Process Plant Design-Lab Manual-2021-New

Deputyship of Education and Training Affairs ‫وكالة الشؤون التعليمية والتدريب‬
The Department of Chemical and Process Engineering

Technology
Chemical Engineering Technology (CHET)
Process Plant Design - (CHM 423)

Laboratory Manual
Copyright © 2021 by the Department of Chemical and Process Engineering Technology (CPET).
All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced or used without the permission from
Jubail Industrial College represented by CPET.
Jubail Industrial College

P.O.Box 10099
Jubail 31961
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
www.jic.edu.sa
Table of Contents
1. Designing Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 4-79
2. Designing Packed Bed Absorber 80-104
3. Designing Continuous Distillation (Plate) Column 105-150
4. Designing Fixed Packed Bed Reactor 151-167
5. References 168
Chapter - 1
DESIGNING SHELL AND TUBE HEAT
EXCHANGER
SUMMARY
The designing of shell and tube heat exchanger starts with computation of heat
transfer area from the estimated overall heat transfer coefficient for assessing the
preliminary cost of heat exchanger. This computation requires the calculation of
mean temperature difference between hot and cold fluids that accounts correction
for cross flow that gives an estimation of number of shell passes as well. The
rating of heat exchanger is an integral part of the design and involves assessment
as to whether a specified heat exchanger performs a given heat transfer duty
satisfactorily and that will be judged through how well the calculated overall heat
transfer coefficient is above the required overall heat transfer coefficient for a
specified heat duty with the expected value of percent over surface below 50 and
percent over design below 10. Rating also requires computation of tube and shell
side pressure drops and assessment as to whether the hydraulic design meets the
criterion of maximum allowable pressure drop values.
1-1 Introduction
The shell and tube heat exchanger, the most widely type of heat exchanger that is used in the
chemical process industries.
Heat exchanger calculations can be made into two different categories: [1]
1. Thermal and Hydraulic calculations

2. Mechanical design calculations
Thermal and hydraulic calculations are made to determine heat transfer rates and pressure
drops needed for equipment sizing. Mechanical design calculations are concerned with the
detailed equipment specifications, and include stress and vibration considerations.
Heat exchanger problems can be categorized into rating problems and design problems. Rating
problem requires the task of a fully specified heat exchanger to perform a given heat transfer
duty satisfactorily. Design problem requires the determinations of specifications of a heat
exchanger that handles a given heat-transfer duty. A rating calculation is generally an integral
part of a design calculation. However, a rating problem also arises when it is desired to use an
existing exchanger in a new or modified application.
1-2 Fluid flow path arrangement in shell and tube heat exchangers
The temperature variations in usual fluid-fluid heat transfer processes depend on the flow path
arrangement.
a) Counter flow heat transfer with the two fluids flowing in opposite directions
Fig 1-1
b) Parallel flow heat transfer with the two fluids flowing in the same direction
Fig 1-2
The nature of temperature profiles also depends upon the heat capacity rate mCP of the
fluids.
Q  (mCP ) h (Th1  Th 2 )  (mCP ) c (Tc 2  Tc1 )
The temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids T  Th  Tc varies with position
in the heat exchanger. Hence, in the heat transfer analysis of heat exchangers, it is
convenient to establish an appropriate mean value of the temperature difference between
the hot and cold fluids such that the total heat transfer rate Q between the fluids can be
determined from the following equation.
Q  UA(T ) m Where A is the total hot side or cold side heat transfer area and U is the overall
heat transfer coefficient based on that area. (T)m is a function of Th1, Th2, Tc1, Tc2.
1
 d  
 ln  o  
UC   d0
 do  di  1 

1
𝑈𝐷 = [𝑈 + 𝑅𝑑 ]
−1
𝑅𝑑 =
𝑅𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑜
+ 𝑅𝑑𝑜
 d i hi 2ktube ho  𝐶 𝑑𝑖
 
 
hdi and hd0 are foiling factors for tube and shell side fluids respectively. Ktube is thermal
conductivity of material of tube. hi, h0 are individual heat transfer coefficients based on tube
and shell side fluids. UD is the overall heat transfer coefficient with fouling factors included.
1-3 Preliminary thermal design [1]

The heat exchanger is thermally suitable if the calculated value of the design coefficient, UD, is
greater than or equal to the value, Ureq, that is needed to provide the required rate of heat
transfer. If the converse is true, the exchanger is “not suitable’’. In hydraulic design, the
pressure drops of both streams must be less than the specified maximum allowable pressure
drops.
Algorithm – 1 [1]
1-4 Shell and tube heat exchanger Equipment [1] & [4]
Shell and tube equipment involve expanding a tube into a tube sheet and forming a seal, which
does not leak under reasonable operating conditions.
A tube hole is drilled in a tube sheet with a slightly greater diameter than the OD of the tube
and two or more grooves are cut in the wall of the hole.
The tube is placed inside the tube hole.
1-4-1 Heat Exchanger Tubes
These are also called as condenser tubes.
Heat exchanger tubes are available in a variety of metals, which include steel, copper, brass,
aluminum and stainless steels.
They are obtained by a number of different wall thickness defined by BWG.
Standard lengths of tubes for heat exchanger construction are 8, 12, 16 and 20 feet.
1-4-2 Tube pitch
The center-to-center distance between two adjacent tubes is called tube pitch. Tubes are laid
out either on square pitch or triangular pitch.
The advantage of square pitch is that the tubes are accessible for external cleaning and cause a
lower pressure drop when fluid flows as shown in figure.
The common pitches for square layouts are 3/4" OD and 1" OD square pitch and 1" OD on 1.25"
square pitch.
For triangular layouts, these are 3/4" OD on 15/16" triangular pitch, 3/4"OD on 1" triangular
pitch, 1"OD on 1.25" triangular pitch.
High flow rates and high heat transfer can be obtained with higher-pressure drop. The
disadvantage is that cleaning is not easy.
Unless the shell tends to foul badly, triangular pitches are used as more heat transfer area can
be packed into a shell of given diameter than square pitch.
Figure 1-3
1-4-3 Shell
Shells are fabricated from steel pipe with nominal IPS diameter up to 12 ".
The standard wall thickness for shells with ID from 12-24" inclusive is 3/8”, which is satisfactory
for shell side operating pressures up to 300 psi.
For shells up to 23 inches, the diameters are fixed in accordance with ASTM pipe standards.
1-4-4 Baffles
High heat transfer coefficients result when a liquid is maintained in a state of turbulence.
To induce turbulence outside the tubes, it is customary to employ baffles, which cause the
liquid to flow through the shell at right angles to the areas of the tubes.
The center-to-center distance between baffles is called baffle pitch or baffle spacing.
The baffle spacing is usually not greater than ID of the shell or closer than a distance equal to
1/5 of ID of the shell.
Figure 1-4
1-5 Types of heat exchangers based on shell and tube passes
1-5-1 1-1 Shell and tube heat exchanger [2]

This type of heat exchanger contains 1 shell pass and 1 tube pass.
Shell side fluid enters the shell and travels in one pass and leaves at the shell outlet.
Similarly tube side fluid enters the tubes and travels in one pass and leaves at the tube outlet.
The flow path can be either parallel or counter current.
Fig 1-5
This type of heat exchanger contains 1 shell pass and 2 tube passes.
Shell side fluid enters the shell and travels in one pass and leaves at the shell outlet.
Tube side fluid enters the tubes and travels in two passes and leaves at the tube outlet.
There is a pass partition to enable the tube side fluid to travel in 2 passes.
There exists cross flow as the fluid passes in 2 passes in tube side.
The true temperature drop can be obtained by multiplying the LMTD obtained for counter flow
by the temperature correction factor for cross flow in 1-2 heat exchanger.
A = tubes B = tie rods and spacers C = shell D = Tube side channel
E = channel cover F = Tube pass partition.
Fig 1-6
This type of heat exchanger contains 2 shell pass and 4 tube passes.
Shell side fluid enters the shell and travels in two passes and leaves at the shell outlet.
There is baffle in the shell side which brings in two passes.
Tube side fluid enters the tubes and travels in four passes and leaves at the tube outlet.
There are pass partitions to enable the tube side fluid to travel in 4 passes.
There exists cross flow as the fluid passes in 4 passes in tube side.
The true temperature drop can be obtained by multiplying the LMTD obtained for counter flow
by the temperature correction factor for cross flow in 2-4 heat exchanger.
Fig 1-7
1-6 Correction for LMTD for use with cross-flow and multi pass heat
exchangers [1]
For cross-flow, a correction factor F can be introduced so that the simple LMTD can be adjusted
to represent the effective temperature difference Tcorr for the cross flow.
Tcorr  F * LMTDcounter flow
The following figure gives correction factor F for 1-2 shell and tube heat exchanger.
Fig 1-8
R = capacity Ratio
P = Heating effectiveness
Fig 1-9
The following figure gives correction factor F for 2-4 shell and tube heat exchanger.[1]
Fig 1-10
Fig 1-11
1-7 Estimated Design overall heat transfer coefficients [1]
Table 1-1
1-8 Estimated Colburn j factor [1]
Fig 1-12
jH = 0.5(1+B/ds)(0.08 Re0.6821 +0.7 Re0.1772)

1-9 Estimated dirt factors, RD [h.ft2 0F]/BTU . [1]
Table 1-2
Table 1-2 continued

Solved example 1-1
A fluid is to be heated from 1000F to 1600F by heat exchange with a hot fluid that will be cooled
from 2300F to 1500F. The heat-transfer rate will be 540,000 Btu/h and the hot fluid will flow in
the tubes. Will a 1-2 exchanger (i.e., an exchanger with one shell pass and a multiple of two tube
passes) be suitable for this service? Find the mean temperature difference in the exchanger.
Solution
R=0.75 P=0.615
From Fig 1.6 for 1 shell pass heat exchangers, F = LMTD correction factor = 0.72 < 0.8
So 1 shell pass is not suitable for this service.
From Fig 1.8 for 2 hell pass heat exchangers, F=0.94. Hence 2 shell passes are used.
LMTDcounter flow = 59.60F
Hence mean temperature difference, Tm = 0.94*59.6 = 560F

Solved example 1-2
In a petroleum refinery, it is required to cool 30,000 lb/h of kerosene from 4000F to 2500F by
heat exchange with 75,000 lb/h of gas oil, which is at 1100F. A shell-and-tube exchanger will be
used, and the following data are available:
Fluid property kerosene Gas oil
Cp (BTU/lb/0F) 0.6 0.5
 (cP) 0.45 3.5
K (BTU/h/ft/0F) 0.077 0.08
For the purpose of making a preliminary cost estimate, determine the required heat-transfer
area of the exchanger.
Solution:
Place kerosene on shell side (non-corrosive) and gas oil on tube side (slightly corrosive)
Ta = 400◦F Tb = 250◦F ta = 110◦F tb = ?
106 𝐵𝑇𝑈
Energy balance gives: 𝑞 = (𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇)𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 = (𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑡)𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 2.7 ∗ ℎ
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝑚̇𝑘 = 30000 , 𝑚̇𝑔 = 75000
ℎ ℎ
q=(mCpT)kerosene =(mCpt)gas oil = 2.7*106 BTU/h Hence by energy balance, tb = 1820F
R=2.08 P=0.25
From Fig 1.6 for 1 shell pass heat exchangers, F = LMTD correction factor = 0.93 <>0.8
So 1 shell pass is suitable for this service. LMTDcounter flow = 1760F
Hence mean temperature difference, Tm = 0.93*176= 560F =163.70F

𝐵𝑇𝑈
From table 1-1, for kerosene-oil heat exchanger, estimate for UD = 20-35 ℎ.𝑓𝑡 2 .0
𝐹
𝑞
Hence the required surface area for heat exchanger, 𝐴 = 𝑈 = 600 𝑓𝑡 2
𝐷 ∆𝑇𝑚
Solved example 1-3
30,000 lb/h of kerosene are to be cooled from 4000F to 2500F by heat exchange with 75,000 lb/h
of gas oil which is at 1100F. Available for this duty is a shell-and-tube exchanger having 156
tubes in a 211 4-in. ID shell. The tubes are 1-in. OD, 14 BWG, 16 ft long on a 1 1/4-in. square
pitch. There is one pass on the shell side and six passes on the tube side. The baffles are 20% cut
segmental type and are spaced at 5-in. intervals. Both the shell and tubes are carbon steel
having k=26 Btu/h·ft·0F. Fluid properties are given in Solved example 1-2. Will the exchanger
be thermally suitable for this service?
Solution
Step 1 Calculate Ureq
A=(nt) (L) (external surface area/length of tube)
external surface area/length of tube = 0.2618 ft2/ft
L = length of tube = 16 ft
nt = 156
Hence surface area of heat exchanger = 653 ft2

𝑞 𝐵𝑇𝑈
So, 𝑈𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝐴 ∆𝑇 = 25.3 ℎ.𝑓𝑡 2 .0
𝑚 𝐹
Step 2 Calculate the clean overall heat transfer coefficient (U c)
a. Calculate tube side Reynolds number

𝑚̇
Mass flow rate of tube side fluid per tube = 𝑚̇𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 𝑛𝑡 = 2885 𝑙𝑏/ℎ
( ⁄𝑛𝑝 )
di = 0.834 inch (Table 1-20)

̇ 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
4𝑚
Reynolds number of tube side fluid, 𝑅𝑒𝑡 = (𝜋𝑑𝑖 𝜇)
= 6243 (transition region)
b. Calculate hi (heat transfer coefficient of tube side fluid)
ℎ 𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑁𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑁𝑢 = == 0.116[𝑅𝑒 2/3 − 125]𝑃𝑟1/3 (µ/µ𝑤 )0.14 [1 + (𝑑𝑖 /𝐿)2/3 ]
𝑘𝑡
𝐵𝑇𝑈
Assuming µ/µ𝑤 =1 (no viscosity variation at tube wall), hi = 110 ℎ.𝑓𝑡 2 .0
𝐹
c. Calculate h0
De = equivalent diameter = 0.99/12 = 0.0825 ft
𝑑 𝐶′𝐵
Cross sectional area of the shell, 𝑎𝑠 = 144
𝑒
= 0.1476 ft2
𝑃 𝑇
𝑚̇ 𝑠 𝑙𝑏
Mass velocity or mass flux, 𝐺𝑠 = = 203294 Res = deGs/s = 15407
𝑎𝑠 ℎ.𝑓𝑡 2
Diameter of shell, ds = 21.25 inch (Table 1-15)
B/ds = 5/21.25 = 0.235 B=baffle spacing = 5 inch (given)
Colburn factor, jH = 0.5(1+B/ds)(0.08 Re0.6821 +0.7 Re0.1772) = 3840
𝑘 𝜇 0.14 𝐵𝑇𝑈
ℎ0 = 𝑗𝐻 𝑃𝑟1/3 ( ) = 76
𝑑𝑒 𝜇𝑤 ℎ. 𝑓𝑡 2 . 0𝐹
𝜇 0.14
Where (𝜇 ) =1
𝑤
d. Calculate Uc
𝑑
1 𝑑0 𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑑0 ) 1
𝑖
= + +
𝑈𝑐 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖 2𝑘 ℎ0
𝐵𝑇𝑈
Hence, Uc = 41.1ℎ.𝑓𝑡 2 .0 >Ureq
𝐹
Step 3: Calculate the design overall heat transfer coefficient, (UD)
ℎ.𝑓𝑡 2 .℉
Fouling factor for kerosene, RD0 = 0.0025 (Table 1-2)
𝐵𝑇𝑈
ℎ.𝑓𝑡 2 .℉
Fouling factor for heavy gas oil, RDi = 0.004 (Table 1-2)
𝐵𝑇𝑈
ℎ.𝑓𝑡 2 .℉ 1 1
RD=RDi d0/di + Rd0 = 0.0073 = 𝑈 + 𝑅𝐷
𝐵𝑇𝑈 𝑈𝐷 𝐶
𝐵𝑇𝑈
Hence, UD = 31.6ℎ.𝑓𝑡 2 .0 >Ureq The heat exchanger is thermally suitable.
𝐹
PRACTICE PROBLEMS – I A
1. In a single pass shell and tube heat exchanger, the inlet and outlet temperatures for the
hot fluid are Thi=2750C, Tho=1500C respectively and for the cold fluid Tci=650C, Tco=1200C
respectively. Calculate the LMTD (a) for counter flow (b) for parallel flow.
2. A 2-4 shell and tube heat exchanger has water on the shell side and brine in the tube side.
Water is cooled from Thi=200C, Tho=80C with brine entering at Tci=-20C and leaving at
W
Tco=40C. The overall heat transfer coefficient U=650 2 . Calculate the heat transfer
m K
area required for a design heat load of Q=25 kW.
3. A fluid is to be heated from 1000F to 1600F by heat exchange with a hot fluid that will be
cooled from 2300F to 1500F. The heat-transfer rate will be 540,000 Btu/h and the hot fluid
will flow in the tubes. Will a 1-2 exchanger (i.e., an exchanger with one shell pass and a
multiple of two tube passes) be suitable for this service? Find the mean temperature
difference in the exchanger.
4. In a petroleum refinery, it is required to cool 30,000 lb/h of kerosene from 4000F to 2500F
by heat exchange with 75,000 lb/h of gas oil, which is at 110 0F. A shell-and-tube
exchanger will be used, and the following data are available:
Fluid property kerosene Gas oil
Cp (BTU/lb/0F) 0.6 0.5
 (cP) 0.45 3.5
K (BTU/h/ft/0F) 0.077 0.08
For the purpose of making a preliminary cost estimate, determine the required heat-
transfer area of the exchanger.
5. 30,000 lb/h of kerosene are to be cooled from 4000F to 2500F by heat exchange with
75,000 lb/h of gas oil which is at 1100F. Available for this duty is a shell-and-tube
exchanger having 156 tubes in a 21 1/4 -in. ID shell. The tubes are 1-in. OD, 14 BWG, 16
ft long on a 1 1/4 -in. square pitch. There is one pass on the shell side and six passes on
the tube side. The baffles are 20% cut segmental type and are spaced at 5-in. intervals.
Both the shell and tubes are carbon steel having k=26 Btu/h · ft · 0F. Fluid properties are
given in above Example. Will the exchanger be thermally suitable for this service?
6. In a refinery 100,000 lb/h of fuel oil is to be cooled from 2000F to 1000F by heat exchange
with 70,000 lb/h of cooling water that is available at 60 0F. A shell-and-tube exchanger
will be used. The heat capacities are 0.6 Btu/lbm · 0F for the oil and 1.0 Btu/lbm · 0F for
the water.
(a) Use stream energy balances to calculate the duty for the exchanger and the outlet
temperature of the cooling water.
(b) Determine whether or not a 1-2 exchanger can be used for this service. If not, how
many shell passes will be needed?
(c) Refer to Table 3.5 and obtain an approximate value for the overall heat-transfer
coefficient. Use this value to calculate the heat-transfer surface area for the exchanger.
(d) If 3/4-in., 16 BWG tubes with a length of 20 ft are used in the heat exchanger, how
many tubes will be required to supply the surface area calculated in part (c)?
7. A shell-and-tube heat exchanger will be used to cool 200,000 lb/h of gasoline from 1520F
to 800F. Cooling water with a range of 60–1000F will be used. Heat capacities are 0.6
Btu/lbm · 0F for gasoline and 10 Btu/lbm. 0F for water.
(a) What flow rate of cooling water will be needed?
(b) How many E-shells will be required for the heat exchanger?
(c) Makea preliminary design calculation to estimate the heat-transfer surface area
required in the heat exchanger.
(d) If 1-in. 14 BWG tubes 25 ft long are used, how many tubes will be needed to supply
the heat-transfer area computed in part (c)?
8. In a petrochemical complex 150,000 lb/h of trichloroethylene is to be heated from 600F to

