A-350

Key Studies in Psychology

Contents
Learning Outcomes....................................................................................................................3
L-1..............................................................................................................................................3
L-2..............................................................................................................................................4
L-3..........................................................................................................................................5
L-4..............................................................................................................................................6
L-5..............................................................................................................................................6
Conclusion..................................................................................................................................8
References..................................................................................................................................8
Learning Outcomes

L-1
Emotions play a significant role in academic settings because they have a direct impact on
nearly every aspect of cognitive functioning. Dissatisfaction, worry, and boredom are all
associated with tests, exams, assignments, and deadlines. Emotions have an impact on how
we learn and remember things. Massive open online courses (MOOCs) and computer-based
multimedia tutoring systems (ITS) are becoming increasingly popular in education. Students
may respond emotionally to this. Student engagement and long-term retention can both be
enhanced and improved by paying close attention to emotional factors when developing
educational materials. Various cognitive functions, such as attention, learning and memory,
reasoning and problem-solving, are all affected by emotions. Schools become worthless if
students face these kinds of obstacles. That emotional stimuli seem to take up more of our
attention is the most important thing to remember. In addition, emotional attention and
motivation have also been linked to enhanced learning and memory. These events/stimuli
appear to be remembered vividly and accurately over time.
Researchers are increasingly using functional neuroimaging techniques to identify and
characterise human emotional states in order to improve learning and memory results. There
is a chain reaction of physiological, behavioural, and emotional responses when something is
regarded "personally meaningful." This may be done subjectively, behaviorally, and
physically, and each of these methods has its own advantages and drawbacks. An objective
assessment of CNS and ANS physiological reactions is possible instead of subjective or
behavioural responses (brain versus bodily organs). The emotional systems of the brain must
be understood if we are to know how emotions affect learning and memory retrieval. In order
to shed light on how emotions affect memory and learning, this essay takes an evolutionary
approach to the subject. You'll discover all you need to know about how emotions affect
memory and learning from the seven basic emotional systems. The emotional-cognitive
connections begin to develop when this is established in numerous brain locations. To retain
long-term memory, these sites transmit information in a consistent manner (LTM). Results on
the emotional consequences of various content modalities are next presented. Following that,
four of the most significant functional neuroimaging technologies: fMRI, PET, EEG, and
functional near-infrared spectroscopy will be presented (fNIRS). The following part
examines mental diseases such as depression and anxiety, which are typified by emotional
dysregulation and a proportional loss in cognitive performance. Finally, we draw some
conclusions about the current challenges and future research goals in the field of effective
teaching practises utilising technology.
Emotions in learning have been the subject of several recent studies. Although it is widely
understood that emotions play a role in memory consolidation and retrieval, less is known
about the function that emotions play in learning. Learning and academic success may be
possible for students who are motivated and happy with their educational resources.
Improved performance on follow-up exams and subsequent post-tests can be attributed to a
sharper attention on the material being studied. A sign of cognitive dissonance is confusion,
which happens when there is an abundance of conflicting information. Both the Searching
and Wrath systems are involved, with low rage or irritation activation and more Searching.
Students who are eager to improve their knowledge put in more effort in the classroom than
those who are less motivated [Zajonc, R. B.,1965].

L-2
The use of idiographic and nomothetic terms in study and testing should not be
underestimated. It is from the Greek word nomos that the names idiographic and nomothetic
are derived. The goal of idiographic study or evaluation is to get a holistic understanding of
the subject. Writing in the style of idioms is extremely descriptive and thorough. While
normative research aims to identify specific patterns of behaviour, nomothetic research and
assessment aims to uncover broader trends. Nomothetic research focuses on predicting and
explaining trends rather than focusing on a single person's unique perspective. The emphasis
here is on breakthroughs in nomothetic writing that may be applied broadly.
The term "research" means a "systematic examination" that is done to "understand, describe,
predict, or manage an educational or psychological event, or to empower people in such
situations. It says that says that a lot of new research methods have made it more difficult to
describe what was simple to talk about 30 or 40 years ago, especially in the social/applied
sciences. Using theoretical frameworks, you can make connections between or among things
that describe or explain a phenomenon by looking outside of your own area and trying to
connect it with other things that happen in the same way as yours. An important thing to
know is that the paradigm is what determines how knowledge is found and understood. The
research's goal, motivation, and expectations are determined by the paradigm that is chosen.
There is no way to make decisions about how to do things, what to read, or how to design a
study without having a paradigm. Paradigms are looked at in different ways in different
research literature, with different focuses and meanings. Paradigms are talked about early in
some study works, while others don't talk about them at all. This might make someone who
isn't very well-versed in research think that paradigms aren't important. People think and do
research based on what they call a paradigm, which is a "loosely connected set of
assumptions, notions, or proposition. Paradigm is a way of thinking about knowledge, a
technique, and a way to make sure it's true. The interpretative framework is sometimes talked
about in terms of 'knowledge claims', epistemology or ontology, or even how to do research.
Negative: These include positivist (and post-positivist) and constructionist (and interpretivist)
paradigms, as well as critical (pragmatism) and deconstructivist paradigms. There are a lot of
different words and claims about how many research paradigms there are, which can
sometimes confuse new or early-career researchers. The following is a list of some of the
most common research paradigms [Izawa, C..1999].
Pragmatism is not constrained by any philosophical or empirical framework. What and how
are of primary concern to Pragmatist researchers. As a result of this, their scientific premise
that social enquiry alone could get 'truth' about the actual world was disproved. Despite the
fact that pragmatism is often accepted as the philosophical foundation for mixed-methods
research, other researchers believe in a transformational paradigm instead. However, any
paradigm can benefit from the use of hybrid approaches. In the pragmatic paradigm, all
approaches are applied to solving the research problem. Instead than following any particular
viewpoint, researchers use data collection and analysis methods depending on their ability to
uncover new information about the issue at hand [Miyamoto, Y. & Kitayama,2002].

