Module-5

Manufacturing Control and Automation

CNC technology - An overview: Introduction to NC/CNC/DIN machine tools,

Classification of NC /CNC machine tools, Advantage, disadvantages of NC /CNC machine
tools, Application of NC/CNC Part programming: CNC programming and introduction,
Manual part programming: Basic (Drilling, milling, turning etc.), Special part
programming, Advanced part programming, Computer aided part programming (APT)

Introduction: Automation in production system principles and strategies of automation,

basic Elements of an automated system. Advanced Automation functions. Levels of
Automations introduction to automation productivity

Control Technologies in Automation: Industrial control system. Process industry vs

discrete manufacturing industries. Continuous vs discrete control. Continuous process and
its forms. Other control system components.

5.1 Introduction to Numerical Control Machine:

Introduction:
Numerical Control (NC) refers to the method of controlling the manufacturing operations by
inserting numerical instructions directly to machine tools such as lathe, milling shaping etc, and
also can be extended to welding, sheet metalworking, riveting, etc.

History:

 Numerical Control technology pioneered by John T. Parson in the year 1940, when
he tried to generate a curve automatically by milling cutters by providing coordinate
motions using punched cards .

 Later during 1948, he demonstrated this concept to the US Air Force, who sponsored
the

Series of project at laboratories of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

 By 1952 Mr. Jhon T. Parson demonstrated first NC prototype and in the next year
they were able to prove the potential applications.
 NC can be defined as a form of programmable automation in which the process is controlled
by numbers, letters, and symbols. Here program changes when the work part changes without
making appreciable changes in the production equipment. This capability to change the program
for each new job is what gives NC its flexibility. Numerical control should be considered as a
possible mode of controlling the operation for any production situation possessing the following
characteristics:

 Similar work parts in terms of raw material

 The work parts are produced in various sizes and geometries.
 The work parts are produced in batches of small to medium size quantities.

 A sequence of similar processing steps is required to complete the operation on each

work piece.
NC technology has been applied to a wide variety of operations, including drafting,
assembly, inspection, sheet metal press working, and spot welding. However, numerical control
finds its principal applications in metal machining processes. The machined work parts are
designed in various sizes and shapes and also in small to medium batches. To produce each part,
a sequence of machining operations may be required.

Components of An NC Systems

An operational numerical control system consists of the following three basic components:

1. Program of instructions
2. Controller unit, also called a machine control unit (MCU)
3. Machine tool or other controlled process
Basic Block diagram
(i) Program of Instructions:

It is the detailed step by step set of 'directions which tell the machine tool what to be done and
in what sequence. The part programme is written in coded form and contains all the
information needed for machining the component. The part program is fed to the machine
control unit through some input media.
Some of the various types of input media are

 Punched cards
 Magnetic tapes and floppy disks
 Paper tapes.

(ii) Machine control unit (MCU):

The second basic component of Numerical Control system is the controller unit. This unit consists of
electronics and hardware that can read and interpret the program of instructions and convert it into
mechanical actions of the machine tool. The MCU may be generally placed in a separate cabinet like body
(or) may be mounted on the machine itself.

(iii) Machine tool

The third basic component of Numerical Control system is the machine tool that performs the actual
work. The machine tool or the processing equipment converts the starting work piece into a completed part.
The machine tool is controlled by MCU which in turn is controlled by the instructions contained in the part
program.

Applications of NC:

 Batch and High Volume production

 Repeat and/or Repetitive orders
 Complex part geometries
Disadvantage:
 High investment cost
 High maintenance effort
 Need for skilled programmers
  High Utilization Required
Benefits:
 Cycle time reduction
 Nonproductive time reduction
 Greater accuracy and repeatability
 Lower scrap rates
 Reduced parts inventory and floor space
 Operator skill level reduced Greater operator efficiency
 Greater operator safety
 Reduction of scrap NC used to:
 Position cutter (move table)
 Change tooling
 Adjust coolant flow (flood/off)
 Adjust spindle speeds
 Perform operations at a point (plunge, tap, bore, etc.)
5.2 Introduction to CNC Machine tools:
CNC refers to a computer that is joined to the NC machine to make the machine versatile.
Information can be stored in a memory bank. The programme is read from a storage medium
such as the punched tape and retrieved to the memory of the CNC computer. Some CNC
machines have a magnetic medium (tape or disk) for storing programs. This gives more
flexibility for editing or saving CNC programs.

