3

CHAPTER

Regionalization and
Regionalism

Overview

Scholars see regionalism or regionalization either as a compliment or

an alternative to globalization. Some believe that regionalism compliments
globalization through economic interdependence and political and cultural
unity which promote trade liberalization and collaboration among states to
achieve world peace and address global problems. On the other hand, it also
becomes an alternative to globalization because it may become a challenge
or a threat; regionalism creates organizations or institutions that are exclusive
rather than inclusive which promote regional egoism, leading to conflict
and disputes with other regional institutions or non-member states. Also,
it may lead to protectionism which is contrary to trade liberalization and
globalization.
Regionalism has a long history; European Union (EU) is one of its models
which has brought European states into a deeper economic, political, and
socio-cultural unity more than the other regional organizations in the world.
Regionalism is not only confined in Europe; it has spread in different parts
of the world, specifically in the Asia-Pacific Region. In this chapter, one finds
explanations on how globalization has affected this region, how it contributes
to globalization, and how regionalism becomes an alternative to the latter.

Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define regionalism and regionalization.
2. Enumerate and explain the forms of regionalism.
3. Establish the relationship of regionalism and globalization.
4. Discuss the origin, history, and the institutions of the European Union as
well as why it is considered a model of regional integration.
5. Identify the different regional organizations in Asia.
6. Expound on the impact of globalization to the Asia-Pacific Region, and vice
versa.

43
Chapter 3: Regionalization and Regionalism

Bridging Learning Opportunities

A. Encircle the states that belong to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN).
Singapore Indonesia Hongkong New Zealand
Brunei Cambodia Thailand South Korea
Australia Japan Myanmar/Burma North Korea
India Taiwan China Laos
Vietnam Malaysia Philippines Sri Lanka
B. Which of these countries do not belong to the European Union (EU)? Mark these
countries with an X.
Turkey Portugal Iceland Slovenia
Austria Switzerland Italy Russia
Netherlands Norway Latvia Slovakia
France Hungary Denmark Poland
Spain Ireland Czech Republic Siberia

Regionalism or Regionalization
Regionalism/Regionalization or Regional Integration is an agreement among
states or governments in a given geographic location to enhance cooperation and
mutual relationships and form regional institutions or organizations. A region is
what it constituents or members choose it to be. It involves closeness in territory
or geographical proximity as well as shared cultural, economic, social, and political
interdependence (Stiles, 2008).
Heywood (2011) defines regionalism as the theory or practice of coordinating
social, economic, or political activities within a region comprised of states to become
a significant political and economic unit for cooperation and identity-building.
Regional integration is not a new phenomenon. It takes its origin from unions,
pacts, associations, leagues, confederacies,
and councils whose purpose is to ensure
mutual defense and protection. The initiative
for integration started with the customs
union in Prussia (now Germany) during the
early nineteenth century—around 1828—
to protect the welfare of its members.
Switzerland is also a product of integration
of Swiss markets and political unions. This European Union via Foundation for Economic
initiative was revived in the 20th century Education.

44
 The Contemporary World

after the Second World War with the European Coal and Steel Community which
later became the European Union (EU) (Mattli, 1999).
This phenomenon does not exist exclusively in Europe. It is a phenomenon
happening in the different parts of the globe. In the 1960s, the Latin American Free
Trade Association (LAFTA), the Andean Pact, and the Central American Common
Market have emerged. In the 1990s, the Mercado Cumon del Sur (MERCUSOR)
was organized with Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay as members. In 1989,
Canada and the United States made a free trade agreement which became the
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Mexico joined in 1994. In 1967, the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established. In 1989, the Asia-
Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) was launched by Australia, the United States,
New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, Canada, and the ASEAN (1999).

ASEAN via Jakarta Post. MERCOSUR via Parthenon. Canada, Mexico, and American flags via AFP.