L-3
A cause for something to happen Every theory has aspects that we haven't seen before, such
as unknown variables, structures, or processes. You could also consider Zajonc's thoughts
regarding how social facilitation and inhibition might coexist. The more closely you're
observed while doing anything, the more probable you'll have a strong reaction. When it
comes to highly skilled activities, observation enhances the likelihood of getting the right
answer. When it comes to less competent talents, the likelihood of providing inaccurate
responses increases. Things like "arousal," "dominant reaction," and how arousal impacts the
dominant response are employed in this idea. When discussing something that hasn't been
demonstrated or is an opinion, people who don't study science don't use the phrase "theory."
"Theory" is not a scientific term. Hypotheses are hypotheses that explain why things happen
in a specific way. This does not imply it isn't true, even if it hasn't been well tested and isn't
supported by science. It is a theory not because it has not been proven or validated, but
because it explains why there are so many distinct types of life on Earth. There is a lot of
evidence in favour of this theory, and most scientists think that its fundamental assumptions
are valid. The "germ theory" is the same way. It's merely a hypothesis because it helps to
explain the origins of many diseases, not because germs invading the body cause them.

Another term psychologists use to describe how they think about and explain events is
theory. This is how analysis and esotericism are employed to explore the world around us.
When discussing how things operate, behavioural researchers frequently include topics like
incentives and punishments. Biologists, on the other hand, consider genetics when discussing
how things operate. Structures and processes that are mathematical, computational, or
biological in nature that are utilised to explain a fact. For additional detail on how this term is
used in ordinary discourse, see Section 4.3, "Using Theories in Psychological Research." It
might be a point of view or a model that is used to describe something [Izawa, C..1999]..
Researchers frequently use these phrases interchangeably, which contributes to the
misunderstanding. The word "drive theory" can apply to a variety of concepts. The
biopsychosocial theory of health psychology states that a person's health is influenced by the
way biological, psychological, and social elements interact to make a person sick or well. It's
critical to remember that observations and interpretations are not the same thing.
We must generate ideas in order to comprehend the world around us. Of fact, scientific
theories are intended to help us comprehend or explain the world around us in a logical
manner. But I'm sure there's more to it than that. Consider a valid hypothesis that isn't
particularly useful. This might be true, but it doesn't appear to be beneficial to anyone.
Remember that even if your hypothesis is incorrect, it may still be valuable to you. Despite
the fact that many individuals believe the multistore model of human memory is incorrect in
many respects, scholars and textbooks continue to adopt it. In each of these circumstances,
theories serve a function other than providing explanations or interpretations of events.
Furthermore, theories may be used to organise data, forecast what will happen in the future,
and generate new study ideas [Izawa, C..1999]..

L-4
Scientific theories assist individuals in thinking more clearly and effectively by organising
occurrences in a logical manner. It aids in the organisation and understanding of a large
number of seemingly contradictory results. Short-term memory retention of knowledge that is
merely glanced at but not practised, the requirement to rehearse content for long-term
memory retention, and so on are a few examples. It could be useful to provide an example of
a common intelligence hypothesis here. According to this theory, there are a few skills that
are influenced by your intelligence. Another hypothesis of intelligence exists, but this one
examines how different mental talents are statistically related. Mental abilities like as reading
comprehension and analogy completion, for example, have a closer association with one
another than other sorts of skills such as arithmetic or language [Neisser, U.,1996].
Theories can also be used to predict what will happen in new environments. During the week,
coaches worry if their players would do better or worse in a competition than they do in the
gym on their own. Even if there are no evidence to back it up, Zajonc's drive hypothesis
provides an explanation. They are likely to perform well in competition if they perform well
in school. It will be difficult for her to succeed if she makes a lot of blunders.
Clinical psychology treatment decisions are frequently based on theoretical considerations.
Consider the condition known as dissociative identity disorder as an example (formerly called
multiple personality disorder). It's because individuals in famous movies, such as Sybil, are
presented as having many personalities, and their therapists make them seem like they do by
asking them to "meet" their alters [Neisser, U.,1996]. Therapy should discourage patients
from adopting many personas, not encourage them to do so. There are several theories that
researchers investigate for each collection of occurrences. Because there are so many varied
perspectives on human behaviour, this is one of the reasons. This encompasses a variety of
factors, such as cultural influences, which impact how biological tendencies manifest in
biological theories of sexual orientation. Another advantage of exploratory inquiry is that
most objects may be seen from a variety of perspectives. To that end, "evaluation
apprehension" is another hypothesis that claims "drive" is what leads individuals to help or
stop others from helping or preventing them from stopping or aiding them. People are
terrified of being judged by those who are paying attention to them. There are two theories
that go beyond what they are attempting to express, but they operate in completely different
ways [Neisser, U.,1996].