Components of CNC machine tool system

CNC system basically consists of the following:

(a) Central processing unit (CPU)

(b) Servo control unit
(c) Operator control panel
(d) Machine control panel
(e) Programmable logic controller
(f) Other peripheral devices.
 a) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU is the heart of a CNC system. It accepts the information stored in the memory
as part program. This data is decoded and transformed into specific position control and
velocity signals. It also oversees the movement of the control axis or spindle and whenever
this does not match with the programmed values, a corrective action as taken.

All the compensation required for machine acquires (like lead screw pitch error, tool
wear out, backlashes.) are calculated by CPU depending upon the corresponding inputs
made available to the system.

b) Servo Control Unit

The position and velocity control signals, generated by the CPU for the axis movement
forms the input to the servo control unit. This unit generates suitable signals that are
converted by the servo drive which are interfaced with the axes and the spindle motors.

c) Operator Control Panel

The Operator Control Panel provides user interface to facilitate a two way communication between
the user, CNC system and the machine tool, This consists of two parts are Video display unit and
Keyboard.

d) Machine Control Panel

It is the direct interface between the operator and the NC system, enabling the operation of the
machine through the CNC system. During program execution, the CNC controls the axis the motion,
spindle function or tool function on a machine tool, depending upon the part program stored in the
memory.

e) Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

A PLC matches the NC to the machine. They developed to be re-programmed without hardware
changes when requirements were altered and thus are re-usable. PLC's are now available with
increased functions, more memory and larger input/output capabilities.

f) Other Peripheral Devices

These include sensor interface, provision for communication equipment, programming

units, printer, tape reader interface, etc.
5.3 Direct Numerical Control
Direct Numerical Control can be defined as a type of manufacturing system in which several NC
or CNC machines are controlled remotely from a Host/Main frame computer or direct numerical
control (DNC). The Control of multiple machine tools are done by a single (mainframe)
computer through direct connection as shown in fig.

Components of a DNC system: Figure illustrates the configuration of the basic DNC system.
A direct numerical control system consists of four basic components:

1. Central computer
2. Bulk memory, which stores the NC part programs
3. Telecommunication lines
4. Machine tools
Working:
The computer calls the part program instructions from bulk storage and sends than to the individual
machines when required and receives data back from the machines. Tins two-way information flow
occurs in real time, which means that each machine's requests for instructions must be satisfied almost
instantaneously. Similarly, the computer must always be ready to receive information from the
machines and to respond accordingly. The remarkable feature of the DNC system is that the computer
is servicing a large of separate machine tools, all in real time.
 Advantages
 Easy and Effective programming using DNC Software.
 Higher level of decision making.
 Real time control of various machine tools.
 First step which gives hands on experience for future expansion.
 Elimination of Punched Tape and Tape Reader.
 Elimination of hardwired controller unit on some system.
 Greater Productivity.
 Greater Computational ability.

5.4 Distributed Numerical Control System:

Distributed Numerical Control is a technology that allows a single computer to be
networked with one or more machines that use computer numerical control (CNC). In the Distributed
Numerical Control, the central computer downloads complete programs to the CNC machines, which
can be workstations. Using the Distributed Numerical Control System, an operator can speedily load
CNC programs into several machines. We can also eliminate programs and substitute them with
efficient programs. CNC system allows machines, such as drill presses or lathes, to perform
multifaceted and repetitive tasks automatically. In this perspective, DNC System facilitates the remote
control of 'multiple programmable robots.
The Distributed Numerical Control System
 Controls the other computers which are connected in series and those entire
computers
 Control the machine control unit, which are configured to the machine tools.
 Controls the flow of data and information between central computer and machine
tools.
It collects NC Part Programs, List of tools needed for the job, Machine Tool setup
instructions, Machine operator instructions, Machine cycle time for part program, Data about the
past information of the program, Production schedule information from the central computer, and
transfer it to the machine tools and shop floor.
After that, this System collect data and information of Piece counts, Actual machining
cycle times, Tool life statistics, Machine uptime and downtime statistics, Machine utilization,
Reliability, Product Quality Data from the Machine Tool and Shop Floor and transfer it to the
Central Computer.