1400F using 90,000 lb/h of kerosene that is available at 2000F. Heat capacities are 0.35
Btu/lbm·0F for trichloroethylene and 0.6 Btu/lbm·0F for kerosene. A shell-and-tube
heat exchanger will be used for this service.
(a) Will a 1-2 heat exchanger be satisfactory? If not, how many shell-side passes should
be used?
(b) Makea preliminary design calculation to estimate the heat-transfer surface area
required in the heat exchanger.
(c) If the tube bundle is to consist of 1.25-in. 16 BWG tubes with a length of 16 ft, how
many tubes will the bundle contain?
9. 18,000 lb/h of a petroleum fraction are to be cooled from 250 0F to 1500F using cooling
water with a range of 85–1200F. Properties of the petroleum fraction may be assumed
constant at the following values:
CP (Btu/lbm · 0F) 0.52

k (Btu/h · ft · 0F) 0.074
μ (cp) 2.75
ρ (lbm/ft3) 51.2
A shell-and-tube heat exchanger with the following configuration is available:
Type: AES Tubes: 3/4 in. OD, 16 BWG, 20 ft long
Shell ID: 15.25 in. Number of tubes: 128
Baffle type: segmental Number of tube passes: 4
Baffle cut: 20% Tube pitch: 1.0 in. (square)
Number of baffles: 50 Sealing strips: 1 pair
Shell material: carbon steel Tube material: Admirality brass
(k=64 Btu/h · ft ·0F)
Fouling factors of 0.001 and 0.002 h · ft2 · 0F /Btu are required for the cooling water and
petroleum fraction, respectively. Is the heat exchanger thermally suitable for this service?
1-10 Heat exchanger coding, advantages and limitations [1]
The mechanical design features, fabrication, materials of construction, and testing of shell and
tube exchangers is covered by British Standard, BS 3274. The standards of the American
Tubular Heat Exchanger Manufacturers Association, the TEMA standards, are also used. The
TEMA standards cover three classes of exchanger: class R covers exchangers for the generally
severe duties of the petroleum and related industries; class C covers exchangers for moderate
duties in commercial and general process applications; and class B covers exchangers for use in
the chemical process industries.
Shell and Typical TEMA Advantages Limitations

Tube code
Exchangers
Fixed tube BEM, AEM, Provides maximum No provision to allow for
sheet NEN heat transfer area for a differential thermal expansion
given shell and tube developed between the tube and
diameter. the shell side. This can be taken
care by providing expansion joint
on the shell side.
Floating-head AEW, BEW, Floating tube sheet To provide the floating-head
BEP, AEP, allows for differential cover it is necessary to bolt it to
AES, BES thermal expansion the tube sheet.
between the shell and
the tube bundle. Both
the tube bundle and
the shell side can be
inspected and cleaned
mechanically.
U-tube BEU, AEU U-tube design allows Because of U-bend some tubes are
for differential thermal omitted at the center of the tube
expansion between the bundle. Because of U-bend, tubes
shell and the tube can be cleaned only by chemical
bundle as well as for methods.
individual tubes. Both
the tube bundle and
the shell side can be
inspected and cleaned
mechanically.
Fig 1-13 Fixed-tube heat exchanger
Fig 1-14 Floating-head heat exchanger
Fig 1-15 Removable U-tube heat exchanger

1. Shell 2.Shell cover 3.Shell flange (channel end) 4. Shell flange (cover end)
5.Shell nozzle 6.Floating tube sheet 7. Floating head flange 8.Floating head gland
9. Floating head backing ring 10.Floating head backing ring 11. Fixed tube sheet
12.Stationary head or channel 13. Channel cover 14.Channel nozzle 15.Straight tubes
16. U-tubes 17.Tie rods and spacers 18.Transverse baffles 19. Longitudinal baffles
20.Impingement baffles 21. Floating head support 22. Pass partition 23. Vent connection
24. Drain connection 25. Instrument connection 26.Expansion bellows
27. Support saddles
1-11 Exhaustive Thermal design considerations [1] & [4]
Thermal design of a shell and tube heat exchanger includes the determination of heat transfer
area, number of tubes, tube length and diameter, tube layout, number of shell and tube passes,
type of heat exchanger (floating tube sheet, fixed tube sheet, removable tube bundle etc), tube
pitch, number of baffles, its type and size, shell and tube side pressure drop etc.
Shell is the container for the shell fluid and the tube bundle is placed inside the shell. Shell
diameter should be selected in such a way to give a close fit of the tube bundle. Shells are
usually fabricated from standard steel pipe with satisfactory corrosion allowance. The shell
thickness of 3/8 inch for the shell ID of 12-24 inch can be satisfactorily used up to 300 psi of
operating pressure.
Tubes: Tube OD of ¾ inch and 1 inch are very common to design a compact heat exchanger.
The tube thickness is expressed in terms of BWG (Birmingham Wire Gauge) and true outside
diameter (OD). The tube length of 6, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 ft are preferably used. Longer tube
reduces shell diameter at the expense of higher shell pressure drop. Finned tubes are also used
when fluid with low heat transfer coefficient flows in the shell side. Stainless steel, admiralty
brass, copper, bronze and alloys of copper-nickel are the commonly used tube materials.
Tube pitch, tube-layout and tube-count: Tube pitch is the shortest center to center distance
between the adjacent tubes. Refer to 1-3-2. The tubes are generally placed in square or
triangular patterns (pitch). The number of tubes that can be accommodated in a given shell ID is
called tube count. The tube count depends on the factors like shell ID, OD of tube, tube pitch,
tube layout, number of tube passes, type of heat exchanger and design pressure.
Tube passes: The number of passes is chosen to get the required tube side fluid velocity to
obtain greater heat transfer co-efficient and also to reduce scale formation. The tube passes vary
from 1 to 16. The tube passes of 1, 2 and 4 are common in application. The partition built into
exchanger head known as partition plate (also called pass partition) is used to direct the tube
side flow.
Tube sheet: The tubes are fixed with tube sheet that form the barrier between the tube and shell
fluids. The tubes can be fixed with the tube sheet using ferrule and a soft metal packing ring.
The tubes are attached to tube sheet with two or more grooves in the tube sheet wall by “tube
rolling”. The tube metal is forced to move into the grooves forming an excellent tight seal. This
is the most common type of fixing arrangement in large industrial exchangers. The tube sheet
thickness should be greater than the tube outside diameter to make a good seal. The
recommended standards (IS:4503 or TEMA) should be followed to select the minimum tube
sheet thickness.
Baffles: Baffles are used to increase the fluid velocity by diverting the flow across the tube
bundle to obtain higher transfer co-efficient. The distance between adjacent baffles is called
baffle-spacing. The baffle spacing of 0.2 to 1 times of the inside shell diameter is commonly
used. Baffles are held in positioned by means of baffle spacers. Closer baffle spacing gives
greater transfer co-efficient by inducing higher turbulence. The pressure drop is more with
closer baffle spacing. Refer to 1-4-4.
Fouling Considerations The most of the process fluids in the exchanger foul the heat transfer
surface. The material deposited reduces the effective heat transfer rate due to relatively low
thermal conductivity. Therefore, net heat transfer with clean surface should be higher to
compensate the reduction in performance during operation. Fouling of exchanger increases the
cost of (i) construction due to oversizing, (ii) additional energy due to poor exchanger
performance and (iii) cleaning to remove deposited materials.
1-12 Guidelines for thermal design [1] & [4]
1-12-1 Fluid placement
Tube side fluid Shell side fluid
Corrosive fluid Condensing vapor (unless corrosive)
Cooling water Fluid with large ∆T (>1000 F)
Fouling fluid
Less viscous fluid
Higher-pressure stream
Hotter fluid
Table 1-4
The most important considerations here are corrosion and fouling. Corrosive fluids should be
placed on the tube side so that only the tubes, tube sheets, and headers need to be made of
corrosion-resistant alloy.
Fluids that are heavy fouler should be placed on the tube side because it is usually easier to
clean deposits from the interior surfaces of the tubes than from the exterior surfaces. Cooling
water is usually placed in the tubes due to its tendency to corrode carbon steel and to form
scale, which is difficult to remove from the exterior tube surfaces. Also, in services involving
cooling water and an organic stream, finned tubes are frequently used to offset the low heat-
transfer coefficient of the organic stream relative to the water.
This requires the organic stream on the shell side in contact with the fins. Copper alloys such as
Admiralty brass (71% Cu, 28% Zn, 1% Sn) are frequently used as corrosion-resistant tubing
materials for water services.
Stream pressure is another factor that may influence the fluid placement. The reason is that it is
generally less expensive to confine a high-pressure stream in the tubes rather than in the shell.
Due to their small diameters, tubes of standard wall thickness can withstand quite high
pressures, and only tube-side headers and nozzles normally require more robust construction.
1-12-2 Tubing selection
The most frequently used tube sizes are 3/4 and 1 in. For water service, 3/4 in., 16 BWG tubes
are recommended. For oil (liquid hydrocarbon) service, 3/4 in., 14 BWG tubes are
recommended if the fluid is non-fouling, while 1 in., 14 BWG tubes should be used for fouling
fluids. Tube lengths typically range from 8 to 30 ft, and sometimes longer depending on the
type of construction and the tubing material. A good value to start with is 16 or 20 ft.
BWG is an alternative measurement for tubing sizes (outside diameter and wall thickness).
BWG stands for “Birmingham Wire Gauge”. Each BWG number (example from 7 to 26)
represents a specific tubing thickness, which can be converted in inches or mm.
BWG Thickness (inch)
7 0.180
8 0.165
10 0.134
11 0.120
12 0.109
13 0.095
14 0.083
15 0.072
16 0.065
17 0.058
18 0.049
20 0.035
22 0.028
24 0.022
Table 1-5
1-12-3 Tube layout
Triangular and square layouts are the most common, but rotated square pitch is also used. With
triangular pitch, the tubes are more closely packed in the bundle, which provides more heat-
transfer surface in a given shell and somewhat higher pressure drop and heat-transfer
coefficient. However, the clearance between tubes is typically the larger of 0.25 in. and 0.25Do,
and with triangular pitch this is not sufficient to allow cleaning lanes between the tube rows.
Although chemical cleaning may be possible, triangular pitch is usually restricted to services
with clean shell-side fluids. Rotated square pitch provides some enhancement in the heat-
transfer coefficient (along with higher pressure drop) compared with square pitch, while still
providing cleaning lanes between the tubes. This configuration is especially useful when the
shell-side Reynolds number is relatively low (less than about 2000).
To summarize, the most commonly used tube layouts are either triangular or square, with a
pitch of 1.0 in. (for 3/4-in. tubes) or 1.25 in. (for 1-in. tubes).
1-12-4 Tube passes
For typical low-viscosity process streams, it is highly desirable to maintain fully developed
turbulent flow in the tubes. Although this may not be practical with high viscosity liquids,
turbulent flow provides the most effective heat transfer. Once the tube size and number of tubes
have been determined, the number of tube passes can be chosen to give an appropriate
.
4 mn p
Reynolds number, i.e., Re   10000
d i nt 
Except for single-pass exchangers, an even number of tube passes is almost always used so that
the tube-side fluid enters and exits at the same header. With U-tubes, this is the only feasible
arrangement. Fluid velocity can also be used as a criterion for setting the number of tube-side
passes. It is desirable to maintain the liquid velocity in the tubes in the range of about 3–8 ft/s.
Too low a velocity can cause excessive fouling, while a very high velocity can cause erosion of
the tube wall.
Maximum velocities for water are given in the following Table. For liquids other than water,
0.5
 
multiply the values from the table by the factor  water  .
 
 fluid 
Tube material Vmax

(ft/s)
Plain carbon steel 10
Stainless steel 15
Aluminum 6
Copper 6
90-10 cupronickel 10
70-30 cupronickel 15
Titanium >50
Table 1-6
1-12-5 Shell and head types
The single pass type E-shell is standard. If multiple shell passes are required, as indicated by
the logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) correction factor, E shells can be
connected in series. Alternatively, a two-pass type F shell can be used, although the
longitudinal baffle may be subject to leakage. The other shell types are used for more
specialized applications, including reboilers (G, H, K,X) and units, such as condensers and gas
coolers, that require low shell-side pressure drops ( J, X).
The most important consideration with respect to head type is fixed tube sheet versus floating
head.
A fixed-tube sheet design is cheaper and less prone to leakage. However, the tube bundle
cannot be removed to clean the exterior surfaces of the tubes. Therefore, fixed-tube sheet
exchangers are usually restricted to services with clean shell-side fluids. Also, if the
temperature difference between the two inlet streams is greater than about 100 0F, an expansion
joint is required in the shell of a fixed-tube sheet exchanger to accommodate the differential
thermal expansion between the tubes and shell. The added cost of the expansion joint largely
offsets the cost advantage of the fixed-tube sheet design.
With floating-head and U-tube exchangers, the entire tube bundle can be pulled out of the shell
from the front (stationary head) end. This allows mechanical cleaning of the exterior tube
surfaces, usually by high-pressure jets of water, steam. Also, since only one tube sheet is
attached to the shell (at the front end), the tubes are free to expand or contract relative to the
shell due to temperature differences.
The most widely used floating-head design in the process industries is the AES exchanger. U-
tube exchangers are less expensive and are also widely used. The advent of equipment for
cleaning the interiors of U-tubes using high-pressure water jets has mitigated the problem of
cleaning the return bends, leading to increased use of these exchangers.
1-12-6 Baffles and tube sheets
Single segmental baffles are standard and by far the most widely used. In order to provide good
flow distribution on the shell side, the spacing between baffles should be between 0.2 and 1.0
shell diameters (but not less than 2 in.). However, the maximum baffle spacing may be limited
by tube support and vibration considerations to less than one shell diameter.
For good flow distribution, the baffle cut should be between 15% and 45%. For single-phase
flow, however, a range of 20–35% is recommended. With the Simplified Delaware method, the
baffle cut is fixed at 20%. Although baffle spacing and baffle cut are independent parameters,
in practice they are highly correlated.
If the baffle cut is set at 20% for the Simplified Delaware method, then Figure 5.4 indicates that
the baffle spacing should be in the range of 0.2 to about 0.4 shell diameters for single-phase
flow.
Baffle thickness varies from 1/16 to 3/4 in., and generally increases with shell size and baffle
spacing.
Tube sheet thickness varies from about 1 to 6 in., and generally increases with shell size and
operating pressure. As a rough approximation, a value equal to the larger of 1 in. and 0.1 times
the shell ID can be used.
CV
Bc,
%
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
B/ds CV = condensing vapors
Fig 1-16
1-12-7 Nozzles
Nozzles can be sized to meet pressure drop limitations and/or to match process piping. The
guidelines given in Table are useful as a starting point. Other considerations in sizing nozzles
are tube vibration and erosion. The fluid entering the shell through the inlet nozzle impinges
directly on the tube bundle. If the inlet velocity is too high, excessive tube vibration and/or
erosion may result.
Shell size, Nominal nozzle

inches diameter, inches
4–10 2
12–17.25 3
19.25–21.25 4
23–29 6
31–37 8
39–42 10
Table 1-8
TEMA specifications to prevent tube erosion are given in terms of the product of density
(lbm/ft3) and nozzle velocity (ft/s) squared as follows:
ρV 2 ≤ 1500
n lbm/ft·s
2 for non-abrasive single-phase fluids
≤500 lbm/ft·s for2 all other liquids, including bubble-point liquids
1-12-8 Sealing strips
The purpose of sealing strips is to reduce the effect of the bundle bypass stream that flows
around the outside of the tube bundle. They are usually thin strips of metal that fit into slots in
the baffles and extend outward toward the shell wall to block the bypass flow and force it back
into the tube bundle. They are placed in pairs on opposite sides of the baffles running
lengthwise along the bundle. Sealing strips are mainly used in floating-head exchangers, where
the clearance between the shell and tube bundle is relatively large. Typically, one pair is used
for every four to ten rows of tubes between the baffle tips. In the Simplified Delaware method,
the number of sealing strips is set at one pair per ten tube rows.
Solved Example 1-4 (with single trial)