The challenge of defining the word region is one of the problems of regionalism.
It can be defined according to geographical location, particularly a continent such
as the EU, African Union, Organization of American States, and Arab League for the
Middle East. However, there are subcontinental regions. For example, the ASEAN is for
Southeast Asia, the South African Customs Union is for South Africa, and the Central
American Common Market is for Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and
Costa Rica. There are also transcontinental organizations such as the APEC and
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Moreover, regions can also be identified
by similar socio-cultural characteristics by states such as shared language, religion,
history, and ideological beliefs. The Arab League, Nordic Council, and EU are formed
because of these shared cultures (Heywood, 2011).
What is surprising is that regional identities overlap. For example, Mexico is a
member of NAFTA-North American Free Trade Agreement when in fact, Mexico is in
Central America. Members of the ASEAN are also members of APEC. Some members
of NATO are members of EU. Today, many NATO members are former members of
the Warsaw Pact-USSR and its allies during the Cold War. This happens because
regions are politically and economically created. Similar with nations, regions are
imagined communities. Therefore, these can be reshaped and reimagined over time,

45
Chapter 3: Regionalization and Regionalism

depending on who will become members and who will cease to be part of it (2011).
Forms of regionalism
Regionalism takes different forms. Economic regionalism is the creation of
bigger economic opportunities through cooperation among states in the same
region (2011). It refers to the cooperation of states in the field of economic policies
to reduce trade and tariff barriers and achieve trade liberalization or free trade zones
(Heinonen, 2006). Examples of this kind of integration includes the EU, the NAFTA,
the MERCUSOR, and the ASEAN (Laursen, 2010). Economic integration improves
market access to member countries. It limits international competition, and similarly,
it protects member-states from international competition. Generally, the best way
to liberalize trade is by tearing down its barriers such as tariffs and strict trade laws
or policies (Shams, 2002). It has become all the more so since the beginning of the
so-called “new” regionalism in the early 1990s as showed by the growth of regional
trade blocs and the expanding of existing ones (Heywood, 2011).
Another form of regionalism is intended for security reasons. Security
regionalism is the form of cooperation designed to protect states from their
enemies, both proximate and distant ones. For example, the EU was formed not just
for security reasons, but also to establish cooperation and shared sovereignty over
steel and coal production, the use of nuclear energy, and trade and commerce to
avert a World War III. The European states realized the need to cooperate and become
closer to each other to prevent conflict among themselves, unlike what happened
during the First and Second World Wars (Lestari, n.d.).
Today, the EU member-states cooperate in arms production, research, and
capacity development to strengthen defense capability. They also work in unity to
maintain peace within the region and fight against local and overseas terrorism,
sending peace-keeping forces in war zones abroad to mitigate conflict (Cross, 2011).
The case with Brazil and Argentina is an example of security regionalism. These two
countries used to be military rivals. However, when the treaty of Asuncion in 1991
established MERCUSOR of which the two countries are participating members, their
military rivalry has ended and both become allies and partners, helping one another
in strengthening security (Sham, 2002).
The NATO, composed of the United States, Canada, and western Europe, is also
established for collective security defense to protect each member-state from the
spread and threat of Communist Russia and eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact, the
integration of Russian and eastern Europe Communist states, was formed similarly
to prevent the threat of NATO invasion (Cohen, 2015).
Even the ASEAN was organized for security reasons. Following a confrontation

46
 The Contemporary World

between Indonesia and Malaysia in 1967 that threatened the security of the region,
the five founding members namely Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, and
the Philippines organized themselves as the ASEAN. They pledged the following
fundamental principles based on the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast
Asia of 1976:
1. Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity,
and national identity of all nations;
2. The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external
interference, subversion or coercion;
3. Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;
4. Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner;
5. Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
6. Effective cooperation among themselves.
The third form of regionalism is political. Political regionalism refers to attempts
by states in the same area to strengthen or protect shared values, thereby enhancing
its respective image and reputation and gaining a more powerful diplomatic
voice (Heywood, 2011). It can also mean as the closer relation among states or the
development of the collective decision-making system of states over time, making a
political community superimposing itself to existing states such as the EU, a federal
or unitary state (Heinonen, 2006).