Advancements of Distributed Numerical Control System

The Distributed Numerical. Control System has much of advancements over CNC/DNC System.
The following are the major advancements:
1) Capability to connect and maintain entire computers properly in a sequence.
2) Level Managing.
3) Reduced Machine Tools Inspection Requirements.
4) Feedback System is stronger.
5) Data Storage.
6) Backup System for Data & Information.
7) Reduced Non-Productive time.
8) Greater Accuracy and Repeatability.
9) Lower scrap rates.
10) More complex part geometries are possible

Applications

 Electrical wire wraps machines.

 Components insertion machines.
 Drafting machines.
 Coordinate measuring machines.
 Tape laying machines for polymer composites.
 Filament winding machines for polymer composites.
 Cutting, Knitting and Riveting machines.
 Continuous and Flexible Production.
 Complex part geometry operations.
 Many separate machining operations on the part
 5.5 Comparison Chart CNC, DNC and Distributed Numerical Control
System:
Description Computer Direct Numerical Distributed Numerical Control
Numerical Control Control System System
Production System
Batch Production Mass Production Very Heavy Mass Production
System used
Computerization Single Computer One computer control A centralized computer
System used to control more than one machine controls all computers that
Machine control a no. of machines
Programming Manual/ Automatic Efficient Automatic
Automatic Programming Programming
Flexibility Programming
. Good Better Best
Memory Storage Normal Memory Bulk Memory Storage Very Heavy Memory Storage
Capacity
Communication Storage
Normal Telecommunication Super-Telecommunication
Lines Communication Lines Lines
Lines
Product Quality Ordinary Enhanced Tremendous
and Quantity
Machine Control General Control Modem Control Smart Control
Technology
Reliability Good Better Superior
Feedback Normal Better Efficient & High-tech
System
Performance Standard Greater Superior
Data Collection Pool Good Greater
and Reporting
Technology CAM CAD/CAM- CAD/CAM/CAPP/CAE
TypeUsed
of Systems Hybrid and BTR and SMCU Distributed
Backup System Straight
Normal Better Stronger

5.6 Classification of CNC Machine Tools

a) Based on the motion type:

Point-to-point systems: Say for example in machine tools such as drilling, boring and
tapping etc., cutter and the work piece will be placed at a certain fixed relative positions and
cutter will be performing its operation .

Contouring systems (Continuous path systems): Say for example in machine tools such as
milling, routing etc., basically involves motion of work piece with respect to the cutter while
operation is in process.
 b.) Based on the control loops Open loop & Closed loop systems

Open loop systems: Programmed instructions are fed into the controller through an input
device. These instructions are converted to electrical pulses (signals) by the controller and sent
to the servo amplifier to energize the servo motors. The primary drawback of the open-loop
system is that there is no feedback system to check whether the program position and velocity
has been achieved. If the system performance is affected by load, temperature, humidity, or
lubrication then the actual output could deviate from the desired output. For these reasons the
open -loop system is generally used in point-to-point systems where the accuracy requirements
are not critical.

Closed loop systems: The closed-loop system has a feedback subsystem to monitor the actual
output and correct. Any discrepancy from the programmed input, systems use position and
velocity feedback. The feedback system could be either analog or digital. Closed-loop systems
are very powerful and accurate because they are capable of monitoring operating conditions
through feedback subsystems and automatically compensating for any variations in real-time.

c) Based on the number of axes 2, 3, 4 & 5 axes CNC machines.