60,000 lb/h of a petroleum fraction will be cooled from 250 0 F to
1500 F using water with a range of 850 F to 1200 F. For each stream, the inlet pressure will be 50
psia and a maximum pressure drop of 10 psi is specified. A fouling factor of 0.002 h · ft2 · 0 F
/Btu is required for each stream. The petroleum fraction is not corrosive and its properties may
be assumed constant at the values given below.
Petroleum fraction property Value

CP (Btu/lbm · 0 F) 0.52
k (Btu/h · ft · 0 F) 0.074
μ (cp) 2.75
s 0.82
Pr 46.7
(a) Develop an initial configuration for a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with plain
(unfinned) tubes to meet this service.
(b) Perform the rating calculations for the initial configuration developed in part (a).
(c) Based on the results of the rating calculations in part (b), specify what changes, if any,
and should be made to the configuration of the heat exchanger for the next trial.
Solution
(a). Make initial specifications.
(i). Fluid placement
Petroleum fraction may not be corrosive, but cooling water can corrode carbon steel tubes.
Also, the petroleum fraction should be placed in the shell due to its large ∆T of 1000 F according
to the guidelines.
(ii). Shell and head types
A floating-head exchanger is selected to permit mechanical cleaning of the exterior tube

surfaces. Also, the floating tube sheet will allow for differential thermal expansion due to the
large temperature difference between the two streams. Hence, a type AES exchanger is
specified.
(iii) Tubing
Following the design guidelines for water service, 3/4 in., 16 BWG tubes are selected with a
length of 20 ft.
(iv) Tube layout
Since cleaning of the tube exterior surfaces will be required, square pitch is specified to provide
cleaning lanes through the tube bundle. Following the design guidelines, for 3/4 in. tubes a
tube pitch of 1 inch is specified.
(v) Baffles
Segmental baffles with a 20% cut are required by the Simplified Delaware method, but this is a
reasonable starting point in any case. In consideration of Figure 5.4, a baffle spacing of 0.3 shell
diameters is chosen, i.e., B/ds =0.3.
(vi) Sealing strips
One pair of sealing strips per 10 tube rows is specified in accordance with the requirements of
the Simplified Delaware method and the design guidelines.
(vii) Construction materials
Since neither fluid is corrosive, plain carbon steel is specified for tubes, shell, and other
components.
b Energy balances.
q = (m CP∆T)p.f = 60,000 × 0.52 × 100 = 3120000 Btu/h
3120000= ( mCP∆T)water = mw × 1 ×35
mw = 89143 lb/h
Hence, the mass flow rate of cooling water = 89143 lb/h

c. ( LMTD)cf = 940F
d. LMTD correction factor
R = 2.9 P = 0.21
Hence for 1 shell pass, F = 0.93 > 0.8. Hence 1 shell pass is sufficient.
e. Estimate UD.
In order to obtain an initial estimate for the size of the exchanger, an approximate value for the
overall heat-transfer coefficient is used. From Table 3.5, for a kerosene/oil exchanger, it is found
that 25≤UD ≤50 Btu/(h ·ft2 ·0F). A value near the middle of the range is selected:
UD =40 Btu/(h · ft2 · 0 F)
f. Calculate the heat transfer area and number of tubes
q
A = 892.2 ft2
U D F Tln cf
A
nt  =227
d o L
g. Number of tube passes
The number of tube passes is chosen to give fully developed turbulent flow in the tubes and a
reasonable fluid velocity.
di = 0.62 in = 0.0517 ft (Table B.1)

4mn p / nt 
Re   6126 n p  10000
d i 
So, n p  2
Checking for fluid velocity,
mn p / nt 
V
d / 4  1.7 (Recommended range:
i
2
3-8 ft/s). Incrasing the number of tube passes to 6,
ft / s
V = 5.1 ft/s. So 6 tube passes are selected.
Hence number of tube passes = 6
h. Shell size and actual tube count
From the tube-count table for 1 in. tubes on 1 -in. square pitch (Table C.5), with six tube passes
and a type S head, the listing closest to 227 is 260 tubes in a 21 1/4-in. shell. Hence, the number
of tubes is adjusted to nt =260 and the shell ID is taken as ds =21.25 in.
This completes the initial design of the heat exchanger. The initial design must now be rated to
determine whether it is adequate for the service. Since the temperature dependence of the fluid
properties is not available, they will be assumed constant; the viscosity correction factors will be
set to unity and the tube wall temperature will not be calculated.
i. Calculate the required overall coefficient.
q BTU
U req   35
nt d o LF Tln cf h. ft 2 .0 F
j. Calculate hi
4mn p / nt 
Re  = 26530
d i 
BTU
Kwater at 1000F = 0.3632
h. ft . 0 F
BTU
Cp,water = 1
h.. lb. 0 F
lb
Viscosity of water at 1000F = 0.653 cP = 0.653x2.419
ft.h
0.14
  
hi  k / d i x0.023Re  Pr  BTU
0.8 1/ 3
   754.7
 w  h. ft 2 .0 F
k. Calculate ho
B = 0.3 ds = 0.3 × 21.25 = 6.375 in.
d sC1B
as   0.235 ft 2
144 PT
m lb
Gs   255319
as h. ft 2
De = 0.95/12 = 0.079 ft (from Figure 3.12)
Res = DeGs/μs = 0.079 × 255319/(2.75*2.419) = 3032
jH = 0.5(1 + B/ds)(0.08Re0.6821 + 0.7Re0.1772) = 14.32
BTU
ho = jH(k/De)Pr1/3(μ/μw)0.14 = 48.1
h. ft 2 .0 F
l. Calculate the clean overall coefficient
BTU
ktube (brass) = 63
h. ft . 0 F
1
 d  
 ln  o  
 d0  d i  1  = 44 BTU
Uc   do 
d h 2 k ho  h. ft 2 .0 F
 i i tube

 
Since UC >Ureq, continue.
m. Fouling factors
The fouling factors for the petroleum fraction and crude oil are taken as 0.002 h · ft2 ·0F/Btu
Hence, the total fouling allowance is:
Rdi d o
Rd   Rdo  0.0044 h · ft2 ·0F/Btu
di
n. Calculate the design overall coefficient
BTU
UD = (1/UC + RD)−1 = 37
h. ft 2 .0 F
Since UD is much greater than Ureq, the exchanger is thermally workable, but over-sized.
o. Over-surface and over-design
It is convenient to perform the calculations using overall coefficients rather than surface areas.
The appropriate relationships are as follows:
over-surface = UC/Ureq − 1 = 27% < 40%
over-design = UD/Ureq − 1 = 5.7% (~5%)
Clearly, the heat exchanger is thermally suitable.
p. Tube-side pressure drop
The friction factor is computed using Equation: f = 0.4137 Re−0.2585 = 0.03
mn p / nt  lb
G  981193
 d / 4
i
2
h. ft 2
The pressure drop due to friction is given by:
fn p LG 2
Pf   8.94 psi < 10 psi (allowed)
7.5 x1012 d i s
The tube entrance, exit, and return losses are estimated using Equation (5.3) with αr equal to
(2nP −1.5) from Table 5.1.
Number of Velocity Heads Allocated for Minor Losses on Tube Side
Flow regime Regular tubes U-tubes
Turbulent 2np – 1.5 1.6np – 1.5
Laminar 3.25np – 1.5 2.38np – 1.5
∆Pr = 1.334 × 10−13(2np − 1.5)G2/s = 1.35 psi
Table 5.3 indicates that 4-in. nozzles are appropriate for a 21.25-in. shell. Assuming schedule 40
4m
pipe is used for the nozzles, Re n   214169
d n 
m 89143 * 4 lb
Gn  
 
 d n / 4  4.026 / 12 h. ft 2
2 2
Pn  2 x10 13 N s G n2 / s  0.2 psi
The total tube-side pressure drop is:

∆Pi = ∆Pf + ∆Pr + ∆Pn = 8.94 + 1.35 + 0.2 = 10.49 ≈ 10psi (allowed)
q. Shell-side pressure drop

The friction factor is calculated using Equations (5.7)–(5.9).
f1 = (0.0076 + 0.000166 ds) Re−0.125 = = 0.00408 ft2/in2
f2 = (0.0016 + 5.8 × 10−5ds) Re−0.157 = = 0.000804 ft2/in2
f = 144{ f1 − 1.25(1 − B/ds) (f1 − f2)}

= 144{0.00322 − 1.25(1 − 0.3)(0.00322 − 0.000597)}= 0.1747
The number of baffle spaces, nb +1, is estimated by neglecting the thickness of the tubesheets.
The baffle spacing is commonly interpreted as the center-to-center distance between baffles,
which is technically the baffle pitch. In effect, the baffle thickness is accounted for in the baffle
spacing.
The result is:
nb + 1=L/B = (20 × 12)/6.375 = 37.65 ⇒ 37
The friction loss is given by Equation (5.6):
∆Pf =f G2ds(nb + 1)/(7.50 × 1012desφ) =
0.1332(239,362)2 × 21.25 × 38/(7.50 × 1012 × 0.99 × 0.785 × 1.0) = 1.06 psi
Since the flow rate of petroleum fraction is comparable with that of the cooling water, 4-in.
nozzles should be adequate for the shell. Assuming schedule 40 pipe is used
4m 4 x60000
Re n    34229
d n  x4.026 / 12 * 2.75 * 2.419
m lb
Gn   678700

 dn / 4
2
 h. ft 2
Pn  2 x10 13 N s G n2 / s  0.112 psi

∆Po = ∆Pf + ∆Pn = 1.06 + 0.112 = 1.172 psi < < 10 psi (allowed)
Therefore, the design is hydraulically acceptable.
Final design summary
Tube-side fluid: cooling water. Shell-side fluid: petroleum fraction.
Shell: Type AES, 21.25-in. ID
Tube bundle: 258 tubes, 3/4-in. OD, 14 BWG, 20-ft long, on 1-in. square pitch,
arranged for six passes.
Heat-transfer area: 892 ft2
Baffles: 20% cut segmental type with spacing approximately 3.85 in.
Sealing strips: one pair per ten tube rows.
Nozzles: 4-in. schedule 40 on tube side; 3-in. schedule 40 on shell side.
Materials: plain carbon steel shell and copper tubes.

Solved Example 1-5 (with more trials)
A kerosene stream with a flow rate of 45,000 lb/h is to be cooled from 3900F to 2500F by heat
exchange with 150,000 lb/h of crude oil at 1000F. A maximum pressure drop of 15 psi has been
specified for each stream. Prior experience with this particular oil indicates that it exhibits
significant fouling tendencies, and a fouling factor of 0.003 h · ft2 · ◦F/Btu is recommended.
Physical properties of the two streams are given in the table below.
Design a shell-and-tube heat exchanger for this service.
Fluid property Kerosene Crude oil
CP (Btu/lbm · ◦F) 0.59 0.49
k (Btu/h · ft · ◦F) 0.079 0.077
μ (lbm/ft · h) 0.97 8.7
Specific gravity 0.785 0.85
Pr 7.24 55.36
Solution
(a) Make initial specifications.
(i) Fluid placement
Kerosene is not corrosive, but crude oil may be, depending on salt and sulfur contents and
temperature. At the low temperature of the oil stream in this application, however, corrosion
should not be a problem provided the oil has been desalted. Nevertheless, the crude oil should
be placed in the tubes due to its relatively high fouling tendency. Also, the kerosene should be
placed in the shell due to its large ∆T of 1400 F according to the guidelines.
(ii) Shell and head types
A floating-head exchanger is selected to permit mechanical cleaning of the exterior tube

surfaces. Also, the floating tube sheet will allow for differential thermal expansion due to the
large temperature difference between the two streams. Hence, a type AES exchanger is
specified.
(iii) Tubing
Following the design guidelines for a fouling oil service, 1 in., 14BWG tubes are selected with a
length of 20 ft.
(iv) Tube layout
Since cleaning of the tube exterior surfaces will be required, square pitch is specified to provide
cleaning lanes through the tube bundle. Following the design guidelines, for 1 in. tubes a tube
pitch of 1.25 in. is specified.
(v) Baffles
Segmental baffles with a 20% cut are required by the Simplified Delaware method, but this is a
reasonable starting point in any case. In consideration of Figure 5.4, a baffle spacing of 0.3 shell
diameters is chosen, i.e., B/ds =0.3.
(vi) Sealing strips
One pair of sealing strips per 10 tube rows is specified in accordance with the requirements of
the Simplified Delaware method and the design guidelines.
(vii) Construction materials
Since neither fluid is corrosive, plain carbon steel is specified for tubes, shell, and other
components.
b Energy balances.
q = (m CP∆T)ker = 45,000 × 0.59 × 140 = 3,717,000 Btu/h
3,717,000 = ( mCP∆T)oil = 150, 000 × 0.49 ×∆Toil
∆Toil = 50.60F
Hence, outlet oil temperature = 150.60F

c. ( LMTD)cf = 191.20F
d. LMTD correction factor
R = 2.8 P = 0.17
Hence for 1 shell pass, F = 0.97 > 0.8. Hence 1 shell pass is sufficient.
e. Estimate UD.
In order to obtain an initial estimate for the size of the exchanger, an approximate value for the
overall heat-transfer coefficient is used. From Table 3.5, for a kerosene/oil exchanger, it is found
that 20≤UD ≤35 Btu/h · ft2 · 0 F. A value near the middle of the range is selected:
UD =25 Btu/h · ft2 · 0 F
f. Calculate the heat transfer area and number of tubes
q
A = 801.7 ft2
A
nt  =153
d o L
g. Number of tube passes
The number of tube passes is chosen to give fully developed turbulent flow in the tubes and a
reasonable fluid velocity.
di = 0.834 in = 0.0695 ft (Table B.1)

4mn p / nt 
Re   2064.5 n p  10000
d i 
So, n p  6
Checking for fluid velocity,
mn p / nt 
V  8 ft / s (Recommended range: 3-8 ft/s). Hence number of tube passes = 6
d i
2
/4 
h. Shell size and actual tube count
From the tube-count table for 1 in. tubes on 1 1/4-in. square pitch (Table C.5), with six tube
passes and a type S head, the listing closest to 153 is 156 tubes in a 21 1/4-in. shell. Hence, the
number of tubes is adjusted to nt =156 and the shell ID is taken as ds =21.25 in.
This completes the initial design of the heat exchanger. The initial design must now be rated to
determine whether it is adequate for the service. Since the temperature dependence of the fluid
properties is not available, they will be assumed constant; the viscosity correction factors will be
set to unity and the tube wall temperature will not be calculated.
i. Calculate the required overall coefficient.
q BTU
U req   24.5
nt d o LF Tln cf h. ft 2 .0 F
j. Calculate hi
4mn p / nt 
Re  = 12149
d i 
0.14
  
hi  k / d i x0.023Re  Pr  BTU
0.8 1/ 3
   180
 w  h. ft 2 .0 F
k. Calculate ho
d sC1B
B = 0.3 ds = 0.3 × 21.25 = 6.375 in. as   0.188 ft 2
144 PT
m lb
G  239362
as h. ft 2
De = 0.99/12 = 0.0825 ft (from Figure 3.12)
Re = DeG/μ = 0.0825 × 239,362/0.97 = 20,358
jH = 0.5(1 + B/ds)(0.08Re0.6821 + 0.7Re0.1772) = 47.8
BTU
ho = jH(k/De)Pr1/3(μ/μw)0.14 = 88.5
h. ft 2 .0 F
l. Calculate the clean overall coefficient
1
 d  
 ln  o  
 d0  d i  1  = 54.8 BTU
Uc   do 
d h 2k tube ho  h. ft 2 .0 F
 i i

 
Since UC >Ureq, continue.
m. Fouling factors
The fouling factor for the crude oil is specified as 0.003 h · ft2 ·0F/Btu, and from Table 3.3, a
value of 0.002 h · ft2 ·0F/Btu is taken for kerosene. Hence, the total fouling allowance is:
Rdi d o
Rd   Rdo  0.0056 h · ft2 ·0F/Btu
di
n. Calculate the design overall coefficient
BTU
UD = (1/UC + RD)−1 = 41.9
h. ft 2 .0 F
Since UD is much greater than Ureq, the exchanger is thermally workable, but over-sized.
o. Over-surface and over-design
It is convenient to perform the calculations using overall coefficients rather than surface areas.
The appropriate relationships are as follows:
over-surface = UC/Ureq − 1 = 54.8/24.5 − 1 = 124%
over-design = UD/Ureq − 1 = 41.9/24.5 − 1 = 71%
Clearly, the exchanger is much larger than necessary.
p. Tube-side pressure drop
mn p / nt  lb
G  1520752
 d / 4
i
2
h. ft 2
fn p LG 2
Pf   22.8 psi > 15 psi
7.5 x1012 d i s
Laminar 3.25np – 1.5 2.38np – 1.5
∆Pr = 1.334 × 10−13(2np − 1.5)G2/s = 1.334 × 10−13(10.5)(1,520,752)2/0.85= 3.81 psi

q. Shell-side pressure drop
The friction factor is calculated using Equations (5.7)–(5.9).