L-5
An interpretivist method is a way to look at how people make sense of things in their own
social and cultural contexts. This hypothesis assumes that there is data that can help us
understand these meanings, as well as their content, structure, creation processes, and results.
Individual and environmental traits are not thought of as add-ons, but as important parts of
the meanings people make. Because of this, the best research designs for this paradigm get a
lot of information about people's lives, which helps them understand their own experiences
and actions as well as apply new theories about how humans behave (for an explication of the
Interpretivist paradigm [Lilienfeld, S. O.,2003].

They set out criteria for judging the rigour and validity of empirical research. These are called
interpretivist scholars, and they set them out for us. Post-Positivist worldview: Educational
psychology publications like JEP don't want to publish even good Interpretivist research
because of this. A high-quality study must be published outside of educational psychology in
order for the Interpretivist paradigm to work. The Interpretivist and Post-Positivist
paradigms, on the other hand, don't have to be different from each other. Instead, they offer a
number of different perspectives from which to look at the events in question. Understanding
how people make sense in certain social and cultural situations, for example, could be a
starting point for more research and action, which could lead to new insights into how these
broad principles work in the many different ways that people live. A full understanding of the
many and complicated processes that educational psychologists study may be the only choice
[Lilienfeld, S. O.,2003]. The educational psychology field doesn't seem to be doing very
much to encourage learning or challenge research paradigms at the moment. Post-Positivist
beliefs and the NHST as the only viable scientific method are taught in our doctoral
programmes all the time. Education studies may be seen as useless in the classroom because
they don't help students learn. The American Psychological Association has started a journal
called Qualitative Psychology, and the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of
Teaching has adopted the "Improvement Science" paradigm for educational research. I think
that educational psychology and its main journals can't just stick with NHST at this point.
The Institute for Educational Sciences (IES) is giving money to projects that come from
different fields to solve some of the biggest problems in education. This is called a
Continuous Improvement Research in Education (CIRE). Masters in educational psychology
should also learn about different types of scientific reasoning and philosophical thought, as
well as how to use them. In order to understand the world around us, we need to come up
with ideas. Scientific theories, of course, are meant to help us understand or describe the
world around us in a way that makes sense. But I'm sure there's more to it. Consider a valid
theory, but one that isn't very useful [Lilienfeld, S. O.,2003]. This might be true, but it doesn't
look like it will help anyone. Be aware that even if your theory is wrong, it could still be
useful to you. Even though many people think the multistore model of human memory is
wrong in many ways, academics and textbooks still use it.In each of these cases, theories
have a purpose that goes beyond just giving explanations or interpretations of things. In
addition, theories can be used to organise data, predict what will happen in the future, and
come up with new ideas for research. Pragmatism is not constrained by any philosophical or
empirical framework. What and how are of primary concern to Pragmatist researchers. As a
result of this, their scientific premise that social enquiry alone could get 'truth' about the
actual world was disproved. Despite the fact that pragmatism is often accepted as the
philosophical foundation for mixed-methods research, other researchers believe in a
transformational paradigm instead. However, any paradigm can benefit from the use of
hybrid approaches. In the pragmatic paradigm, all approaches are applied to solving the
research problem. Instead than following any particular viewpoint, researchers use data
collection and analysis methods depending on their ability to uncover new information about
the issue at hand [Lilienfeld, S. O.,2003].

Conclusion
A research paradigm is a collection of commonly held views and assumptions concerning
ontological, epistemological, and methodological issues within a research community. This
chapter introduces and discusses positivist and interpretivist research paradigms, as well as its
application in the field of design science. This chapter describes two alternative research
paradigms, as well as how they may affect design science work.

References
Zajonc, R. B. (1965). Social facilitation. Science, 149, 269–274.
Miyamoto, Y. & Kitayama, S. (2002). Cultural variation in correspondence bias: The critical
role of attitude diagnosticity of socially constrained behavior. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 83(5), 1239-1348.
Izawa, C. (Ed.) (1999). On human memory: Evolution, progress, and reflections on the 30th
anniversary of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci,…Urbina, S.
(1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51, 77–101.
Lilienfeld, S. O., & Lynn, S. J. (2003). Dissociative identity disorder: Multiple personalities,
multiple controversies. In S. O. Lilienfeld, S. J. Lynn, & J. M. Lohr (Eds.), Science and
pseudoscience in clinical psychology (pp. 109–142). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Lilienfeld, S. O., & Lynn, S. J. (2003). Dissociative identity disorder: Multiple personalities,
multiple controversies. In S. O. Lilienfeld, S. J. Lynn, & J. M. Lohr (Eds.),Science and
pseudoscience in clinical psychology (pp. 109–142). New York, NY: Guilford Press.