(a) 2& 3 axes CNC machines: CNC lathes will be coming under 2 axes machines.
There will be two axes along which motion takes place. The saddle will be moving
longitudinally on the bed (Z-axis) and the cross slide moves transversely on the saddle
(along X-axis).
 In 3-axes machines, there will be one more axis, perpendicular to the above two axes. By
the simultaneous control of all the 3 axes, complex surfaces can be machined.
(b) 4 & 5 axes CNC machines: 4 and 5 axes CNC machines provide multi-axis
machining capabilities beyond the standard 3-axis CNC tool path movements. A 5-axis
milling center includes the three X, Y, Z axes, the A axis which is rotary tilting of the
spindle and the B-axis, which can be a rotary index table.

d) Based on the power supply Electric, Hydraulic & Pneumatic systems

Mechanical power unit refers to a device which transforms some form of energy to mechanical
power which may be used for driving slides, saddles forming a part of machine tool. The input
power may be of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic.

Electric systems : Electric motors may be used for controlling both positioning and contouring
machines. They may be either AC or DC motor and the torque and direction of rotation need to
the controlled.

Hydraulic systems: Hydraulic systems may be used with positioning and contouring machine
tools of all sizes. These systems may be either in the form of rams or motors. Hydraulic motors
are smaller than electric motors of equivalent power. There are several types of hydraulic motors.
The advantage of using hydraulic motors is that they can be very small and have considerable
torque. This means that they may be incorporated in servo systems which require having a rapid
response.

Advantages of CNC machine

tools are briefly discussed below.
(1 ) Setup time reduction

In many cases. the setup time for a CNC machine can be reduced. It is important to
realized that setup is a manual operation, greatly dependent on the performance of CNC
operator. the type of fixturing and general practices of the machine shop. The design of CNC
machines consists of modular fixturing, standard tooling, fixed locators, automatic tool
changers pallets and other advanced features which makes the setup time more efficient than
a comparable setup of a conventional machine.

(2 ) Reduced lead time

The tune required to manufacture a component on the CNC machine is very less
compared to other conventional machines.
 (3) Accuracy and repeatability

The high degree of accuracy and repeatability of modern CNC machines has been the
single major benefit to many users. This particular factors allows high quality of parts to be
produced consistently time after time.

(4) Longer tool life:

Tools can be used at optimum speeds and feeds because these functions are controlled by the
pun program Programmed speeds and feeds can be overwritten by the operator if difficulty in
manufacturing is encountered.

(5) Elimination of special jigs and fixtures:

Standard locating fixtures are Often not used on CNC machines, and cost of special Jigs and
fixtures is frequently elimination. The capital cost of jig storage facilities is also reduced

(6) Flexibility in changes of component design:

The modification (or) changes in component design can be readily accommodated by
reprogramming and altering the concerned instructions

(7) Reduced inspection:

The time spent on inspection and in waiting for inspection to begin is greatly reduced.
Normally, it is necessary to inspect the first component only. If there is any difference in the
dimensions of the machined component, the programme is checked and corrected if needed.

(8)Less scrap:
A good part programme results in an accurate component and as a result there will be minimum
wastage of material.
(9)Accurate Costing and scheduling:
In CNC machines, the time taken in machining is predictable, consistent and results in a greater
accuracy in estimating and more consistency in costing.

5.8 Disadvantages of CNC Machines

1. Higher investment cost.
Numerical control machine tool represent a more sophisticated and complex technology. This
technology costs more to buy than its non-NC counterpart. The higher cost requires
manufacturing managements to use these machines more aggressively than ordinary equipment.
High machine utilization is essential in order to get reasonable return on investment. Machine
shops must operate their NC machines two or three shifts per day to achieve this high machine
utilization.
 2. Higher maintenance cost.
Because NC is a more complex technology and because NC machines are used harder, the
maintenance problem becomes more acute. Although the reliability of the NC systems has been
improved over the years, maintenance costs for NC machines will generally be higher than for
conventional machine tools.
3. Finding and/or training NC personnel.
Certain aspects of numerical control shop operations require higher skill level than conventional
operations part programmers and NC maintenance personnel are two skill areas where available
personnel are in short supply. The problem of finding, hiring and training these people must be
considered a disadvantage to the NC shop