f1 = (0.0076 + 0.000166 ds) Re−0.125 = (0.0076 + 0.000166 × 21.25)(20,358)−0.125
= 0.00322 ft2/in2
f2 = (0.0016 + 5.8 × 10−5ds) Re−0.157 = (0.0016 + 5.8 × 10−5 × 21.25)(20,358)−0.157
= 0.000597 ft2/in2
f = 144{ f1 − 1.25(1 − B/ds) (f1 − f2)}

= 144{0.00322 − 1.25(1 − 0.3)(0.00322 − 0.000597)}= 0.1332
The number of baffle spaces, nb +1, is estimated by neglecting the thickness of the tubesheets.
The baffle spacing is commonly interpreted as the center-to-center distance between baffles,
which is technically the baffle pitch. In effect, the baffle thickness is accounted for in the baffle
spacing. The result is:
nb + 1=L/B = (20 × 12)/6.375 = 37.65 ⇒ 38
The friction loss is given by Equation (5.6):
∆Pf =f G2ds(nb + 1)/(7.50 × 1012desφ) =
0.1332(239,362)2 × 21.25 × 38/(7.50 × 1012 × 0.99 × 0.785 × 1.0) = 1.06 psi
Since the tube side pressure drop is much higher than the allowable, we reduce the number of
tube passes.
q
Areq   478 ft 2
Areq
nt req   92
d o L
Taking four tube passes, the tube-count table shows that the closest count is 104 tubes in a
17.25-in shell. The effect of these changes on the tube-side flow and pressure drop are estimated
as follows.
Re → 12,149(4/6)(156/104) = 12,149
∆Pf ∼ np 2.74 nt −1.74 = 15.2 psi
∆Pr = 1.334 × 10−13(6.5)(1,520,752)2/0.85 = 2.36 psi
In order to further reduce the tube side pressure drop, we increase the number of tubes.
Referring again to the tube-count table, the next largest unit is a 19.25-in. shell containing a
maximum of 130 tubes (for four passes). The tube-side Reynolds number for this configuration
is: Re → 12, 149(4/6)(156/130) = 9719
Reducing the number of tubes to 124 (31 per pass) gives Rei =10,189. The friction loss then
becomes: ∆Pf → 22.8(4/6)2.74(124/156)−1.74 = 11.2 psi
mn p / nt  150000 x4 / 124 lb

G   1275470

 di / 4
2
  (0.0695 / 4)
2
h. ft 2
∆Pr = 1.334 × 10−13(2np − 1.5)G2/s = 1.334 × 10−13(6.5)(1275470)2/0.85= 1.66 psi
Hence tube side pressure drop condition is met as the calculated value is below 15 psi.
Thus, for the second trial a 19.25-in. shell containing 124 tubes arranged for four passes is
specified. Due to the low shell-side pressure drop, the baffle spacing is also reduced to the
minimum of 0.2 ds.
We will calculate the overall coefficient, UD, and use it to determine the tube length that is
needed. The pressure drops will then be checked.
Calculate hi
4mn p / nt 
Re  = 10189
d i 
0.14
  
hi  k / d i x0.023Re  Pr  BTU
0.8 1/ 3
   156
 w  h. ft 2 .0 F
Calculate ho
B = 0.2 ds = 0.2 × 19.25 = 3.85 in.
d sC1B
as   0.103 ft 2
144 PT
m lb
G  436893
as h. ft 2
De = 0.99/12 = 0.0825 ft (from Figure 3.12)
Re = DeG/μ = 0.0825 × 436893/0.97 = 37158
jH = 0.5(1 + B/ds)(0.08Re0.6821 + 0.7Re0.1772) = 65.6
BTU
ho = jH(k/De)Pr1/3(μ/μw)0.14 = 122
h. ft 2 .0 F
1
 d  
 ln  o  
  di  1
 RD 
d0 BTU
UD   do   46
d h 2k tube ho  h. ft 2 .0 F
 i i 
 
Calculate tube length.
q = UDntπDoLF(∆Tln)cf
That is, L = 13.4 ft ≈14 ft
Tube-side pressure drop
mn p / nt  lb
G  1275470
 d i2 / 4 h. ft 2
fn p LG 2
Pf   7.83 psi
7.5 x1012 d i s
Laminar 3.25np – 1.5 2.38np – 1.5
∆Pr = 1.334 × 10−13(2np − 1.5)G2/s = 1.334 × 10−13(6.5)(1,520,752)2/0.85= 1.66 psi
Table 5.3 indicates that 4-in. nozzles are appropriate for a 19.25-in. shell. Assuming schedule 40
4m 4 x150000
pipe is used for the nozzles, Re n    65432
d n  x4.026 / 12x8.7
m lb
Gn   1696744
 d n / 4
2
h. ft 2
Pn  2 x10 13 N s G n2 / s  0.68 psi

∆Pi = ∆Pf + ∆Pr + ∆Pn = 7.83 + 1.66 + 0.68 = 10.17= 10.2 psi
Shell-side pressure drop

Since B/ds =0.2, the friction factor is given by: f = 144f2
= 144(0.0016 + 5.8 × 10−5 ds)Re−0.157

= 0.07497
nb + 1=L/B = (14 × 12)/3.85 = 43
The pressure drop due to friction is given by Equation (5.6):
∆Pf =f G2ds(nb + 1)/(7.50 × 1012desφ) = 2.03 psi
Since the flow rate of kerosene is much less than that of the crude oil, 3-in. nozzles should be
adequate for the shell. Assuming schedule 40 pipe is used
4m 4 x 45000
Re n    231034
d n  x3.068 / 12x0.97
m lb
Gn   876545
 d n / 4
2
h. ft 2
Pn  2 x10 13 N s G n2 / s  0.2 psi

∆Po = ∆Pf + ∆Pn = 2.03 + 0.2 = 2.23 psi
Over surface and over design.
UC = [1/UD − RD]−1 = [1/46 − 0.0056]−1 = 62 Btu/h · ft2 ·0F

A = ntπDoL = 124π × (1.0/12) × 14 = 454 ft2
Ureq =q/(AF(∆Tln)cf = 44 Btu/h · ft2 ·0F
over-surface = UC/Ureq − 1 = 62/44 − 1 = 41%
over-design = UD/Ureq − 1 = 46/44 − 1 = 4.5%
Fluid velocity is 6.7 ft/s, which is within the recommended range. Therefore, the design is
acceptable.
Final design summary
Tube-side fluid: crude oil. Shell-side fluid: kerosene.
Shell: Type AES, 19.25-in. ID
Tube bundle: 124 tubes, 1-in. OD, 14 BWG, 14-ft long, on 1.25-in. square pitch,
arranged for four passes.
Heat-transfer area: 454 ft2
Baffles: 20% cut segmental type with spacing approximately 3.85 in.
Sealing strips: one pair per ten tube rows.
Nozzles: 4-in. schedule 40 on tube side; 3-in. schedule 40 on shell side.
Materials: plain carbon steel throughout.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS – I B
Design Problem 1
320,000 lb/h of oil (32◦API, Kw =12.0) will be cooled from 2600 F to 1300 F using treated water
from a cooling tower with a range of 800 F to 1200 F. For each stream, the inlet pressure will be
50 psia and a maximum pressure drop of 12 psi is specified. A fouling factor of 0.002 h · ft2 0F
/Btu is required for the oil stream, which is not corrosive. Properties of the oil are given below.
Oil property Value at 1950 F
CP (Btu/lbm 0F) 0.53
k (Btu/h · ft ·0F) 0.068
μ (cp) 3.12∗
ρ (lbm/ft3) 50.5
Pr 58.8
∗μ(cp)=0.00488 exp [4230.8/T(0 R)].
(a) Develop an initial configuration for a shell-and-tube heat exchanger to meet this service.
Use plain (un-finned) tubes.
(b) Perform the rating calculations for the initial configuration obtained in part (a).
(c) Based on the results of the rating calculations in part (b), specify what changes, if any,
should be made to the configuration of the heat exchanger for the next trial.
(d) Obtain a final design for the heat exchanger.

Design Problem 2
150,000 lb/h of kerosene will be heated from 750 F to 1200 F by cooling a gasoline stream from
160◦F to 120◦F. Inlet pressure will be 50 psia for each stream and maximum pressure drops of 7
psi for gasoline and 10 psi for kerosene are specified. Published fouling factors for oil refinery
streams should be used for this application. Stream properties may be assumed constant at the
values given below. Design a shell-and-tube heat exchanger for this service.
Property Gasoline Kerosene
CP 0.55 0.48
(Btu/lbm
· 0 F)
k (Btu/h · 0.087 0.081

ft · 0 F)
μ (cp) 0.45 1.5
s 0.74 0.82
Pr 6.88 21.5
DATA TABLES
Fig 1-17
Table 1-9
Table 1-10
Figure 1-18
Table 1-11
Table 1-12
Table 1-13
Table 1-14
Table 1-15
Table 1-16
Table 1-17
Table 1-18
Table 1-19
Table 1-20
Table 1-21
Table 1-22
CHAPTER 2
DESIGNING PACKED BED ABSORBER
SUMMARY
The designing of packed bed absorber starts with mass balances between gas and
liquid phases to compute the exit compositions of gas or liquid and further,
equilibrium number of transfer units are determined analytically and also verified
graphically. The column diameter is computed through operating and flooding
characteristics in packed bed and appropriate correlations are utilized to establish
the height of each transfer unit considering the various parameters such as
packing surface, packing size, gas-liquid interfacial area and various physical
properties such as density, viscosity and diffusivity of gas and liquid phases and
the height of column is determined from the height of transfer unit and the
number of transfer units. The diffusivities that are required to compute the height
of each transfer unit are estimated through appropriate correlations, collision
functions, molecular separations between collisions and association factors for
solvents.
2-1 Introduction [5], [6], [7] & [8]

Packed columns are used for distillation, gas absorption, and liquid-liquid extraction. The gas
liquid contact in a packed bed column is continuous, not stage-wise, as in a plate column. The
liquid flows down the column over the packing surface and the gas or vapor, counter-currently,
up the column.
A schematic diagram, showing the main features of a packed absorption column, is given in
Figure 2-1.
Fig 2-1
In gas absorption soluble vapors are more or less absorbed in the solvent from its mixture with
inert gas. The purpose of such gas scrubbing operations may be any of the following;
 For Separation of component having the economic value.
 As a stage in the preparation of some compound.
 For removing undesired component (pollution).
2-2 TYPES OF ABSORPTION
 Physical absorption
 Chemical Absorption
Physical Absorption:
In physical absorption mass transfer take place purely by diffusion and physical absorption is
governed by the physical equilibria.
Chemical Absorption:
In this type of absorption as soon as a particular component comes in contact with the
absorbing liquid, a chemical reaction take place. Then by reducing the concentration of
component in the liquid phase, the rate of diffusion will be enhanced.
2-3 TYPES OF ABSORBERS

There are two major types of absorbers which are used for absorption purposes:
 Packed column
 Plate column
Comparison between packed and plate column:
 The packed column provides continuous contact between vapor and liquid phases while
the plate column brings the two phases into contact on stage wise basis.
 SCALE: For column diameter of less than approximately 6 ft. It is more usual to employ
packed towers because of high fabrication cost of small trays. But if the column is very
large then the liquid distribution is problem and large volume of packing and its weight
is problem.
 PRESSURE DROP: Pressure drop in packed column is less than the plate column. In
plate column there is additional friction generated as the vapor passes through the liquid
on each tray. If there are large number of Plates in the tower, this pressure drop may be
quite high and the use of packed column could affect considerable saving.
 LIQUID HOLD UP: Because of the liquid on each plate there may be large quantity of
the liquid in plate column, whereas in a packed tower the liquid flows as a thin film over
the packing.
 SIZE AND COST: For diameters of less than 6 ft, packed tower require lower fabrication
and material costs than plate tower with regard to height, a packed column is usually
shorter than the equivalent plate column.
2-4 Packing
The packing is the most important component of the system. The packing provides sufficient
area for intimate contact between phases. There are two types of packing: those which are
dumped at random into the tower and those which must be stacked by hand. Dumped packing
consists of unit 1/4 to 3 inches in major dimension and are used mostly in smaller columns. The
units in stacked packing are 2 to about 8 inches in size and they are used only in the larger
towers.
The Principal Requirement of a Tower packing are:

 It must be chemically inert to the fluids in the tower.
 It must be strong without excessive weight.
 It must contain adequate passages for both streams without excessive liquid hold up
or pressure drop.
 It must provide good contact between liquid and gas.
 It must be reasonable in cost.
Thus most packing is made of cheap, inert, fairly light materials such as clay, porcelain, or
graphite. Thin-walled metal rings of steel or aluminum are sometimes used.
Common Packings are:
 Berl Saddle.
 Intalox Saddle.
 Rasching rings.
 Lessing rings.
2-5 DESIGNING STEPS FOR ABSORPTION COLUMN

 Selection of column, packing and material
 Calculating the size of packing
 Calculating the diameter of column
 Determining the no. of transfer units (NOG)
 Determining the height of packing
 Determining the height of the column
 Calculating the operating velocity
 Calculating the flooding velocity
 Determining the pressure drop.
 Select and design the column internal features: packing support, liquid distributer
and redistributor.
Design data for various types of packing
Table 2-1
2-6 Packing size
In general, the largest size of packing that is suitable for the size of column should be used, up
to 50 mm. Small sizes are appreciably more expensive than the larger sizes. Above 50 mm the
lower cost per cubic metre does not normally compensate for the lower mass transfer efficiency.
Use of too large a size in a small column can cause poor liquid distribution.
Recommended size ranges are:
Column diameter packing size
<0.3 m (1 ft) <25 mm (1 in.)

0.3 to 0.9 m (1 to 3 ft) 25 to 38 mm (1 to 1.5 in.)
>0.9 m 50 to 75 mm (2 to 3 in.)
2-7 Number of overall transfer units

If the equilibrium curve and operating lines can be taken as straight and the solvent feed
essentially solute free, the number of transfer units is given by:
Fig 2-2
2-8 Typical values for the height of transfer unit (HTU) of random packings
25 mm (1 in) 0.3 to 0.6 m (1 to 2 ft)

38 mm (1.12 in) 0.5 to 0.75 m (112 to 212 ft)
50 mm (2 in) 0.6 to 1.0 m (2 to 3 ft)
Table 2-2
2-9 Column diameter
The capacity of a packed column is determined by its cross-sectional area. Normally, the
column will be designed to operate at the highest economical pressure drop, to ensure good
liquid and gas distribution. For random packings the pressure drop will not normally exceed 80
mm of water per meter of packing height. At this value the gas velocity will be about 80 per
cent of the flooding velocity. Recommended design values, mm water
per m packing, are: Absorbers and strippers 15 to 60, Distillation, atmospheric and moderate
pressure 40 to 80. Where the liquid is likely to foam, these values should be halved.
The column cross-sectional area and diameter for the selected pressure drop can be determined
from the generalized pressure-drop correlation.
Fig 2-3
Figure 2-3 correlates the liquid and vapor flow rates, system physical properties and packing
characteristics, with the gas mass flow-rate per unit cross-sectional area; with lines of constant
pressure drop as a parameter.
0.1
 
 
13.1 V F p  L
* 2

 W
w

The term K4 on Figure 2-3 is the function: K 4 
 v  L   v 
where Vw* is the gas mass flow-rate per unit column cross-sectional area, kg/m2s
Fp = packing factor, characteristic of the size and type of packing
L is the liquid viscosity, Ns/m2

 L and  v are the liquid and vapor densities, kg/m3
The values of the flow factor FLV given in Figure 11.44 covers the range that will generally give
satisfactory column performance.
The ratio of liquid to gas flow will be fixed by the reflux ratio in distillation; and in gas
absorption will be selected to give the required separation with the most economic use of
solvent.
2-10 Cornell’s method
Cornell et al. (1960) reviewed the previously published data and presented empirical equations
for predicting the height of the gas and liquid film transfer units. Their correlation takes into
account the physical properties of the system, the gas and liquid flow-rates; and the column
diameter and height.
Fig 2-4
Fig 2-5
Fig 2-6
The terms (Dc/0.305) and (Z/3.05) are included in the equations to allow for the effects of
column diameter and packed-bed height. The “standard” values used by Cornell were 1 ft
(0.305 m) for diameter, and 10 ft (3.05 m) for height. For design purposes the diameter
correction term should be taken as a fixed value of 2.3 for columns above 0.6 m (2 ft) diameter,
and the height correction should only be included when the distance between liquid
redistributors is greater than 3 m. To use Figures 2-4 and 2-5 an estimate of the column
percentage flooding is needed. This can be obtained from Figure 2-3, where a flooding line has
been included with the lines of constant pressure drop.
𝐾4 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 1/2