Regionalism and globalization

There is an ongoing debate among globalization scholars whether regionalism
is for or against globalization. Some perceive regionalism as complimentary to
globalization while others see it as a threat and an alternative to globalization. Those
who believe that regionalism compliments globalization claim that regionalism
promotes economic interdependence of states within a particular region to promote
trade liberalization, which is what globalization is all about. Also, the logic of
interconnectedness and interdependence that regionalism promotes lead to global
unity, peace, and harmony among nation states—one of the goals of globalization.
Third, since problems of the contemporary world are already global in scope, regions
work not only within the confines of its territories but also collaborate with other
regions to address global problems, since these issues can only be addressed through
global efforts (Heywood, 2011).
On the other hand, those who see regionalism as opposed to globalization
believe that regionalism promotes regional egoism, causing unhealthy competition
and friction between regions that can lead to war and anarchy. Likewise, because

47
Chapter 3: Regionalization and Regionalism

regions may be identified by cultural identities, a clash of culture or civilization can

occur. This leads to discrimination, genocide, ethnic cleansing, and eugenics. Finally,
regions have the tendency to be inward-looking and can become overprotective of
its territories that will affect negatively free trade or globalization (Heywood, 2011).

The European Union: A model of regionalization

The EU is a regional organization of European states or governments that aims
for unification and centralization in terms of political, economic, and social policies
of its member-states (Campbell, MacKinnon, & Stevens, 2011).
After the Second World War, European states moved away from extreme
nationalism, the cause of the rise of fascism—particularly that of Nazi Germany and
the Axis Power. To prevent a World War III, these states decided to favor unification
and centralization, thus establishing the EU (Mattli, 1999). Aside from that, the
political unity of western European states is seen as better prevention of the spread
of communism in the entire continent and the world (Duncan, Webster, & Switsky,
2009).
European countries also make sure that no state would become too economically
powerful than the rest to avoid one to dominate and conquer others. In other words,
a common market or economic interdependence prevents future conflict among
European states by building alliances and friendships that breed trust (Sandholtz &
Sweet, 1998). After World War II, Europe was heavily devastated and impoverished
that unification and centralization were needed for economic recovery, development,
and sustainability (Cohen, 2015).
Moreover, the founding members of the EU realized the advantage of the
economies of scale, which means that if they combine resources, they can produce
more goods and services, become efficient in trade, be more competitive in the
international market, and have a more stable economy (Duncan, Webster, & Switsky,
2009).
EU does not only exist for political and economic reasons, but also for the social
unity of European people. The EU is considered a model of regionalism because the
political, economic, and cultural integration or interconnectedness of its member
states are deeper than any other regional institution or organization in the world.
Thus, one of the main themes in the study of regions or regionalism is to compare
other regional organizations or institutions with the EU.
The EU has established a central-governing body composed of its institutions.
Economically, it has established a single market and implemented a single currency.
Culturally, it has recognized and afforded citizenship to the citizens of its member-

48
 The Contemporary World

states through the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 and came into force the following year.
For these reasons, other regional organizations or institutions are not comparable
with the EU.

Brief history of the EU

The EU started with six member-states: France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the
Netherlands, and Luxembourg that came together and signed the Treaty of Paris in
1951 to establish the European Coal and Steel Community. Primarily, it had a political
agendum or goal: to reconcile France and Germany, two countries with a longtime
rivalry in history. Economically, it centralizes the control of the coal and steel industry
in the said countries (Dinan, 1999).
Six years later, two additional European communities were organized in the
Treaty of Rome in 1957, namely the European Economic Community and the
Atomic Energy Community (Campbell, MacKinnon, & Stevens, 2011). The former
sought to establish a common or single market in which goods, capital, services,
and people could move freely within the European Community (Dinan, 1999). The
latter sought a common market for the development of the peaceful uses of atomic
energy (Britannica).
In 1967, the European Coal and Steel Community, European Economic
Community, and the Atomic Energy Community became a single community known
as the European Community (EC) (Campbell, MacKinnon, & Stevens, 2011) through
the Merger Treaty.
In 1973, Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom joined the EC.
In 1981, Portugal and Spain joined the EC.
In 1993, it is through the Maastricht Treaty or formally known as Treaty of
European Union (TEU) that the EC became EU.
In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU (Heywood, 2011).
In 1997, the Treaty of Amsterdam was signed, allowing the EU to expand
eastward and further reducing the influence of national veto.
In 1999, the euro becomes the official currency of eleven member-states.
National currencies were replaced by euro banknotes and coins in 2003.
In 2001, the Treaty of Nice was signed to help the effective functioning of the EU.
In 2004, ten new members joined the EU; it is then composed of a total of
twenty-five states.
In 2007, Bulgaria and Romania joined, increasing the members to twenty-seven.
In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon was signed.
In 2013, Croatia joined the EU, increasing its members to twenty-eight.