5.9 Application of NC/CN

Numerical control systems are widely used industry today, especially in the metal
working industry. By far the most common application of NC is for metal cutting machine tools.
Within this category, numerically controlled equipment has been built to perform virtually the
entire range of material removal processed, including: Milling, Drilling and related processes,
Boring, Turning, Grinding, and Sawing.
Within the machining category, NC machine tools are appropriate for certain jobs and
inappropriate for others.
Following are the general characteristics of production jobs in metal machining for which
numerical control would be most appropriate:
1. Parts are processed frequently and is small lot sizes.
2. The part geometry is complex.
3. Many operations must be performed on the part in its processing.
4. Much metal needs to be removed
5. Engineering design changes are likely.
6. Close tolerances must be held on the work part.
7. It is an expensive part where mistakes in processing would be costly.
8. The parts require 100% inspection.

It has been estimated that most manufactured parts are produced in lit sized of 50 or
fewer small-lot and batch production jobs represent the ideal situations for the application of NC.
This is made possible by the capability to program the NC machine and to save that program for
subsequent use in future orders. If the NC programs are long and complicated (complex part
geometry, many operations, much metal removed), this makes NC all the more appropriate when
compared to manual methods of production. If engineering design changes of shifts in the
production schedule are likely, the use of tape control provides the flexibility needed to adapt to
these changes. Finally, if quality and inspection are important issues (close tolerances, high part
cost, 100% inspection required), NC would be most suitable owing to its high accuracy and
repeatability
 In order to justify that a job be processed by numerical control methods, it is not
necessary that the job possess every one of these attributes. However, the more of these
characteristics that are present, the more likely it is that the part is a good candidate for NC. It
addition to metal machining, numerical control has been applied to a variety of other operations.
The following although not a complete list, will give an idea of the wide range of potential
applications of NC:
 Press working machine tools
 Welding machines
 Inspection machine&
 Automatic drafting
 Assembly machines
 Tube betiding
 Flame cutting Plasma
 arc cutting
 Laser beam processes
 Automated knitting machines
 Cloth cutting
 Automatic riveting
 Wire-wrap machines
5.10 Part programming Introduction

In Numerical control part programming sequence of processing steps which are performed on the
NC machine are planned and documented. It involves the preparation of a punched tape (or other
input medium) to transmit the processing instructions to the machine tool.
There are two methods of part programming:
 Manual part programming
 Computer-assisted part programming.

5.10.1 Manual part programming:

To prepare a part program using the manual method, the programmer writes the
machining instructions on a special form called a part programming manuscript. The instruction
must be prepared in a very precise manner because the typist prepares the NC tape directly from
the manuscript. Manuscripts come in various forms, depending on the machine tool and tape
format to be used. For example, the manuscript form for a two-axis point-to-point drilling
machine would deferent than one for a three-axis contouring machine.
 The manuscript is a list of the relative tool and work piece locations. It includes other data such
as preparatory commands, miscellaneous instructions, and speed feed specifications, all of
which are needed to operate the machine under tape control.
Manual programming jobs can be divided into two categories: point-to-point jobs and
contouring jobs. Except for complex work parts with many holes to be drilled, manual
programming is ideally suited point-to-point applications.
On the other hand. except for the simplest milling and turning jobs, manual programming can
become quite time consuming for applications requiring continuous-path control of the tool.
Accordingly, we shall be concerned only with manual part programming for point-to-point
operations, Contouring is much appropriate for computer-assisted part programming.

NC WORDS
Following are NC words used in CNC machines:

1. Sequence Number (N-word)

 The first word in every block is the sequence number.

 The sequence number is used to identify the block.

 The sequence number is preceded by letter N and is written as N001, N002, and
N9999 etc.

2. Preparatory functions (G-words):

 The preparatory word prepares the control unit to execute the instructions that are
to follow.