% 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = [ ]
𝐾4 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
2-11 Onda’s method
Onda et al. (1968) published useful correlations for the film mass-transfer coefficients kG and kL
and the effective wetted area of the packing aw, which can be used to calculate HG and HL.
Their correlations were based on a large amount of data on gas absorption and distillation; with
a variety of packings, which included Pall rings and Berl saddles. Their method for estimating
the effective area of packing can also be used with experimentally determined values of the
mass-transfer coefficients, and values predicted using other correlations.
The equation for the effective area is:

2-12 To estimate the Diffusivity of gases for binary mixtures
For binary mixtures, diffusivity of gases depends on temperature and pressure.
Expressions for estimating D in the presence of experimental data are based on considerations
of kinetic theory of gases.
For most gases,
 1 1  1.5  1 1 
10  4 1.084  0.249  T 
 M A M B   M
 M B 

A
D AB
2  kT 
p t rAB  f  

 AB 
D AB  diffusivity (m / s )
2
T  absolute temperature ( K )
M A , M B  molecular weights of A and B
pt  absolute total pressure ( Pa)
r r 
rAB  molecular separation at collision (nm)   A B 
 2 
 AB  energy of molecular attraction   A B
k  Boltzmann ' s cons tan t
 kT 
f    collision function
  AB 
The values of r and  can be calculated from properties of gases. They can be estimated as
follows:
r  1.18 v1 / 3

 1.21 Tb
k
v  molar volume at normal boiling po int (m 3 / kmol)
Tb  normal boiling po int ( K )
Collision function can be obtained using the following graph:
Fig 2-7
Table 2-3
Table 2-4
2-13 Calculation for diffusivity of liquid
Table 2-5
For dilute solutions,
0
117.3𝑥10−18 (𝜑𝑀𝐵 )0.5 𝑇
𝐷 𝐴𝐵 =
𝜇 𝑣𝐴0.6
𝐷0𝐴𝐵 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵
𝑀𝐵 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝐾)
𝑘𝑔
𝜇 = 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑖 𝑡𝑦 ( )
𝑚. 𝑠
𝑣𝐴 = 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑁𝐵𝑃 (𝑚3 /𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙)
𝜑 = 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 2.26 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
= 1.9 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙)
= 1.5 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙)
= 1.0 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 , 𝑒𝑔: 𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒)
Solved Example 1
Acetone is absorbed from air using water as the solvent. Operation is at 1 atm and is isothermal
at 200C. The total flow rate of the entering gas is 100 kmol/h. The entering gas is 12 mol %
acetone. Pure water s used as solvent. The water flow rate is 150 kmol/h. We desire an outlet
gas concentration of 1 mol%. The equilibrium relation is y=1.186x, where x and y are mole
fractions of acetone in liquid and gas phases respectively.
Design a packed bed absorber for this process.
Solution:
Step 1: To establish mass balances
Molar flow rate of inlet gas = Gm = 100 kmol/h = 0.0278 kmol/s

Molar flow rate of air in inlet gas (gas solvent & solute free) = G s = 100x0.12 = 88 kmol/h =
0.0244 kmol/s
Mole fraction of acetone in the inlet gas = y1 = 0.12

Hence, mole ratio of acetone to air in inlet gas = Y1 =0.12/(1-0.12) = 0.136 mol/mol
Mole fraction of acetone in the outlet gas = y2 = 0.01

Hence, mole ratio of acetone to air in outlet gas = Y2 = 0.01/(1-0.01) = 0.0101 mol/mol
Molar flow rate of inlet liquid = L = 150 kmol/h = 0.0417 kmol/s

Molar flow rate of water in inlet liquid (liquid solvent & solute free) = L s = 150x(1-0) = 150
kmol/h = 0.0417 kmol/s
Mole fraction of acetone in the inlet liquid = x2 = 0

Hence, mole ratio of acetone to water in inlet liquid = 0/(1-0) = 0 mol/mol
Mole fraction of acetone in the outlet liquid = x1

Hence, mole ratio of acetone to water in outlet liquid =X1 = 0.01/(1-0.01) = 0.0101 mol/mol
Mass blance of acetone: Gs (Y1  Y2 )  Ls ( X 1  X 2 )

X1 = 0.0736
Hence, mole ratio of acetone to water in the outlet liquid = 0.0736 mol/mol
So, mole fraction of acetone in the outlet liquid = x2 = 0.0736/(1+0.0736) = 0.0686
Step 2: Determination of number of transfer units (NOG)
If the equilibrium curve and operating lines can be taken as straight and the solvent feed
essentially solute free, the number of transfer units is given by:
Lm and Gm are the molar flow rates of inlet gas and inlet liquid per unit cross sectional area.
Hence, NOG = 5.7 ≈6
Step 3: To estimate column diameter (Dc)
Packing: 38 mm 1.5 inch Intalox saddles (ceramic).

From table 11.2, packing factor, Fp = 170 m-1.
Calculation for density of vapor at the top of the column:
Average molecular weight of vapor, M = 0.12x58+0.88*28.84 = 32.3

P = 101325 Pa. T = 293 K. Hence ρv,top = PM/(RT) = 1.343 kg/m3
Calculation for density of vapor at the bottom of the column:
Average molecular weight of vapor, M = 0.01x58+0.99*28.84 = 29.13

P = 101325 Pa. T = 293 K. Hence ρv,top = PM/(RT) = 1.211 kg/m3
Hence ρv,avg = 1.277 kg/m3
Density of liquid at the top of the column (pure water) = ρ L,top = 1000 kg/m3
Calculation for density of liquid at the bottom of the column:
Basis: 1 kmol liquid at bottom
Mass of acetone = (0.0686)x(58) = 3.98 kg
Mass of water = (1-0.0686)x(18) = 16.765 kg

Volume of acetone = 3.98/784 = 0.00508 m3
Vole of water = 16.765/1000 = 0.016765 m3
So, volume fraction of acetone = 0.23

Hence, ρL,bottom = 0.23*784 + 0.77*1000 = 950 kg/m3
Hence ρL,avg = 975 kg/m3
0.1
 
 
13.1 V F p  L
* 2

 W
w
K4  
 v  L   v 
L*w Lw 0.0417 *18
*
   0.836
Vw Vw 0.0278 * 32.3
v  v ,avg
  0.0362
L  L ,avg
Hence, FLV  0.03
P
For  50 mm meter packed height ,
z
By int er[olation, K 4  2
K 4, flooding  5.5
K4
Hence % flooding  100  60 (accepted )
K 4, flooding
kg
Vw*  2.1
m2s
Vw
Therefore, cross sec tional area of the column, Ac  *
 0.427m 2
Vw
Hence, column diameter, Dc  0.75 m (30inch )
Step 4: To estimate HOG (height of gas transfer unit)
Calculation for average viscosity of vapor at top:
 v ,top  (0.01 * 0.0075)  (0.99 * 0.0175)  0.0174 cP

 v ,bottom  (0.12 * 0.0075)  (0.88 * 0.0175)  0.0163 cP
Hence,  v ,avg  0.01685 cP  1.685 x10 5 NS / m 2
Step 5: Estimation of diffusivity in gas phase
Using Fig 2-7, Table 2-3, Table 2-4 and equation for Dv (=DAB) and all the other relations, Dv =
8x10-6 m2/s
Step 6: Estimation of diffusivity in liquid phase
Using the Table 2-5 and other values of physical properties, DL = DAB0 = 7.16x10-10 m2/s
Step 7: Cornell method to estimate HOG (height of overall transfer unit based on
gas phase)
Schmidt number for the vapor phase is given as:
 v ,avg 1.685 x10 5

Scv    1.649
 v ,avg Dv 1.277 8 *10 6 
Schmidt number for the liquid phase is given as:
 L ,avg 9.77 x10 4

Sc L    417.5

 L ,avg DL 975 2.4 *10 9 
From Fig 2-4, K3=0.85

From Fig 2-5, ψh = 80
From Fig. 2-6, φh = 0.0433
H L  0.305 * 0.0433 * (417.5) 0.5 * 0.85 * (3.05) 0.15 Z 0.15

 0.194 Z 0.15
 0.5  0.75 
1.11

 3.05
 0.33 0.33
0.011 * 80 * (1.649)  Z 
  0.305  
HG    1.562Z 0.33
1.847 0.5
mGm H L 1.186 * 0.0278 * 0.194 Z 0.15

H OG  H G   1.562Z 0.33   1.562Z 0.33  0.153Z 0.15
Lm 0.0417
 
Z  H OG N OG  5.7 * 1.562 Z 0.33  0.153 Z 0.15  8.9 Z 0.33  0.8721 Z 0.15
Z  28 m  92 ft
Step 8: Onda’s method to estimate HOG (height of overall transfer unit based on
gas phase)
a=194
c=0.061 N/m
L=(2.1*10-7)*(Tc-T)*v2/3 = 0.108 N/m
Hence, aw = 175.3
kL = 3*10-5 m/s
kG = 6.6557*10-4 kmol/(m2.s.bar)
HG = 0.533 m
HL = 3.21 m
HOG = 3.07 m
Z=5.7*3.07 = 17.5 m
Higher value is recommended, Hence Z = 28 m

PRACTICE PROBLEMS - II
Design problem 1
n-Butane from a light gas is absorbed into a heavy oil (solvent) at 1000 kPa and 150C. The flow
rate of the inlet gas is 150 kmol/h and the mole fraction of n-Butane in the inlet gas is 0.003.
The inlet solvent flows at 75 kmol/h and contains no n-Butane. We want an exit vapor with
0.0004 mole fraction n-Butane. Use the DePriester chart for equilibrium data. Assume the light
gas is insoluble and heavy oil is non-volatile.
Design problem 2
Sulphur dioxide produced by the combustion of sulphur in air is absorbed in water. Pure SO2 is
then recovered from the solution by steam stripping. Make a preliminary design for the
absorption column. The feed will be 5000 kg/h of gas containing 8 per cent v/v SO2. The gas
will be cooled to 200C. A 95 per cent recovery of the sulphur dioxide is required. m=27.4
Design problem 3
We wish to absorb ammonia from air into water. Equilibrium relationship is given by:
y=1.414x, where x and y are mole fractions of ammonia in liquid and gas phases respectively.
The entering air stream has a total flow rate of 10 kmol/h and is 0.0083 mole fraction ammonia
and the inlet water contains 0.0002 mole fraction ammonia. We desire an outlet gas stream with
0.0005 mole fraction ammonia. (Neq = 3).

CHAPTER 3
DESIGNING PLATE TYPE
CONTINUOUS DISTILLATION
COLUMN
SUMMARY
The designing of plate column for distillation involves the determination of
average relative volatility from vapor liquid equilibria considerations and further,
it involves the determination of feed bubble point, minimum number of
equilibrium stages and minimum reflux ratio. Graphical for binary system only
or analytical methods for both binary and multicomponent systems are used to
find the equilibrium number of stages and with the determination of plate
efficiency, the height of the column is determined. In continuation of design
computations, the diameter of the column is estimated through flooding
characteristics, flow parameters and physical properties such as surface tension
and density. To check the validity of the design through pressure drop
considerations, weeping characteristics are studied using the tray layout and
hydraulics.
3-1 Introduction [3], [5], [6], [7] & [8]
The separation of liquid mixtures by distillation depends on differences in volatility between

the components. The greater the relative volatilities, the easier the separation. The basic
equipment required for continuous distillation is shown in Figure 3-1. Vapor flows up the
column and liquid counter-currently down the column. The vapor and liquid are brought into
contact on plates or packing. Part of the condensate from the condenser is returned to the top of
the column to provide liquid flow above the feed point (reflux), and part of the liquid from the
base of the column is vaporized in the reboiler and returned to provide the vapor flow.
Distillation
column (a) Basic column (b) Multiple feeds and side streams
Fig 3-1
In the section below the feed, the more volatile components are stripped from the liquid and
this is known as the stripping section. Above the feed, the concentration of the more volatile
components is increased and this is called the enrichment, or more commonly, the rectifying
section. Figure 1a shows a column producing two product streams, referred to as tops and
bottoms, from a single feed. Columns are occasionally used with more than one feed, and with
side streams withdrawn at points up the column, Figure 1b. This does not alter the basic
operation, but complicates the analysis of the process, to some extent.
In some operations, where the top product is required as a vapor, only sufficient liquid is
condensed to provide the reflux flow to the column, and the condenser is referred to as a partial
condenser. When the liquid is totally condensed, the liquid returned to the column will have
the same composition as the top product. In a partial condenser the reflux will be in equilibrium
with the vapor leaving the condenser. Virtually pure top and bottom products can be obtained
in a single column from a binary feed, but where the feed contains more than two components,
only a single “pure” product can be produced, either from the top or bottom of the column.
Several columns will be needed to separate a multicomponent feed into its constituent parts.
3-1-1 Reflux ratio
The reflux ratio, R, is normally defined as:
R = L/D
L is the molar flow rate returned as reflux and D is the top product taken off
3-1-2 Total reflux
Total reflux is the condition when all the condensate is returned to the column as reflux: no
product is taken off and there is no feed. At total reflux the number of stages required for a
given separation is the minimum at which it is theoretically possible to achieve the separation.
Though not a practical operating condition, it is a useful guide to the likely number of stages
that will be needed. Columns are often started up with no product take-off and operated at total
reflux till steady conditions are attained. The testing of columns is also conveniently carried out
at total reflux.
3-1-3 Minimum reflux
As the reflux ratio is reduced a pinch point will occur at which the separation can only be
achieved with an infinite number of stages. This sets the minimum possible reflux ratio for the
specified separation.
3-1-4 Optimum reflux ratio
Practical reflux ratios will lie somewhere between the minimum for the specified separation and
total reflux. The designer must select a value at which the specified separation is achieved at
minimum cost. Increasing the reflux reduces the number of stages required, and hence the
capital cost, but increases the service requirements (steam and water) and the operating costs.
The optimum reflux ratio will be that which gives the lowest annual operating cost. No hard
and fast rules can be given for the selection of the design reflux ratio, but for many systems the
optimum will lie between 1.2 to 1.5 times the minimum reflux ratio.
3-1-5 Selection of column pressure
Except when distilling heat-sensitive materials, the main consideration when selecting the
column operating-pressure will be to ensure that the dew point of the distillate is above that
which can be easily obtained with the plant cooling water.
3-2 Dew points and bubble points
To estimate the stage, and the condenser and reboiler temperatures, procedures are required for
calculating dew and bubble points. By definition, a saturated liquid is at its bubble point (any
rise in temperature will cause a bubble of vapor to form), and a saturated vapor is at its dew
point (any drop-in temperature will cause a drop of liquid to form). Dew points and bubble
points can be calculated from a knowledge of the vapor-liquid equilibrium for the system.
3-3 Steps for designing distillation column

Step 1: Determine average relative volatility
Antoine equation gives the relationship between saturation vapor pressure of a component and
𝐵
the temperature as given by: ln 𝑃 ∗ = 𝐴 − 𝑇+𝐶 ,where A, B and C are Antoine constants. P* is
the saturation vapor pressure of a pure component and T is the temperature. P * can have any
pressure units and T can have any temperature unit and accordingly the numerical values of
A,B,C change to give the consistent relationship between P* and T.
Relative volatility for ideal systems is given by:

∗
𝑃𝐿𝐾
(𝛼𝐿𝐾−𝐻𝐾 ) = (𝛼𝐴𝐵 ) = ∗
𝑃𝐻𝐾
𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝛼𝐿𝐾−𝐻𝐾 )overhead and (𝛼𝐿𝐾−𝐻𝐾 )bottom gives the average relative volatility.
LK and HK are light and heavy key components.
Step 2
Determine the minimum number of equilibrium stages using Fenske equation

𝑥
(1 − 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡
𝑙𝑛 𝑥
( )
1 − 𝑥 𝑏𝑜𝑡
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑙𝑛(𝛼𝐴𝐵 )𝑎𝑣𝑒
xdist and xbot are mole fractions of LK in overhead (distillate) and bottom products respectively.
This is for binary mixture.
For multi component system,
{𝐹𝑅𝐴,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝐹𝑅𝐵,𝑏𝑜𝑡 }
𝑙𝑛 [ ⁄ ]
{(1 − 𝐹𝑅𝐴,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 )(1 − 𝐹𝑅𝐵,𝑏𝑜𝑡 )}
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑙𝑛 (𝛼𝐴𝐵,𝑎𝑣𝑒 )
𝐹𝑅𝐴,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴 (𝐿𝐾 ) 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐹𝑅𝐵,𝑏𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵 (𝐻𝐾 ) 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝐹𝑅𝐶,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶 (𝑁𝐾 ) 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑁
𝛼𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐹𝑅𝐶,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 =
𝐹𝑅𝐵,𝑏𝑜𝑡 𝑁
+ 𝛼𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑛
(1 − 𝐹𝑅𝐵,𝑏𝑜𝑡 )
Step 3:
Find the fractional recovery of non-key components