49
Chapter 3: Regionalization and Regionalism

The institutions of the EU

The EU has five basic institutions that handle its affairs. These institutions are
comparable to the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of a typical state in
terms of function.
The European Council consists of the government heads such as prime
ministers and presidents of member-states. The members of the council meet every
six months or more frequently if there is a need to discuss political issues and matters
of the EU (Duncan, Webster, & Switsky, 2009).
The Council of European Union, also known as Council of Ministers, is the
legislative body of the EU that meets daily, unlike the European Council. This body
has the final say on EU’s laws and policies. It is composed of at least one minister or
representative from the twenty-eight members of the EU. The country that holds
the presidency of this body sets the overall direction of the EU agenda and is the
chair of all EU Council meeting. Presidential elections of this body take place after
six months to give all member-states the opportunity to lead the activities of the
council (Duncan, Webster, & Switsky, 2009).
The European Parliament is also a legislative branch of the EU. It shares this
function with the Council of European Union or the Council of Ministers. This is the
only body whose 732 seats or representatives are voted or chosen by EU citizens.
What makes this body unique is that it is composed of different party groups such
as the Socialist Party, the Christian Democratic Party, the Alliance of Liberals, and
Democrats for Europe, among others. The primary concern is the party’s interest
over national/country’s interests. Thus, what makes it different from the Council of
Ministers is that the Council Ministers primary concern is national interest, not party
interest (Duncan, Webster, & Switsky, 2009).
The European Commission is the executive branch of the EU. It is composed of
twenty-eight officials from all member states who are nominated by the Commission
president and approved by the European Parliament. The commissioners or officials
are responsible for tackling different areas of concern such as agriculture, foreign
policy, fisheries, relations with other states outside the EU as well as the negotiation
of EU affairs with intergovernmental agencies. Its basic function is to propose and
implement EU laws. The Council of Ministers cannot pass laws unless they are
proposed by the European Commission. They also see to it that treaties involving
the EU are observed. Its main goal is the interest of the EU and not the interest of an
individual member, state, or party (Duncan, Webster, & Switsky, 2009).
The European Court of Justice is the EU’s judicial body or branch. It is the
ultimate judge of EU laws and its decisions cannot be appealed, binding on the

50
 The Contemporary World

citizens of the EU and all EU member states. It is composed of twenty-seven judges

and eighteen advocate generals appointed by the member-states and have a
renewable six-year term. The EU’s legal system includes the Court of First Instance
and the Court of Auditors which is comparable to the Accountability Office of the
United States government (Duncan, Webster, & Switsky, 2009).

EU institutions via European Studies Hub.

Asian regionalism
ASEAN is one of the most important regional organizations in Asia. It was
organized by Brunei, Philippines, Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia in 1967. Other
members such as Vietnam (in 1995), Burma and Laos (in 1997), and Cambodia (in
1999) also joined the organization (Heywood, 2011).

Leaders and representatives from 10 ASEAN countries during the 32nd ASEAN Summit in Singapore on April 28,
2018 via AFP/Roslan Rahman.

The ASEAN is organized primarily for security reasons, specifically to prevent

interregional disputes and to resist the influence of superpower nations. Later, it