 The Preparatory functions is represented by two digits proceeded by 0 1411 000

G99.
 A list of preparatory functions is given
3. Co-ordinates (x, y and z words):

 These words are used to indicate the co-ordinate positions for x, y and 7 inot1011%
 In two axis CNC system only two co-ordinate words are used.
 To specify the angular positions additional a-word and b-word are used.
 In addition, the words I, J, K are used to specify the position of arc center in cast
of circular interpolation.
4. Feed function (F-word):

 The feed function is used to specify the feed rate in the machining operation.
  The feed rate is expressed in millimeters per minute (nun/min) or in (mm/rev).
 Feed rate of 200mm/min will be represented as F200.

 A appropriate G-code most be specified to instruct the machine whether the feed
value is in nun/min (or) in mm/rev (G94 or G95)
5. Spindle speed function (S-word)

 The spindle speed is specified either in revolutions per minute (rpm) (or) meters
per minute
 If the machine is required to run at 800 rpm, the speed will be specified as S800.
6. Tool selection function (T-word):

 The T-word is needed only for machines with programmable tool turret or automatic tool
changer (ATC).
 The T-word in the part programme specifies which tool is to be used in the operation.
 The tool number for a particular operation is specified as TOO to T99
7. Miscellaneous function (M-word)

 The miscellaneous (or) auxiliary words are used to specify certain functions which do
not relate to the dimensional movements of the machine.
 The miscellaneous functions may be spindle start, spindle stop, coolant ON/ OFF etc.
 The different types of M-words for Milling and Turning applications
8. End of block (EOB).

 The EOB symbol identifies the end of the instructional block.

 5.10.2 Computer-Assisted Part Programming (APT)
In the more complicated point-to-point jobs and in contouring applications manual pail
programming becomes an extremely tedious task and subject to errors. In these instances it is
much more appropriate to employ the high-speed digital computer to assist in the part
programming process. Many part programming language systems have been developed to
perform automatically most of the calculations, which the programmer would otherwise be
forced to do. This saves time and results in a more accurate and more efficient part program.

5.10.2.1 The part programmer's job

The machining instructions are written in English like statements of the NC programming
language, which are then processed by the computer to prepare the tape. The computer
automatically punches the tape in the proper tape format for the particular NC machine. The part
programmer's responsibility in computer-assisted part programming consists of two basic steps:
1. Defining the work part geometry
2. Specifying the operation sequence and the tool path

1. Defining the work part geometry: No matter how complicated the work part may appear, it is
composed of basic geometric elements. Although somewhat irregular in overall appearance, the
outline of the parts consists of intersecting straight, and a partial circle. The holes in the part can
be expressed in terms of the center location and radius of the hole. Nearly any components that
can be conceived by a designer can be described by points, straight lines, planes, circles,
cylinders, and other mathematically defined surfaces.
It is the part programmer's task to enumerate the elements out of which the part is
composed. Each geometric element must be identified and the dimensions and location of the
element explicitly defined. After defining the work part geometry, the programmer must next
construct the path that the cutter will follow to machine the part.

2. Specifying the operation sequence and the tool path: This tool path specification involves a
detailed step- by-step sequence of cutter moves. The moves are made along the geometry
elements, which have previously been defined. The part programmer can use the various motion
commands to direct the tool to machine along the work part surfaces, to go to point locations, to
drill holes at these locations and so on. In addition to part geometry and tool motion statements,
the programmer must also provide other instructions to operate the machine tool properly.

5.10.2.2 The Computer’s job

The computer's job in computer-assisted part programming consists of the following steps:
1. Input translation
2. Arithmetic calculations
3. Cutter offset computation
4. Post processor
 The sequence of these steps and the task of the part programmer is that of constructing
the tool path. However, the actual tool path is different from the part outline because the tool
path is different from the part outline because the tool path is defined as the path taken by the
center of the cutter. It is at the periphery of the cutter that machining takes place. The purpose of
the cutter offset computations is to offset from the desired part surface by the radius of the cutter.
This means that the part programmer can define exact part outline in the geometry statements.
Nearly all of the part programming languages, including APT, are designed to be general
purpose languages, not limited to one or two machine tool types. Therefore. the final task of the
computer in computer-assisted part programming is to take the general instructions and make
them specific to a particular machine tool system.