𝑁
(𝐹𝑅𝐶 )𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 =
(𝐹𝑅𝐵 )𝑏𝑜𝑡 𝑁
+ 𝛼𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑛
1 − (𝐹𝑅𝐵 )𝑏𝑜𝑡
Where C is non-Key, B is HK, FR is fractional recovery and α CB is the relative volatility of

component C to B.
Step 4
Determine the bubble point and liquid fraction of feed
Using Antoine equation, find the saturation temperatures of individual components at an

individual pure component vapor pressure equals total pressure of the system.
Determine the molal average saturation temperature which is the initial guess for the bubble
point.
At this temperature, calculate the vapor pressures of pure components. Find the relative
𝑃𝐴∗ 𝑃
volatility: 𝛼𝐴−𝑖 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙: 𝑃𝐴∗ = 𝑥𝑖 and further repeat calculating second
𝑃𝑖∗ 𝑥𝐴 +
𝛼𝐴−𝑖
guess for bubble point. Proceed until there is consistent value in bubble point.
Step 5
Determine the liquid fraction of feed (quality q)
𝐶𝑃,𝑎𝑣𝑒 ∆𝑇
𝑞 =1+
𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝐶𝑃,𝑎𝑣𝑒 is the molal average specific heat of feed, ∆𝑇=Tbubble-TF, where TF is feed temperature.
𝑎𝑣𝑒 is the molal average latent heat of vaporization of feed. (Subcooled liquid)
Special case: If the feed is saturated liquid, then q=1.
Step 6
Determine the minimum reflux ratio
∇𝑉𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝐹 (1 − 𝑞 ) = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑

𝑐
𝛼𝑖−𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐹𝑍𝑖
∇𝑉𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 = ∑
𝛼𝑖−𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝜑
𝑖=1
𝑐
𝛼𝑖−𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝐷𝑥𝑖,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 )
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∑
𝛼𝑖−𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝜑
𝑖=1
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝐷
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝐷
Step 7 Calculate number of theoretical stages using Gilliland correlation

𝑅−𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
The following are Gilliland correlations for different values of x: where 𝑥 = 𝑅+1
𝑁 − 𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 1 − 18.5715 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0.01
𝑁+1
𝑁 − 𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.002743
= 0.545827 − 0.591422 𝑥 + 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.01 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0.9
𝑁+1 𝑥
𝑁 − 𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 0.16595 − 0.16595 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.9 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑁+1
Step 8 Determine the plate efficiency
Plate efficiency can also be found from the following relation:

𝐸0 = 0.52782 − 0.27511 log10 (𝛼𝜇) + 0.044923(log10 (𝛼𝜇))2
Step 9 Determine the height and diameter of the plate column
Liquid vapor flow factor, FLV=(L/V)(ρV/ρL)0.5

The flooding velocity based on the net area for vapor flow is given by:
𝜎 0.2 𝜌𝐿−𝜌𝑣
𝑈𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 𝐶𝑠𝑏,𝑓 ( ) √ 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
20 𝜌𝑣
For 9-inch tray spacing:
log10 𝐶𝑠𝑏,𝑓 = −1.1622 − 0.56014 log10 𝐹𝐿𝑉 − 0.18168 (log10 𝐹𝐿𝑉 )2




Uop = Operating velocity of vapor = 0.75*Uflood.

Anet = Net area of column (excluding downcomer) = Volumetric flow rate of vapor / U op.
AC = cross sectional area of column = Anet + Adowncomer = (DC)2/4, DC is the column
diameter.
3-4 Tray Layout and Hydraulics
3-4-1 Fractional Entrainment
The following figure gives the fractional entrainment (kg/kg gross liquid flow) as a function of
the liquid-vapor factor FLV, with the percentage approach to flooding as a parameter.
The percentage flooding is given by:
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑢𝑛 )

% 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑢𝑓 )
The fractional entrainment can be estimated from the following graph:

Fig 3-2
3-4-2 Weep point
The lower limit of the operating range occurs when liquid leakage through the plate holes
becomes excessive. This is known as the weep point. The vapor velocity at the weep point is the
minimum value for stable operation. The hole area must be chosen so that at the lowest
operating rate the vapor flow velocity is still well above the weep point.
The minimum design vapor velocity is given by:
[𝐾2 − 0.9(25.4 − 𝑑ℎ )]
𝑢ℎ =
𝜌𝑣 1/2
𝑢ℎ is the minimum vapour velocity through the holes (based on the hole area), m/s
dh = hole diameter, mm
K2 = a constant, dependent on the depth of clear liquid on the plate, obtained

from the following Figure:
Fig 3-3
The clear liquid depth is equal to the height of the weir hw plus the depth of the crest of liquid
over the weir how.
3-4-3 Weir liquid crest
The height of the liquid crest over the weir can be estimated using the Francis weir formula.
𝐿 2/3
For a segmental down comer, this can be written as: ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 750 [𝜌 𝑤𝑙 ]
𝐿 𝑤
where lw = weir length, m
how = weir crest, mm liquid
Lw = liquid flow-rate, kg/s
To ensure an even flow of liquid along the weir, the crest should be at least 10 mm at the lowest
liquid rate
3-4-4 Weir height
The height of the weir determines the volume of liquid on the plate and is an important factor
in determining the plate efficiency. A high weir will increase the plate efficiency but at the
expense of a higher plate pressure drop. For columns operating above atmospheric pressure the
weir heights will normally be between 40 mm to 90 mm (1.5 to 3.5 in.); 40 to 50 mm is
recommended. For vacuum operation lower weir heights are used to reduce the pressure drop;
6 to 12 mm (1/4 inch to ½ inch) is recommended.
3-4-5 Weir length
With segmental down comers the length of the weir fixes the area of the down comer. The
chord length will normally be between 0.6 to 0.85 of the column diameter. A good initial value
to use is 0.77, equivalent to a down comer area of 12 per cent.
The relationship between weir length and down comer area is given in Figure:
Fig 3-4
3-4-6 Hole size
The hole sizes used vary from 2.5 to 12 mm; 5 mm is the preferred size. For carbon steel, hole
sizes approximately equal to the plate thickness can be punched, but for stainless steel the
minimum hole size that can be punched is about twice the plate thickness. Typical plate
thicknesses used are: 5 mm (3/16 in.) for carbon steel, and 3 mm (12 gauge) for stainless steel.
3-4-7 Hole pitch
The hole pitch (distance between the hole centers) l p should not be less than 2.0 hole diameters,
and the normal range will be 2.5 to 4.0 diameters. Within this range the pitch can be selected to
give the number of active holes required for the total hole area specified.
Square and equilateral triangular patterns are used; triangular is preferred. The total hole area
as a fraction of the perforated area Ap is given by the following expression, for an equilateral
2
𝐴ℎ 𝑑
triangular pitch; = 0.9 [ 𝑙 ℎ ]
𝐴𝑝 𝑝
Fig 3-5
3-4-8 Plate pressure drop
The pressure drop over the plates is an important design consideration. There are two main
sources of pressure loss: that due to vapor flow through the holes (an orifice loss), and that due
to the static head of liquid on the plate. A simple additive model is normally used to predict
the total pressure drop. The total is taken as the sum of the pressure drop calculated for the
flow of vapor through the dry plate (the dry plate drop hd); the head of clear liquid on the plate
(hw + how); and a term to account for other, minor, sources of pressure loss, called residual loss
hr . The residual loss is the difference between the observed experimental pressure drop and the
simple sum of the dry-plate drop and the clear-liquid height. It accounts for the two effects: the
energy to form the vapor bubbles and the fact that on an operating plate the liquid head will
not be clear liquid but a head of “aerated” liquid froth, and the froth density and height will be
different from that of the clear liquid.
It is convenient to express the pressure drops in terms of millimetres of liquid. In pressure units:
Pt = 9.81*10-3 ht L.
Where Pt is the total plate pressure drop, Pa(N/m2), ht= total plate pressure drop, mm liquid.
3-4-8-1 Dry plate drop
The pressure drop through the dry plate can be estimated using expressions derived for flow
through orifices.
𝑢 2 𝜌
ℎ𝑑 = 51 ( ℎ ) ( 𝑣 )
𝐶0 𝜌𝐿
Fig 3-6
3-4-8-2 Residual head: ℎ𝑟 =12.5*103/L
Residual drop is taken as a fixed value of 12.5 mm of water (1/2 in).
3-4-8-3 Total drop
The total plate drop is given by: ht = hd +(hw +how) + hr

3-4-9 Plate spacing
The overall height of the column will depend on the plate spacing. Plate spacings from 0.15 m
(6 in.) to 1 m (36 in.) are normally used. The spacing chosen will depend on the column
diameter and operating conditions. Close spacing is used with small-diameter columns, and
where head room is restricted; as it will be when a column is installed in a building. For
columns above 1 m diameter, plate spacings of 0.3 to 0.6 m will normally be used, and 0.5 m (18
in.) can be taken as an initial estimate.
3-4-10 Plate contactors
Cross-flow plates are the most common type of plate contactor used in distillation and
absorption columns. In a cross-flow plate the liquid flows across the plate and the vapour up
through the plate. A typical layout is shown in Figure 11.17. The flowing liquid is transferred
from plate to plate through vertical channels called “downcomers”. A pool of liquid is retained
on the plate by an outlet weir.
3-4-10-1 Sieve plate ( perforated plate )
This is the simplest type of cross-flow plate. The vapor passes up through perforations in the
plate; and the liquid is retained on the plate by the vapor flow. At low flow-rates liquid will
“weep” through the holes, reducing the plate efficiency. The perforations are usually small
holes.
3-4-10-2 Bubble - cap plates
Vapor passes up through short pipes, called risers, covered by a cap with a serrated edge, or
slots. The bubble-cap plate is the traditional, oldest, type of cross-flow plate, and many different
designs have been developed. Standard cap designs would now be specified for most
applications. The most significant feature of the bubble-cap plate is that the use of risers ensures
that a level of liquid is maintained on the tray at all vapor flow-rates.
3-4-10-3 Valve plates
Valve plates are sieve plates with large-diameter holes covered by movable flaps, which lift as
the vapor flow increases. As the area for vapor flow varies with the flow-rate, valve plates can
operate efficiently at lower flow-rates than sieve plates: the valves closing at low vapor rates.
Fig 3-7
3-4-11 Plate-design procedure
A trial-and-error approach is necessary in plate design: starting with a rough plate layout,
checking key performance factors and revising the design, as necessary, until a satisfactory
design is achieved. A typical design procedure is set out below and discussed in the following
sections. The normal range of each design variable is given in the discussion, together with
recommended values which can be used to start the design.
 Calculate the maximum and minimum vapor and liquid flow-rates, for the turn down
ratio required.
 Collect, or estimate, the system physical properties.
 Select a trial plate spacing
 Estimate the column diameter, based on flooding considerations
 Decide the liquid flow arrangement
 Make a trial plate layout: downcomer area, active area, hole area, hole size, weir height
 Check the weeping rate
 Check the plate pressure drop
 Check downcomer back-up
 Decide plate layout details. Check hole pitch.
3-4-12 Plate areas
The following areas terms are used in the plate design procedure:
Ac = total column cross-sectional area
Ad = cross-sectional area of downcomer
An = net area available for vapour-liquid disengagement, normally equal to Ac -Ad, for a single
pass plate
Aa = active, or bubbling, area, equal to Ac -2Ad for single-pass plates
Ah = hole area, the total area of all the active holes
Ap = perforated area (including blanked areas),
Aap = the clearance area under the downcomer apron.

Data tables and graphs

Fig 3-8
Table 3-1
Table 3-2
Viscosity of ethylene oxide is given by the following graph:
0F=1.8(0C) + 32
Fig 3-9
DESIGN PROBLEM 1 (Solved example 1)
A distillation column with a partial reboiler and a total condenser is separating ethyl benzene
(light component, C6H5 C2H5) from styrene (heavy component, C6H5 C2H3). The molar flow
rate of feed is 222.88 kmol/h and the feed temperature (T F) is 1250C and 65 kPa pressure. The
specific heat of the ethyl benzene is 184.5 kJ/(kmol.K) and that of styrene is 183.2 kJ/(kmol.K).
The latent heat of vaporization of ethyl benzene is 41800 kJ/kmol and that of styrene is 41500
kJ/kmol. The feed contains 46 mole% ethyl benzene. The distillate contains 99.95 mole% ethyl
benzene and leaves as saturated liquid at 90.80C and 25 kPa pressure .The bottom product
contains 0.04 mole% ethyl benzene and the temperature is 123.70C and 55 kPa pressure . Reflux
is returned as saturated liquid. External reflux ratio is 1.5 times that of the minimum reflux
ratio. Assume constant molal overflow. The surface tension of distillate liquid  (N/m) can be
calculated from the following equation: v2/3= 2.1 x 10-7 x (Tc-T) where v is the molar volume
of distillate liquid (m3/gmol), Tc is the molal average critical temperature (deg K) of distillate
liquid and T (deg K) is the distillate temperature. (Convert  to dynes/cm while using in the
equation for flooding velocity: 1N=105 dynes). The critical temperatures of ethyl benzene and
styrene are 617 K and 637 K respectively. The liquid densities of ethyl benzene and styrene
liquid are 866 kg/m3 and 909 kg/m3 respectively. (1 inch = 2.54 cm). Fraction of the column
area taken up by downcomer is 0.1. Use the information given in Pages 11 to 13. Choose tray
spacing 0.2286 m. The feed quality q = 1+[Cp(Tbubble point-TF)]/ . The average relative volatility
is the geometric mean of relative volatilities of top and bottom products. Provide three (3)
times the tray spacing for each of the heights of top and bottom portions of the column. The
viscosity of feed is 0.25 cP. Antoine coefficients are given as follows:
Component A B C
Ethyl benzene 4.40536 1695.026 -23.698
Styrene 4.0593 1459.909 -59.551
B
Antoine equation is given as: log 10 P sat  A  P sat in bar T in deg ree Kelvin
T C
P

sat
P1
z1   z 2 
 
Design a plate type distillation column.

Solution:
Step 1: To determine average relative volatility (αAB)
Component A B C Vapor pressure, kPa
Feed Overhead Bottoms
(1250C, (90.80C, (123.70C,
65 kPa) 25 kPa) 55 kPa)
A - Ethyl 4.40536 1695.026 -23.698 80.7 26.4 72.6

benzene
B - Styrene 4.0593 1459.909 -59.551 55.7 18.2 53.6
Relative volatility 1.45 1.45 1.35
αAB,avg = (1.45*1.35)0.5 = 1.4
Step 2: To determine the minimum number of theoretical stages

{𝑥𝐷(1−𝑥𝐵 )}
𝑙𝑛[ ⁄{𝑥 (1−𝑥 )}]
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐵 𝐷
=46
𝑙𝑛 (𝛼𝐴𝐵,𝑎𝑣𝑒 )
Step 3: To determine the bubble point of feed (Tbubl)
TA1* = 1200C TB1* = 1300C
T1* = zA TA1* + zB TB1* = 125.40C
PA1* = 76 kPa PB1* = 56.3 kPa α1 = 1.35

65
PA2* = 0.46+(0.54⁄ = 75.58 kPa
1.35)
Hence, T2* = 125.10C
PA2* = 75.58 kPa PB2* = 55.85 kPa α2 = 1.353
65
PA3* = 0.46+(0.54⁄ = 75.66 kPa
1.353)
T3* = 125.160C  125.10C
Hence, Tbubl = 125.160C
Step 4: To determine feed quality, q (liquid fraction of feed)

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
CPA = 184.8 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾 CPB = 235.6 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
𝑘𝐽
CP,ave = 212.2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
Ethyl benzene
ΔvapH = A exp(-βTr) (1 − Tr)β
ΔvapH = Enthalpy of vaporization (at saturation pressure) (kJ/mol)
Tr = reduced temperature (T / Tc)
Temperature (K) A (kJ/mol) β Tc (K)
295 to 437 58.32 0.2823 617.1
𝑘𝐽
A = 36290 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Styrene
𝑘𝐽
B = 41500 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
ave = 39103 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
212.2∗(125.16−125)
q=1+ =1.000868
39103
Step 5: To determine minimum reflux ratio
𝒌𝒎𝒐𝒍
∆𝑽𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝑭(𝟏 − 𝒒) = 𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟖(𝟏 − 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟖) = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟑
𝒉
∝𝒊−𝒓𝒆𝒇 𝑭𝒛𝒊 𝟏𝟒𝟑.𝟓𝟑 𝟏𝟐𝟎.𝟑𝟓𝟓

∑𝑩
𝒊=𝑨 = + = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟑 =
∝𝒊−𝒓𝒆𝒇−𝝋 𝟏.𝟒−𝝋 𝟏−𝝋
By trial and error, 𝝋=1.18235
D=102.528 kmol/h
∝𝒊−𝒓𝒆𝒇 𝑫𝒙𝒊,𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕
Vmin = ∑𝑩
𝒊=𝑨 = 658.9 kmol/h
∝𝒊−𝒓𝒆𝒇−𝝋
Lmin = 556.36 kmol/h
Rmin = 5.426
Step 6: To determine the theoretical number of stages (N)
R=1.5*5.426 = 8.14
(R-Rmin) / (R+1) = 0.3
(N-Nmin) / (N+1) = 0.3775 (Gilliland correlation)
Hence, N = 75
Step 7: To determine the plate efficiency (E0)
avg = 0.25 cP
(α)feed = 0.3625
Hence plate efficiency, E0 = 0.66
Step 8: To determine the column height (H)
Nactual = 74/0.65 = 112
Tray sizing = 9 inch = 0.2286 m
H = (112-1+2)*0.2286 = 25.8 m (Specified = 24.1 m), so agreed with a little error.
Step 9: To determine the column diameter (Dc)
Density of component A =867 kg/m3
Density of component B = 909 kg/m3
Component B is negligible in overhead, hence ρL = 867 kg/m3

1
 v=10-3 *Mw, A *(ρL)
1
=10-3 *106 *(867)
= 1.22*10-4 m3/mol
 σ = 2.1*10-7 (Tc, A-TD) *v-2/3

