.8 r 
 
m' 1   g
'
Applying Lord Rayleigh’s correction, T  r 
3.8
 Factors affecting Surface Tension

(1) The presence of any contamination or impurities considerably affects the

force of surface tension depending upon the degree of contamination.

(2) The presence of dissolved substances can also affect the value of surface tension.
For example, a highly soluble substance like sodium chloride (NaCl) when
dissolved in water (H2O) increases the surface tension of water. But the sparingly
soluble substance like phenol or soap solution when mixed in water decreases the
surface tension of water.

(3) Electrification affects the surface tension. When a liquid is electrified, surface
tension decreases. Since external force acts on the liquid surface due to
electrification, area of the liquid surface increases which acts against the contraction
phenomenon of the surface tension. Hence, it decreases.
 (4) Temperature plays a very crucial role in altering the surface tension of a
liquid. Obviously, the surface tension decreases linearly with the rise of
temperature. For a small range of temperature, the surface tension at Tt at t ºC
is Tt = T0 (1− α t)

Where, T0 is the surface tension at temperature 0ºC and α is the temperature coefficient of
surface tension. It is to be noted that at the critical temperature, the surface tension is zero
as the interface between liquid and vapour disappear. For example, the critical temperature
of water is 374ºC. Therefore, the surface tension of water is zero at that temperature. Vander
Wall suggested the important relation between the surface tension and the critical
temperature as,

Generalizing the above relation, we get,

which gives more accurate value. Here n, varies for different liquids and t and
tc denotes the temperature and critical temperature in absolute scale (Kelvin
scale), respectively.
Applications of Surface Tension

•Mosquitoes lay their eggs on the surface of water. To reduce the surface tension of
water, a small amount of oil is poured. This breaks the elastic film of water surface
and eggs are killed by drowning.

• Chemical engineers must finely adjust the surface tension of the liquid, so it forms
droplets of designed size and so it adheres to the surface without smearing. This is
used in desktop printing, to paint automobiles and decorative items.

• Specks of dirt get removed when detergents are added to hot water while
washing clothes because surface tension is reduced.

• A fabric can be made waterproof, by adding suitable waterproof material (wax) to

the fabric. This increases the angle of contact.
Viscosity: Viscous force, coefficient of viscosity, units and
dimension, Streamline flow, energy in
liquid flow, turbulent flow, critical
velocity and Reynold number, its physical
significance. Equation of continuity,
determination of coefficient of viscosity by
Poiseuille’s method, derivation of the
formula q = ρPa4/8lh and experiment
Stoke’s method. Stoke’s law, expression for
terminal velocity. Problems

• Determination of viscosity of different liquids and

their mixtures. (Self-study)
Viscous force/drag force in liquids
•A measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. Viscous
forces in a fluid are proportional to the rate at
which the fluid velocity is changing in space and
the proportionality constant is called viscosity.

•Viscosity is the property of a liquid by virtue of which it opposes the flow

of the liquid when a shear acts on it.
•Viscous force is analogous to the frictional force in mechanics. It depends
on temperature of the liquid (Higher the temperature lower is the viscosity)
and intermolecular forces (Stronger intermolecular forces increases the
viscosity of the liquid).
•The ratio of shearing stress to the velocity gradient is a measure of the
viscosity of the fluid and is called the coefficient of viscosity ‘η ‘.
Coefficient of viscosity ‘η’ : Coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is the
viscous force per unit area of contact between the two layers having a unit
velocity gradient between them perpendicular to the direction of flow.
Dimensions of coefficient of viscosity ‘η ‘:
Streamline flow/Laminar flow of a liquid: The flow of a liquid in which
every particle that passes a particular point moves along exactly the same
path as followed by the particles which passed the point earlier.

Turbulent flow: Flow of liquid in which the fluid undergoes irregular

fluctuations, or mixing, in contrast to laminar flow, in which the fluid
moves in smooth paths or layers. In turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at
a point is continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and
direction.
Energy in liquid flow: A liquid in motion is said to have pressure energy,
kinetic energy and potential energy. Hence, the sum of pressure energy ,
kinetic energy and the potential energy of a given liquid.
i) Pressure energy
It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its pressure.
Consider a liquid of density ρ contained in a wide tank T having a side tube near
the bottom of the tank as shown in Fig.1. A frictionless piston of cross sectional
area ‘A' is fitted to the side tube. Pressure exerted by the liquid on the piston is
P = h ρ g where h is the height of liquid column above the axis of the side tube.
Let the piston be pushed inwards by a small distance ‘x’, then
Volume of liquid pushed into the tank = Ax
∴ Mass of the liquid pushed into the tank = Ax.ρ
Considering the amount of liquid pushed inside the tank to be
small compared to the height ‘h’, the pressure ‘P’ may be
considered as constant.
Work done in pushing the piston through the distance x = Force
on the piston x distance moved
i.e W = P.Ax , which is the pressure energy of the liquid of mass
Ax.ρ
∴ Pressure energy per unit mass of the liquid = P.Ax /Ax. ρ = P/ρ
Contd..
ii) Kinetic energy: It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its motion.
If ‘m’ is the mass of the liquid moving with a velocity ‘v’, the kinetic energy of the
liquid, K.E = mv2/2
∴ Kinetic energy per unit mass = mv2/ 2m = v2 / 2

iii) Potential energy: It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its height
above the ground level.
If ‘m’ is the mass of the liquid at a height ‘h’ from the ground level, the potential
energy of the liquid, P.E = mgh
∴ Potential energy per unit mass = mgh/ m = gh

Total energy of the liquid in motion = pressure energy + kinetic energy + potential
energy.
Total energy per unit mass of the flowing liquid = P/ρ + v2/2 + gh
• Equation of Continuity of flow

•
•
• Critical velocity- Critical velocity is the speed and direction at which
the flow of a liquid through a tube changes from smooth to turbulent.
Determining the critical velocity depends on multiple variables.
• Reynold’s number -Reynolds number is defined by the ratio of
inertial forces to that of viscous forces. The Reynolds number is a
dimensionless variable that has no units attached to it.
• Calculation of critical velocity of a liquid flowing through a tube is,
• Critical velocity (Vc) = K η / ρ r ; where Vc is the critical velocity, K is the
Reynold’s number, η is the coefficient of the viscosity of the liquid, r is the
radius of the tube through which the liquid flows, ρ is the density of the liquid.
• Reynold’s number for the different flow type is given as,
• If K is between 0 to 2000, the flow is laminar or streamlined.
• If K is between 2000 to 3000, the flow is turbulent or unstable
• If K is above 3000, the flow is highly unstable
Physical significance of Reynold’s number

• The Reynolds number (Re) helps predict flow patterns in

different fluid flow situations.
• Reynolds number helps us to determine whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent.
• At low Reynolds numbers, flows tend to be dominated by
laminar (sheet-like) flow.
• At high Reynolds numbers, the flow tends to be turbulent.