51
Chapter 3: Regionalization and Regionalism

moved towards economic cooperation by establishing the ASEAN Free Trade Area
in 1992. Furthermore, it moved towards political integration by focusing on the so-
called “Asian Values.” Also known as the “Asian Way,” it emphasizes the primacy of
duty over individual rights, the loyalty and respect of authority and the government
over civil and political freedom, and the focus on the community rather than on the
individual. These are different from the socio-political beliefs of the West (Heywood,
2011).
ASEAN integration was renewed and reinvigorated during the late 1990s due to
the Asian financial crisis from 1997 to 1998. ASEAN member-states realized the need
for a deeper and stronger integration so that such a crisis will not recur in the region.
Also, the rise of China and India as economic powerhouses in the region as well as
in the world requires a more established interdependence among members of the
ASEAN to become more globally competitive (Heywood, 2011).
Is the ASEAN comparable to the EU? Is it possible for the ASEAN to become
like the EU? These are two frequently asked questions regarding the organizations.
Scholars and commentators claim that EU integration is deeper than the ASEAN
integration because on the economic aspect, the EU has already created a single
market and is embracing a monetary union which the ASEAN has not done. The
EU also has already become a more centralized governing body by establishing a
supranational government with its institutions, compared to the ASEAN that remains
as an intergovernmental organization.
Moreover, it is challenging for the organization to become like the EU. First,
unlike the EU, ASEAN member-states have great disparities in terms of economic
development. For example, Burma and Singapore have different views on economic
development, making it difficult for ASEAN to have the same degree of economic
integration as the EU. Second, there also exists a political difference among ASEAN
member-states. Vietnam, for example, is Communist, compared to other democratic
states. Also, the ASEAN does not have the political urgency of integration such that
of the EU when it comes to overcoming the pressing need of the Franco-German
hostility that caused World Wars I and II (Heywood, 2011).
The ASEAN has promoted a wider regional integration in various ways. One of
these is the ASEAN Regional Forum which was established in 1994. It aims to promote
peace and security in the region by providing more avenues for dialogues among
Asia-Pacific countries. Another is the ASEAN Plus Three (APT), the joint cooperation
of the ten ASEAN members and three additional states: China, Japan, and South
Korea. Among its greatest achievements is the Chiang Mai Initiative in 2000 which
deepened the relation of the ASEAN members with China, Japan, and South Korea

52
 The Contemporary World

by making a multilateral agreement on currency exchange among member-states

to prevent another financial crisis in the region. ASEAN is also part of the East Asia
Summit (EAS) which meets annually since 1995. Members of the EAS include China,
Japan, South Korea, India, Australia, New Zealand, and the ASEAN member-states
(Heywood, 2011).
It must be noted that regionalism in Asia is not purely ASEAN initiatives. There
are also non-ASEAN initiatives by the APEC that push regionalism forward. APEC is
an economic forum established in 1989 composed of the following member-states:
Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, People’s Republic of China, Hong Kong,
Indonesia, Japan, Republic of South Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua
New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, the United
States, and Vietnam. Its purpose is to establish and promote sustainable economic
development and prosperity in the said region.
More specifically, APEC aims to strengthen and deepen economic integration by
removing trade and investment barriers, enhancing supply chain-link across borders
and improving business conditions with the borders of member-states. It also
improves access to trade information and facilitate regulatory and administrative
processes. It functions based on nonbinding commitments and open dialogue.
Decision-making in the APEC is attained through consensus and commitments are
on a voluntary basis. The APEC Secretariat is stationed in Singapore (Global Affairs
Canada).
China also made its initiative to create the Shanghai Cooperation Organization,
a regional organization composed of China, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan,
Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan. It was established in 1996 to foster peace and security in
Central Asia against terrorism, political extremism, and separatism. However, many
scholars suspect that this regional organization was established to counterbalance
Western and NATO influence in the region. This organization has expanded into
economic, military, and cultural cooperation among members (Heywood, 2011).

2017 APEC Ministerial Meeting on November 8, 2017, in Da Nang, Viet Nam via APEC.org.

53
Chapter 3: Regionalization and Regionalism

Globalization and the Asia-Pacific Region

The Asia-Pacific Region is approximately 22 percent of the world’s land area,
covering more than two-billion hectares of global land. The region includes Northeast
Asia, East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Islands. It is home to the
world’s economically developed states such as China, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, and
South Korea as well as developing states like Laos, Nepal, and Cambodia. The most
populated states in the world such as India and China and the least populated states
like Bhutan and Maldives are also included in the region. The economic rise of China
and India has recently made the region the apple of the eyes of the United States
(Steger, Battersby, & Siracusa, 2014).
The relationship between
globalization and the Asia-Pacific
Region can be viewed in three
different perspectives: globalization
as a recipient of globalization
imposed by the West, the Asia-Pacific
Region as an agent that propels
globalization forward, and the region
as an alternative or challenge to
globalization. The Asia-Pacific Region via Patrick Nunn at Researchgate.net.