= 2.1*10-7*(617.1-363.8) * (1.22*10-4) -2/3
= 0.0216 N/m = 21.6 dyne/cm
𝑃𝑀 25000∗(106)
ρv = 𝑅𝑇 = 8314∗(273+90.8) = 0.876 kg/m3
L=RD = 8.14*102.528 = 861.2 kmol/h
V=963.8 kmol/h
𝐿 𝜌𝑣 0.5
𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐹𝐿𝑉 = ∗ ( ) = 0.0284
𝑉 𝜌𝐿
Csb,f from the equation = 0.186

σ ρL−ρg
 Uflood = Csb,f *(20) ^0.2 *√( )
ρL
21.6 876−0.876
= 0.186*( 20 ) ^0.2 *√( )
0.876
= 5.97 ft/s
 Uop = Uflood*η
= 5.97 *(0.650.9) = (3.95.37) ft/s = (1.21.64) m/s
V∗Mw 963.8∗106
 Qv= = 0.876∗3600 =32.4 m3/s
ρg
Qv 32.4
 Anet= = (1.21.64) = 19.827 m2
Uop
Ac = Anet/(0.850.95) = (2132) m2
𝐴 32
dc =√ 𝜋 =√ 𝜋 = 6.4 m (specified value=6.9 m)
4 4
Since the diameter at top of the column is less than that of the bottom, the calculated value is
in agreement with the specified value.
Step 10 Tray Lay out and hydraulics
Provisional plate design
dc = 6.4 m
Ac = 32 m2
Downcomer area, Ad = 12% of Ac = 3.84 m2
Neat area, An = Ac-Ad = 28.16 m2
Active area, Aa = Ac-2Ad = 24.32 m2
First trial, hole area, Ah = 10% of Aa = 2.432 m2
Weir length, lw = 0.76*6.4 = 4.864 m
Choose weir height, hw = 6mm (vacuum column)
Hole diameter = 5mm
Plate thickness = 5mm
Check for weeping
Mass flow rate of liquid at top of the column = 861.2*106/3600 = 25.36 kg/s
Minimum mass flow rate of liquid = 70% of L = 0.7*25.36 = 17.752 kg/s
Minimum crest height, how=750*[17.752/(866*4.864)]2/3 = 20 mm of liquid
hw+how = 6+20 = 26 mm liquid
K2 = 28.7
Uh,min = [28.7-0.9*(25.4-5)]/0.8760.5 = 11 m/s
Actual minimum vapor velocity = 32.4*0.7/2.432 = 9.32 m/s
Since the minimum vapor velocity is below the weep point, the design must be modified.
Second trial
Hole area Ah = 8% of Aa = 24.32*0.08 = 1.9456 m2
Hole diameter = 5mm
Plate thickness = 6mm
Uflood = (5.97/3.28)*0.9 = 1.638 m/s
 Uop = Uflood*η
= 1.638 *(0.650.9) = (1.0651.474) m/s
V∗Mw 963.8∗106
 Qv= = 0.876∗3600 =32.4 m3/s
ρg
Qv
 Anet= Uop
32.4
=
(1.0651.474)
= 2230.4 m2
Ac = Anet/(0.850.95) = (2336) m2
𝐴 36
dc =√ 𝜋 =√ 𝜋 = 6.77 m (specified value=6.9 m)
4 4
Since the diameter at top of the column is less than that of the bottom, the calculated value is
in agreement with the specified value.
Check for weeping
Mass flow rate of liquid at top of the column = 861.2*106/3600 = 25.36 kg/s
Minimum mass flow rate of liquid = 70% of L = 0.7*25.36 = 17.752 kg/s
lw = 0.76*6.77 = 5.1452 m
Minimum crest height, how=750*[17.752/(866*5.1452)]2/3 = 18.8 mm of liquid
hw+how = 6+18.8 = 24.8 mm liquid
K2 = 28.6
Uh,min = [28.6-0.9*(25.4-5)]/0.8760.5 = 10.94 m/s
Actual minimum vapor velocity = 32.4*0.7/1.9456 = 11.66 m/s
Since the minimum vapor velocity is above the weep point, the design is accepted from weep
point of view. So column diameter at top = 6.77 m
FLV = 0.0284
For 65% flooding, fractional entrainment,  = 0.045
Solving for e gives,

L 0.045∗861.2
𝑒 = 1− = =40.58 kmol/h = entrained liquid flow rate
1−0.045
Plate pressure drop
For Ah/Aa = 0.08 and plate thickness/hole diameter of 1.2, the orifice coefficient, C 0 = 0.88
Dry plate drop, hd = 51[(11.66/0.7)/0.88]2 (0.876/866) = 18.5 mm liquid
hw+how = 6+18.8 = 24.8 mm liquid
Since this is vacuum distillation column, residual head hr can be neglected.
Hence ht = 18.5+24.8 = 44.3 mm liquid
Pplate = 376 Pa
Pcolumn = 0.376*112 = 42 kPa (specified = 65-25 =40 kPa). Design is ok.
Design summary
Reflux ratio 8.14
Molar flow rate of Distillate 102.528 kmol/h
Number of actual trays 75
Tray spacing 9 inch = 0.2286 m
Tray thickness 6 mm
Cross sectional area of down comer area and active area are:
3.84 m2 ,24.32 m2
Hole diameter 5 mm
Weir height 6 mm
Column height 25.8 m
Tray efficiency 66 %
Column diameter 6.4 m
Plate pressure drop 0.376 kPa
Column pressure drop 42 kPa
Fractional entrainment 0.045 < 0.1 (accepted)
Design problem 2 (Solved example 2)

Design the Distillation column T-1102 for separation of Acetone – Isopropanol – water system
using the Process flow diagram, stream information and equipment information.
𝐵
Step 1: To find average relative volatility (α 12)ave log10 P* = A- 𝑇+𝐶 P* in bar; T in K
Component Antoine constants Vapor pressure (bar)
A B C Feed (220C, 1.63 Overhead Bottoms (900C,

bar) (610C, 1.4 bar) 1.5bar)
Acetone 4.42488 1312.253 -32.445 0.267 1.184 2.851
IPA 4.57795 1221.423 -87.474 0.049 0.42 0.049
Water 5.40221 1838.675 -31.737 0.026 0.208 0.026
IPA is the reference component
(𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)1

αAB,,top= [ (𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 ]=2.819
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)2
αAB,,bottom= 2.04
αAB,,avg = (2.819 * 2.04)0.50 = 2.4
Step 2: To determine the minimum number of equilibrium stages (Nmin)
{𝐹𝑅𝐴,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝐹𝑅𝐵,𝑏𝑜𝑡 } {0.995∗0.995}

𝑙𝑛[ ⁄ ] 𝑙𝑛[ ⁄{0.005∗0.005} ]
{(1−𝐹𝑅𝐴,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 )(1−𝐹𝑅𝐵,𝑏𝑜𝑡 )}
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = =12
𝑙𝑛 (𝛼𝐴𝐵,𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) 𝑙𝑛 (2.4)
𝑁
𝐹𝑅𝐶,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 𝐹𝑅𝐵,𝑏𝑜𝑡 𝑁 =1227x10-6
+𝛼𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑛
(1−𝐹𝑅𝐵,𝑏𝑜𝑡 )
Step 3: To find the bubble point of feed
ZA = 0.438 ZB = 0.052 ZC = 0.51
TA1* = 710C TB1* = 940C TC1* = 1130C
T1* = ZA TA1*+ ZA TA1*+ ZA TA1* = 93.60C
PA1* = 3.146 bar PB1* = 1.59 bar PC1* = 0.815 bar
αAB,1 = 1.98 αAC,1 = 3.86
1.63
PA2*= 0.052 0.51 = 2.733 𝑏𝑎𝑟  T2* = 88.50C
0.438+ +
1.98 3.86
PB2* = 1.59 bar PC2* = 0.815 bar αAB,2 = 2.07 αAC,2 = 4.08
1.63
PA3*= 0.052 0.51 = 2.77 𝑏𝑎𝑟  T3* = 88.90C
0.438+ +
2.07 4.08
PB3* = 1.34 bar PC2* = 0.681 bar αAB,3 = 2.067 αAC,3 = 4.067
 T4* = 88.90C
Hence, TBubl = 88.90C
Step 4: To find the quality of feed (q, liquid fraction of feed)

Average temperature of feed = (220C+88.90C)/2
= 550C = 328K
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
CP,A = 132 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾 CP,B = 180.3 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾 CP,A = 75.4 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
𝑘𝐽
A = 46950 exp(-0.2826*361.9/508.2)(1-361.9/508.2)0.2826 = 27003 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
B = 53380 exp(0.708*361.9/508.3)(1-361.9/508.2)0.6538 = 39162 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
C = 41137 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
CP,ave = 132*0.438 + 180.3*0.052 + 75.4*0.51 = 105.65 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
ave = 27003*0.438 + 39162*0.052 + 41137*0.51 =

𝑘𝐽
34844 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Component Specific heat Latent
Cp heat λ
q = 1+ Cp,ave (Tbubl-TF) / ave = 1.203
(kJ/kmol.K) (kJ/kmol)
Sgtep 5 Minimum Reflux Ratio (Rmin)
Acetone 132 27003
 ∆VFeed = F(1-q) IPA 180.3 39162

= 74.02*(1- 1.203) = -15
Water 75.3 41137
∝𝐴−𝐵 ∗F𝑍𝐴 ∝𝐵−𝐵 ∗F𝑍𝐵 ∝𝐶−𝐵 ∗F𝑍𝐶

∆VFeed = + + Average 105.65 34844
∝𝐴−𝐵 −Ø ∝𝐵−𝐵 −Ø ∝𝐶−𝐵 −Ø
2.4∗74.02∗0.438 1∗74.02∗0.051 0.5∗74.02∗0.51

-15 = + +
4.8−Ø 1−Ø 0.5−Ø
77.8 3.775 18.875

−15 = + +
2.4−Ø 1−Ø 0.5−Ø
Ø= 1.09
∝𝐴−𝐵 ∗D𝑥𝐴,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 ∝𝐵−𝐵 ∗D𝑥𝐵 ,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 ∝𝐶−𝐵 ∗D𝑥𝐶,𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡

Vmin = + +
∝𝐴−𝐵 −Ø ∝𝐵−𝐵 −Ø ∝𝐶−𝐵 −Ø
0.512
FRC,dist = 199+0.512 =1.227*10-6
DxA,dist = FRA,dist (FZA)=32.268 kmol/h
DxB,dist = FRB,dist (FZB) = 0.0192 kmol/h
DxC,dist = FRC,dist (FZC) = 0.000046 kmol/h
Vmin = 59.117-0.213-0.000039 = 58.9 kmol/h
D=32.268+0.0192+0.000046 = 32.287 kmol/h
Lmin = Vmin – D
= 58.9 – 32.287
= 26.613
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Rmin = 𝐷
26.613
= 32.287 = 0.824
Step 6: Number of theoretical trays or plates (N)
Gilliland correlation
𝐿 72.51
R= = 32.287 = 2.245
𝐷
𝑅−𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 2.245−0.824
 = = 0.438
𝑅+1 2.245+1
𝑁−𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑁−12
 = 0.293 = 0.293 N = 17.387
𝑁+1 𝑁+1
Step 7 Plate Efficiency

Component Viscosity μ
(Cp)
22°C & 1.63 bar
Acetone 0.33
IPA 2.2
Water 1
Viscosity of the Feed = (32.43*0.33) + (3.84*2.2) +

Average 0.769
(37.75*1)/ (74.02)
μavg= 0.769Cp
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
 αAB = 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵
0.267
= 0.049 = 5.45
 (μα)avg = 5.45 * 0.769

=4.19
 ηplate= 35 % (From Graph)
𝑁−1 17.387−1
 NAct = = = 44
η 0.374
Step 8 Height of the column
H = 18 in*0.0254 in/m*( 44 − 1 + 6 + 2) = 24.68 m ≈ 24 m
Step 9 Diameter of the column
Density of acetone =784 Kg/m3
Density of IPA = 786 Kg/m3

Determination of volume fraction of components in top product:
Basis: 1 h
m1 = 32.27*58 = 1872 kg m1 = 0.02*60 = 1.2 kg
V1 = 1872/784 = 2.39 m3 V2 = 1.2/786 = 0.001527 m3
v1 = 0.9994 v2 = 0.0006
ρL= 𝑣1 ρA ∗ +𝑣2 *ρIPA = 784 kg/m3

1 1
v=10-3 *Mw, A *(ρL) =10-3 *58 *(784) = 7.4*10-5 m3/mol
σ = 2.1*10-7 (Tc, A-TD) *V-2/3

= 2.1*10-7*(508-334) * (7.4*10-5) -2/3
= 0.0207 N/m = 20.7 dyne/cm
1880
𝑃𝑚 1.4∗105 ∗( )
ρg = = 8314∗(273+61)
32.29
= 2.93 kg/m3
𝑅𝑇
G=L+D =72.51+32.29 =104.8 Kmol/h

𝐿 𝜌𝑔 72.51 3.14
FLV = 𝐺 ∗ ( 𝜌𝑙 )^0.5 = ∗ ( 784 )^0.5 = 0.044
104.8
Csb,f from the graph

σ ρ𝐿 −ρ𝐺
Uflood = Csb,f *(20) ^0.2 *√( )
ρ𝐿
20.7 784−3.14
= 0.39*( 20 ) ^0.2 *√( )
3.14
= 6.19 ft/s
Uop = Uflood*η = 6.19 *0.65 = 4.0 ft/s = 1.22 m/s
G∗Mw 104.8∗58
Qv= = =1935 m3/h =0.537 m3/s
ρg 3.14
Q𝑣 0.537
A= = = 0.44 m2
U𝑜𝑝 1.22
𝐴 0.44
D =√ 𝜋 =√ 𝜋 = 0.75 m
4 4
Step 10 Tray Lay out and hydraulics
This step must be done as that was done in Solved example 1
PRACTICE EXERCISES - III

Design Problem 1
Design the Distillation column T-302 for separation of Benzene – Ethylbenzene – 1,4 Diethyl
benzene system using the Process flow diagram, stream information and equipment
information.
Design Problem 2
Design the Distillation column T-302 for separation of Acetic acid – 1 -Tetradecene (drying oil) –
Hexadecanoic acid (ACO) system using the Process flow diagram, stream information and
equipment information.
Design Problem 3
Design the Distillation column T-703 for separation of Ethylene oxide-water system using the
Process flow diagram, stream information and equipment information.
CHAPTER 4
DESIGNING FIXED PACKED BED
REACTOR
SUMMARY
The designing of fixed packed bed reactor for gas phase reactions involves the
determination of volume of reactor and mass of catalyst needed for the
exothermic or endothermic reactions either happen adiabatically or isothermally
in the reactor. Since the design is limited to gas phase reactions, fractional change
in volume for complete conversion is determined and the appropriate rate
equations are imposed in the design equation for fixed packed bed reactor. The
solution is found analytically for simple reactions and for more complex reactions,
numerical Simpson’s 1/3 method is adopted to determine the appropriate size.
4-1 Introduction [3] & [9]
The discovery of solid catalysts led to a breakthrough of the chemical process industry. Today
most commercial gas-phase catalytic processes are carried out in fixed packed bed reactors.
Catalytic processes are carried out in several types of reactors like fixed bed, moving bed, trickle
bed, two- and three phase fluidized beds, bubble columns, and stirred tanks. Fixed bed reactors
are the simplest type pf reactor to design, and consist of solid catalyst particles being loaded
and packed into the bed.
Fig 4-1
A fixed packed bed reactor consists of a compact, immobile stack of catalyst pellets within a
generally vertical vessel. On macroscopic scales the catalyst bed behaves as a porous media.
The fixed beds are thus employed as continuous tubular reactors in which the reactive species
in the mobile fluid (gas) phase are reacting over the catalyst surface (interior or exterior) in the
stationary packed bed. Compared to other reactor types or designs utilizing heterogeneous
catalysts, the fixed packed bed reactors are preferred because of simpler technology and ease of
operation.
Examples of fixed bed processes include the production of petrochemicals such as ethylene
oxide, dimethyl ether, acetone, maleic anhydride, ethyl benzene and also include the chemical
processes such as ammonia synthesis, hydrocracking, hydrodesulfurization etc.
The selection of an appropriate fixed bed reactor design for a given process is performed
assessing the main limitations of these reactors. The fixed packed bed reactors can be
malfunctioning due to in-proper temperature control, pressure drop for processes with low
tolerance, and deactivation of the catalyst. To optimize the performance of the fixed bed reactor
operation several constructions of fixed bed reactors have been investigated over the years.
Three of the most common reactor designs are: single-bed units, multi-bed units, multi-tube
units
Fixed Packed bed reactors are tubular and are filled with solid catalyst particles, most often
used to catalyze gas reactions. The chemical reaction takes place on the surface of the catalyst.
The advantage of using a packed bed reactor is the higher conversion per weight of catalyst
than other catalytic reactors. The conversion is based on the amount of the solid catalyst rather
than the volume of the reactor.
Packed bed reactors are very versatile and are used in many chemical processing applications
such as absorption, distillation, stripping, separation processes, and catalytic reactions. Across
the diverse applications in which they are used, the physical dimensions of the beds can vary
greatly. Typical reactors consist of a chamber, such as a tube or channel that contains catalyst
particles or pellets, and a liquid that flows through the catalyst. The liquid interacts with the
catalyst across the length of the tube, altering the chemical composition of the substance.
Design variables that might change depending on the application: the catalyst diameter (active
surface area per unit volume of material), structural strength, constructability, manufacturing
cost, micro- and macroporous volume, and transport properties, to name a few.
4-2 Basic design equation
The basic design equation for a fixed packed bed reactor is:
𝑑𝑥𝐴 −𝑟𝐴
=
𝑑𝑉 𝐹𝐴0
The catalyst weight and rector volume are related by the catalyst bulk density: W
= ρbV
The reaction rate per unit volume and the reaction rate per unit catalyst weight are
also related by the bulk density, b
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
−𝑟𝐴 ( ) = 𝜌 𝑘𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑡 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚3 . 𝑠 𝑏( ) (−𝑟𝐴′ ) (𝑘𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑡.𝑠 )
𝑚3
−𝑟𝐴
− 𝑟𝐴′ =
𝜌𝑏
The differential form of the PBR mole balance is:
𝑑𝑥𝐴 −𝑟𝐴′
=
𝑑𝑊 𝐹𝐴0
𝑥𝐴
𝑑𝑥𝐴
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐴0 ∫
−𝑟𝐴′
0
Solved Example 1
DME is used primarily as an aerosol propellant. It is miscible with most organic solvents, has a
high solubility in water, and is completely miscible in water and 6% ethanol. Recently, the use
of DME as a fuel additive for diesel engines has been investigated due to its high volatility
(desirable for cold starting) and high cetane number. The production of DME is via the catalytic
dehydration of methanol over an acid zeolite catalyst.
The main reaction is: 2CH3OH → (CH3)2O + H2O
(Methanol) (DME)
In the temperature range of normal operation, there are no significant side reactions.
Using the following PFD, stream information and equipment information, design a fixed bed
reactor.
PFD -1 (reactor portion)