The Asia-Pacific Region as recipient of globalization

Even long before, the region has been the apple of the eye of Western powers
during the Age of Exploration and Colonization. The Portuguese colonized Melaka
in 1511. The Spaniards, headed by Ferdinand Magellan, came to the Philippines in
1521 and placed the country under Spanish rule for over three centuries. During
the seventeenth century, the Dutch came to colonize the East Indies. The British
also came and colonized the Malay Peninsula, South Asia, and Burma. The French
colonized Indochina in the late nineteenth century (Steger, Battersby, & Siracusa,
2014).
Though colonial rule varied depending on the place, time, and colonizer,
what is certain is that these Western powers influenced the region socio-culturally,
politically, and economically. The Western powers brought Christianity, the idea
of democracy, nationalism, and modernization to the region. The Philippines then
became a Catholic country. The nationalism of Filipinos also serves as a catalyst of
Philippine independence from Spanish colonization, embracing democracy as its
form of government. In fact, Western influence has developed a colonial mentality

54
 The Contemporary World

among Filipinos or the belief that whatever is Western is always more superior (2014).
After the World War II, east Asian states including Taiwan and Japan became
developed states because these aligned its respective economic policies and systems
with the global economic system that are Western by origin. The influx of foreign
investments and the strong influence of the International Financial Institutions such
as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) influence and contribute
to the economic growth of Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Indonesia,
Vietnam, Singapore, and Malaysia. Western Multinational Corporations (MNCs) and
Transnational Corporations (TNCs) spread throughout Asia, providing employment
and business opportunities in the region (2014).
It is observed that there is a spread of McDonald stores in Asia. Hollywood
movies are being patronized by many Asians. Western music videos shown in MTV
is watched and loved by numerous Asians. Western-fashion-inspired clothes are
worn by a vast Asian population. These are just some of the several examples of
Western and global influence on Asia, a recipient of globalization (Steger, Battersby,
& Siracusa, 2014) .

The Asia-Pacific Region as agent of globalization

Economically, one of the reasons
that has brought Western or European
powers to Asia is the existence of the
Spice Trade. Both the Spaniards and the
Portuguese fought for it. In fact, the goal
behind the effort of circumnavigating the
world is to find a shorter route from Asia
to Europe to ship spices. This shows how
Asia has contributed to globalization,
particularly to the economy of the West Spices via Ethnotours.com.
(Steger, Battersby, & Siracusa, 2014) .
In fact, Asia is a center of world trade for a very long time in ancient and
medieval history, for it is the site of the world’s most significant trade route: the Silk
Road (Steger, Battersby, & Siracusa, 2014).
In the postcolonial era, Japan has risen as a global economic power. It has
supplied raw materials such as coal and iron to the world, globalizing shipping and
becoming a world leader in manufacturing and production of automobiles and
electronics, among others (Steger, Battersby, & Siracusa, 2014).

55
Chapter 3: Regionalization and Regionalism

The Silk Road via Wikimedia Commons.

More recently, China has a significant role in the world economy. It is not only
a leading importer of raw materials such as iron, but it has surpassed the United
States and Europe in terms of steel production. Because of its cheap materials, low-
wage labor, and ideal supply chain management, China became the world’s center
of manufacturing and production. It also has surpassed the World Bank in lending
money to developing countries (Steger, Battersby, & Siracusa, 2014).
Aside from China, India also plays a major role in the world economy. It is
the world’s leading producer and exporter of textile, software, and outsourced or
offshored services. Both India and China are sources of skilled laborers, domestic
workers in the Middle East, Europe, and the United States, and workers in high-
tech industries based in Silicon Valley. Other countries such as the Philippines and
Indonesia also contribute to the number of skilled laborers and domestic workers
around the globe (Steger, Battersby, & Siracusa, 2014).

China via NDTV.com

56
 The Contemporary World

Also, Asian regional organizations or institutions such as the ASEAN, APEC, and
EAS promote free trade not only in the region but also in the world because it adapt
to open regionalism that maintain cooperation with states and organizations outside
the region (Steger, Battersby, & Siracusa, 2014).

Busy India street via Pixabay.