Stream table – 1
Equipment information -1
Solution:
Reactants
Fixed bed Products
reactor
DME=1.3 DME =1.3+161.5xA
M== 323
W= 3.8 Water =3.8+161.5xA
Volume
All theofunits
Reactor
in Calculated = 4.3 𝑚
3
Methanol=323(1-xA)
kmol/hof Reactor Specified = 4.1 𝑚3
Volume
All the units

inkKmol/h
To calculate the volume of fixed bed reactor:

𝑉 𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝐴 −𝐸
= ∫0 𝐴 −𝑟 −𝑟𝐴 = 𝑘𝑜 exp[ 𝑅𝑇𝑜 ] × 𝑃𝐴
𝐹𝐴𝑜(𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙) 𝐴 (𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙)
323
𝑃𝐴 = 1470 × ( ) ∗ (1 − 𝑥𝐴 ) = 1446 ∗ (1 − 𝑥𝐴 )
328.3
EO (kJ/kmole) 80480
Total mole flow rate inlet stream (kmol/h) 328.3
Inlet flow rate of methanol (kmol/h) FAo(methanol) 323
T (K) 523 K to 637 K
R (kJ/(kmole.K) 8.314
xA 0.8
323×(1−xA )
pmethanol = × 1470 kPa=1446*(1 − xA ) kPa
328.3
−80480
−rA (methanol) = 1.21 × 106 × exp [ ] × 1446 ∗ (1 − xA )
8.314 × T
10 9680
V∗(7.2) 0.8 exp ( )dxA
323
= ∫0 1.7497∗10T9 ×(1−x )
A
Simpson’s Volume
Integral rule of
T (0C) xA value (sum) reactor
250 0 109190454.7
257 0.05 90011161.55
264 0.1 74882537.65
271 0.15 62873578.42
278 0.2 53286929.16
285 0.25 45596992.73
292 0.3 39405592.54
299 0.35 34410070.93
306 0.4 30380325.27
313 0.45 27142418.81
320 0.5 24567244.36
327 0.55 22563430.4
334 0.6 21074460.14
341 0.65 20081196.49
348 0.7 19613614.08
355 0.75 19782476.92
364 0.8 19888858.36 32422434 4.308941
The ratio of total volume to packed bed volume (10/7.2) accounts for the reaction rate
expressed in terms of volume of reactor
0.8 9680
exp( T )dxA
−7 ∫
𝑉 = 1.329 ∗ 10
(1 − xA )
0
Hence, Vreactor = 4.3m3 (specified = /4*(0.72)2*10 = 4.1 m3)

𝜋
Specified volume =𝑉 = 4 × 𝐷2 × 𝐿
D =0.72 m
L = 10 m
𝜋
𝑉 = 4 × 0.722 × 10=4.1m3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑏
ρb = bulk density of zeolite = 1060 kg/m3
Hence, the mass of the catalyst needed = 4.3 × 1060 = 4558 kg

Solved example 2
Acetone produced from Isopropyl alcohol is favored by the pharmaceutical industry due to the
very tight restrictions placed on solvents by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The
reaction to produce acetone from IPA is as follows:
(𝐶𝐻3 )2 𝐶𝐻𝑂𝐻 → (𝐶𝐻3 )2 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2
isopropyl alcohol acetone hydrogen
The reaction conditions are typically 2 bar and 350°C, giving single-pass conversions of 85%–
92%.
The reaction kinetics for this reaction are first order with respect to the concentration of alcohol
and can be estimated from the following equation:
−𝐸𝑎 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
−𝑟𝐼𝑃𝐴 = 𝑘0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) 𝐶𝐼𝑃𝐴
𝑅𝑇 𝑚3 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟. 𝑠
𝑚 3 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Where Ea = 72380 kJ/kmol 𝑘0 = 3.51 ∗ 105 𝑚3 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.𝑠 𝐶𝐼𝑃𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝑚 3 𝑔𝑎𝑠
Using the following PFD, stream information and equipment information, design a fixed bed
reactor.
PFD – 2
Stream information - 2
Equipment information – 2
Solution:
Volume of Reactor Calculated = 19 𝑚 3
Volume of Reactor Specified = 21.5 𝑚3

nIPA(3)= 3.86 kmol/h
Reactants
Products nAcetone(3)= 34.94kmol/h
nIPA(2)= 38.64
nwater(3)= 19.04kmol/h
nAcetone(2)= 0.16
nhydrogen(3) =34.78kmol/h
nwater(2) = 19.04
𝐸𝑎
−𝑟𝐴 = 𝑘𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ]𝐶
𝑅𝑇 𝐼𝑃𝐴
Where;
𝐸𝑎 = 72.38 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚 3 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑘𝑜 = 3.51 × 106 𝑚3𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.𝑠
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐶𝐼𝑃𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝑚 3𝑔𝑎𝑠
72380
−𝑟𝐴 = 3.51 × 105 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ]𝐶
8.314𝑇 𝐼𝑃𝐴
𝑃𝐴 38.64 ∗ (1 − 𝑥𝐴 ) 216
𝐶𝐴 = = ( )
𝑅𝑇 57.84 ∗ (1 + 𝐴 𝑥𝐴 ) 8.314 𝑇
𝑃𝐴 17.356 ∗ (1 − 𝑥𝐴 )
𝐶𝐴 = =
𝑅𝑇 (1 + 𝑥𝐴 )𝑇
72380 17.356 × (1 − 𝑥𝐴 )
−𝑟𝐴 = 3.51 × 105 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ]
8.314𝑇 (1 + 𝑥𝐴 )𝑇
72380 (1 − 𝑥𝐴 )
−𝑟𝐴 = 6091956 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ]
8.314𝑇 (1 + 𝑥𝐴 )𝑇
Design equation of Plug Flow Reactor

𝑋𝐴
𝐹𝐴𝑂
𝑉= ∫ 𝑑𝑥𝐴
0 −𝑟𝐴
Where;
V = Volume of the Reactor
𝐹𝐴𝑂 = Molar flow rate of the inlet

72380 72380
38.64 𝑋𝐴 (1 + 𝑥𝐴 )𝑇 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [8.314𝑇] 𝑋𝐴 (1 + 𝑥 ) ∗ 𝑇 ∗ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [
𝐴 8.314𝑇
]
𝑉= ∫ = 1.762 ∗ 10−9 ∫
3600 0 6091956 ∗ (1 − 𝑥𝐴 ) 0 (1 − 𝑥𝐴 )
Total
Integral Simpson’s Tubular Total volume of volume
xA T (0C) value rule (sum) volume reactor specified
0 234 14564374209
0.05 240.4 13159249038
0.1 246.8 11956695144
0.15 253.2 10928877600
0.2 259.6 10052769865
0.25 266 9309557123
0.3 272.4 8684176058
0.35 278.8 8165007494
0.4 285.2 7743750602
0.45 291.6 7415534077
0.5 298 7179372267
0.55 304.4 7039179658
0.6 310.8 7005780526
0.65 317.2 7100859835
0.7 323.6 7365073077
0.75 330 7876091357
0.8 336.4 8793921270
0.85 342.8 10497089656 =14.45*8*3.28/20
0.9 349.2 14127658049 8203681554 14.45489 = 19 m3 21.5 m3
The height ratio of total volume to tubular volume = 8*3.28/20

PRACTICE PROBLEMS - IV
Design Problem 1
Ethylbenzene is mainly used internally to produce styrene monomer in the same plant where it
is manufactured. In the manufacture of ethylbenzene, a feed mixture containing 11 mole%
ethylene and 89 mole% benzene with a total molar flow rate of 254.4 kmol/h enters a fixed
packed bed reactor at a temperature 3830C and a pressure 1985 kPa. The reaction is exothermic
and produces ethylbenzene as represented by: 𝐶6 𝐻6 + 𝐶2 𝐻4  𝐶6 𝐻5 𝐶2 𝐻5
The percentage conversion of ethylene is 81 and product temperature at this conversion is 444 0C
and the rate of reaction is represented as follows:
−𝐸
−𝑟 = 𝑘 exp ( )𝐶 𝐶
𝑅𝑇 𝐶2 𝐻4 𝐶6 𝐻6
k=1*106 E=22500 kcal/kmol
The reactor is fabricated with 316 stainless steel packed bed, fed with ZSM-5 molecular sieve
catalyst
Determine the volume of the reactor
(specified volume for the packed bed section = 20 m3 and the dimensions of the total reactor are:
D=1.72 m and H=11 m)
Design Problem 2
Drying oils are used as additives to paints and varnishes to aid in the drying process when
these products are applied to surfaces. The facility manufactures drying oil (DO) from
acetylated castor oil (ACO). Both of these compounds are mixtures. However, for simulation
purposes, acetylated castor oil is modeled as palmitic (hexadecanoic) acid (C15H31COOH) and
drying oil is modeled as 1-tetradecene (C14H28). In the manufacture of drying oil (DO),
Hexadecanoic acid (ACO) with a molar flow rate of 41.69 kmol/h enters a fixed packed bed
reactor at a temperature 3800C and a pressure 195 kPa. The reaction does not require a catalyst,
since it is initiated at high temperatures. The reactor, R-501, is simply a vessel with inert
packing to promote radial mixing. The reaction is represented
by: 𝐶15 𝐻31 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶14 𝐻28
The percentage conversion of ACO is 15 and product temperature at this conversion is 343 0C
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
−𝑟 = 𝑘𝐶𝐴𝐶𝑂 . The unit of rate is: and E in kcal/kmol.
𝑚 3 .𝑠
k=5.538*1013 exp(-44500/RT)
E=22500 kcal/kmol
The reactor is a stainless steel vessel with inert packing.V = 1.15 m3 5.3 m long, 0.53 m diameter
(specified volume for the packed bed section = 1.15 m3 and the dimensions of the total reactor
are: D=0.53 m and H=5.3 m)
Design Problem 3
Currently, the preferred route to maleic anhydride in the United States is via isobutene in
fluidized-bed reactors. However, an alternative route via benzene may be carried out using a
shell-and-tube reactor, with catalyst in the tubes and a cooling medium being circulated
through the shell.
In the manufacture of maleic anhydride, a feed mixture containing 1.5 mole% Benzene and 98.5
mole% air with a total molar flow rate of 2832.3 kmol/h enters a fixed packed bed reactor at a
temperature 4600C and a pressure 235 kPa. The reaction is exothermic and produces maleic
anhdride as represented by: 𝐶6 𝐻6 + 4.5𝑂2  𝐶4 𝐻2 𝑂3 + 2𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
The percentage conversion of benzene is 62 and product temperature at this conversion is 608 0C
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
−𝑟 = 𝑘𝐶𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒 . The unit of rate is: 𝑚3 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.𝑠 and E in kcal/kmol.
k=7.7*106 exp (-25143/RT).
The reactor is fabricated with Carbon steel, shell-and-tube packed bed Spherical catalyst pellet,
9 mm diameter Void fraction = 0.4. The reactor is fabricated with 316 stainless steel packed bed,
fed with ZSM-5 molecular sieve catalyst
(Specifications: V = 202 m3, 10 m tall, 7.38 cm diameter tubes 4722 tubes 100% filled with active
catalyst)
REFERENCES
1. Robert W.Serth -ELSEVIER First edition (2007). Process heat transfer principles
and applications
2. Jurandir Primo, PE - PDH center. Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers Basic
Calculations
3. R K Sinnott - ELSEVIER (Volume 6). Chemical Engineering Design
4. D.Q. Kern ( INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION). Process Heat Transfer –
5. Warren L.McCabe, Julian C.Smith & Peter Harriott –(Mc GRAW-HILL

INTERNATIONAL EDITIONS). Unit operations of Chemical Engineering
6. Robert E.Treybal (Mc GRAW-HILL INTERNATIONAL EDITIONS). Mass -

Transfer Operations
7. Philip C.Wankat (PEARSON). Separation Process Engineering
8. Richard Turton ( PRENTICE HALL INTERNATIONAL SERIES, Fourth edition).

Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes
9. Octave Levenspiel (JOHN WILEY & SONS). Chemical Reaction Engineering

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Deputyship of Education and Training Affairs ‫وكالة الشؤون التعليمية والتدريب‬

The Department of Chemical and Process Engineering

Process Plant Design - (CHM 423)

Jubail Industrial College

2. Designing Packed Bed Absorber 80-104

3. Designing Continuous Distillation (Plate) Column 105-150

4. Designing Fixed Packed Bed Reactor 151-167

1. Thermal and Hydraulic calculations

Q  (mCP ) h (Th1  Th 2 )  (mCP ) c (Tc 2  Tc1 )

1-3 Preliminary thermal design [1]

The tube is placed inside the tube hole.

1-4-1 Heat Exchanger Tubes

These are also called as condenser tubes.

They are obtained by a number of different wall thickness defined by BWG.

1-4-2 Tube pitch

1-5 Types of heat exchangers based on shell and tube passes

1-5-1 1-1 Shell and tube heat exchanger [2]

The flow path can be either parallel or counter current.

1-5-2 1-2 Shell and tube heat exchanger [2]

A = tubes B = tie rods and spacers C = shell D = Tube side channel

E = channel cover F = Tube pass partition.

1-5-3 2-4 Shell and tube heat exchanger [2]

There is baffle in the shell side which brings in two passes.

Tcorr  F * LMTDcounter flow

1-7 Estimated Design overall heat transfer coefficients [1]

1-8 Estimated Colburn j factor [1]

jH = 0.5(1+B/ds)(0.08 Re0.6821 +0.7 Re0.1772)

1-9 Estimated dirt factors, RD [h.ft2 0F]/BTU . [1]

Table 1-2 continued

Solved example 1-1

So 1 shell pass is not suitable for this service.

LMTDcounter flow = 59.60F

Hence mean temperature difference, Tm = 0.94*59.6 = 560F

Solved example 1-2

Cp (BTU/lb/0F) 0.6 0.5

 (cP) 0.45 3.5

K (BTU/h/ft/0F) 0.077 0.08

Ta = 400◦F Tb = 250◦F ta = 110◦F tb = ?

q=(mCpT)kerosene =(mCpt)gas oil = 2.7*106 BTU/h Hence by energy balance, tb = 1820F

So 1 shell pass is suitable for this service. LMTDcounter flow = 1760F

Hence mean temperature difference, Tm = 0.93*176= 560F =163.70F

Solved example 1-3

A=(nt) (L) (external surface area/length of tube)

external surface area/length of tube = 0.2618 ft2/ft

Hence surface area of heat exchanger = 653 ft2

Step 2 Calculate the clean overall heat transfer coefficient (U c)

a. Calculate tube side Reynolds number

di = 0.834 inch (Table 1-20)

b. Calculate hi (heat transfer coefficient of tube side fluid)

De = equivalent diameter = 0.99/12 = 0.0825 ft

Diameter of shell, ds = 21.25 inch (Table 1-15)

B/ds = 5/21.25 = 0.235 B=baffle spacing = 5 inch (given)

Colburn factor, jH = 0.5(1+B/ds)(0.08 Re0.6821 +0.7 Re0.1772) = 3840

Step 3: Calculate the design overall heat transfer coefficient, (UD)

Fluid property kerosene Gas oil

Cp (BTU/lb/0F) 0.6 0.5

 (cP) 0.45 3.5

K (BTU/h/ft/0F) 0.077 0.08

8. In a petrochemical complex 150,000 lb/h of trichloroethylene is to be heated from 600F to

CP (Btu/lbm · 0F) 0.52

1-10 Heat exchanger coding, advantages and limitations [1]

Shell and Typical TEMA Advantages Limitations

Fig 1-13 Fixed-tube heat exchanger