Finally, Asia’s Hello Kitty, Pokemon, J-pop, K-pop, martial arts, yoga, religions,
and food, among others, have influenced the West in various ways (Steger, Battersby,
& Siracusa, 2014).

Pikachu, a fictional character BTS, a seven-member South Korean boy band

in popular game Pokémon via formed by Big Hit Entertainment in 2013 via
Pixabay. Soompi.

The Asia-Pacific Region as alternative or resistance to globalization

Though Japan lost in the World War II, it challenged the West by building a
supposed East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere which was intended to make Asia “truly
Asian,” liberating Asia from Western colonial rule and influence (Steger, Battersby, &
Siracusa, 2014).
The Asian Values or the Asian Way which was advocated by leaders Mahathir
Mohamed of Malaysia and Lee Kwan Yew of Singapore shows that Asia is culturally
and politically distinct from the West. If Western values emphasize individualism, the
Asian values emphasize communitarian spirit. Western values emphasize rights while
the Asian values emphasize duty. While Western values emphasize political freedom,

57
Chapter 3: Regionalization and Regionalism

Asian values emphasize obedience and respect of authority (Steger, Battersby, &
Siracusa, 2014).
There are regional institutions in Asia established exclusively for Asia such as
the Asian Economic Caucus (EAEC) which was proposed as an alternative to APEC.
However, Japan vetoed the idea of EAEC because the United States strongly opposed
it and Japan did not want to lose its strategic partnership with the US. The APT is
considered a successor of the EAEC even if both are not exactly the same; the APT is
embedded in other institutional arrangements that are not exclusively Asian (Steger,
Battersby, & Siracusa, 2014).
There is also a proposal of an Asian Monetary Fund (AMF) as an alternative to
the IMF that is Western. However, due to the opposition of the United States, the idea
did not materialize (Steger, Battersby, & Siracusa, 2014).
Even Asia has its own regional terrorist group and network called Jemaah
Islamiyah or JI that aims to create a pan-Islamic caliphate comprising Malaysia,
Singapore, southern Philippines, and Brunei. This terror group is independent from
other international terrorist groups (Steger, Battersby, & Siracusa, 2014).

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Exercises
A. Answer the questions below.
1. What is regionalism?
2. Enumerate and explain the forms of regionalism.
3. Expound on the relationship between regionalism and globalization.
4. Discuss why the European Union is a model of regionalism.
5. Identify at least three regional organizations or institutions in Asia and explain
its purpose(s).
6. In what ways do globalization affect the Asia-Pacific Region?
7. What are the contributions of the Asia-Pacific Region to globalization?
8. In what ways do the Asia-Pacific Region become an alternative to globalization?
B. Organize a debate with this motion or proposition: “This house believes that
regionalism threatens global order and stability.” The number of students
grouped in the affirmative and the negative sides are based from the debate
format of choice. Assign a moderator, a timer, and adjudicators/judges from the
class. The rest will serve as audience with the task to jot down important points
and arguments of both sides of the debate as output.

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Chapter 3: Regionalization and Regionalism

Supplementary Learning Resources

1. “The Economics of European Integration” by Richard Baldwin and Charles
Wyplosz: http://www.unige.ch/~baldwin/papers/BW/bw.htm
2. “Reasons for regional integration agreements” by Peter Moser: https://
www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/140604/1/v32-i05-BF02929831.pdf
3. “Regional Cooperation and Integration in a Changing World” from the
Asian Development Bank: https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/
publication/30224/regional-cooperation-changing-world.pdf
4. “Regional Integration: Concepts, Advantages, Disadvantages and Lessons
of Experience” from the Southern African Regional Poverty Network: https://
sarpn.org/documents/d0001249/P1416-RI-concepts_May2005.pdf
5. “Regional Integration: Concepts, Advantages, Disadvantages and Lessons
of Experience” by Lolette Kritzinger-van Niekerk: siteresources.worldbank.
org/.../Resources/Regional_Integration_101_Concepts.ppt
6. “The Benefits of Regional Economic Integration for Developing Countries
in Africa: A Case of East African Community (EAC)” by Ombeni N. Mwasha:
https://gsis.korea.ac.kr/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/11-1-05-Ombeni-N.-
Mwasha.pdf

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