The unit that performs this task is called a postprocessor. The postprocessor is a separate
computer program that has been written to prepare the punched tape for a specific machine tool.
The input to the postprocessor is the output from the other three components: a series of cutter
locations and other instructions. The output of the postprocessor is the NC tap written in the
correct format for the machine on which it is to be used.

5.11 Numerically Controlled Part Programming Languages

An NC part programming language consists of a software package (computer program)
plus the special rules, conventions, and vocabulary words for using that software. Its purpose is
to make it convenient for a part programmer to communicate the necessary part geometry and
tool motion information to the computer so that the desired part geometry and tool motion
information to the computer so that the desired part program can be prepared. The vocabulary
words are typically mnemonic and English-like, to make the NC language easy to use. Most of
the languages were developed to meet particular needs and have not survived the test of time.
The following list provides a description of some of the important NC languages in current use.
APT(Automatically The APT language was the product of the MIT developmental work on
Programmed Tools) NC programming systems. Today it is the most widely used language in
the United States. Although first intended as a contouring language,
modem versions of APT can be used for both positioning and continues-
path programming in up to five axes. Versions of APT for particular
processes include APTURN (for lathe operations). APTMIL (for milling
and drilling operations), and APTPOINT (for point-to point operations).
ADAPT (Adaptation Several part programming languages are based directly on the APT
of APT) program. One of these ADAPT, which was developed by IBM under Air
Force contract. It was indented to provide many of the features of APT
but to utilize a smaller computer. The full APT program requires a
computing system that would have been considered by the standards of
the 1960s. This precluded its use by many small and medium sized firms
that did not have access to a large computer. ADAPT is not as powerful
as APT, but it
EXAPT (Extended There are three versions: EXAPT I- designed for positioning (drilling
subset of APT) and also straight-cut milling), EXAPT H- designed for turning, and
EXAPT III- designed for limited contouring operations. One of the
important features of EXAPT is that it attempts to compute optimum
feeds and speeds automatically
UNIAPT The UNIAPT package represents another attempt to adapt the APT
language to use on smaller computers. The name derives from the
developer, the United Computing Corp. of Carson, California. Their
efforts have provided a limited version of APT to be implemente0 on
minicomputers, thus allowing many smaller shops to possess computer-
assisted programming capacity.
SPLIT (Sundstrand This is a proprietary system intended for Sundstrand's machine tools. It
Processing Language can handle up to five-axis positing and possesses contouring capability
Internally Translated) as well. One of the unusual features of SPLIT is that the postprocessor is
built into the program. Each machine tool uses its own SPLI
COMPACT II This is a package available from Manufacturing Data Systems, Inc.
(MDSI), a firm based in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The NC language is
similar to SPLIT in many of its features. MDSI leases the COMPACT II
system to its users on a time-sharing basis; the part programmer uses a
remote terminal to feed the program into one of the MDSI computers,
which in turn produces the NC tape. The COMPACT II language is one
of the most widely used programming languages. MDSI has roughly
3000 client companies, which use this system
PROMPT This is an interactive part programming language offered by Weber N/C
System, Inc., of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It is designed for use with a
variety of machine tools, including lathes, machining centers, flame
cutters, and punch presses
CINTURN II This is a high-level language developed by Cincinnati Milacron to
facilitate programming of turning operations.
The most widely used NC part programming language is APT, including its derivatives
(ADAPT, EXAPT, UNIAPT, etc.).

5.12 APT Language

There are four types of statements in the APT language:
1. Geometry statements- These define the geometric elements that comprises the
work part. They are also sometimes called definition statements.
2. Motion statements- These are used to describe the path taken by the cutting tool.
3. Postprocessor statements- These apply to the specific machine tool and control
system. They are used to specify feeds and speeds and to actuate other features of the
machine.
4. Auxiliary statements- These are miscellaneous statements use to identify the part,
tool, tolerance; and so on.

5.12.1 Geometry Statements

All geometric elements must be defined before, tool motion may be programmed. Geometry
statements associate a symbol with a description of the geometric element and its parameters.
The general form for a geometry statement is:

Symbol = Geometric type / Parametric description

Symbol: It consists of up to six alpha-numeric characters, containing at least one alpha character,
and avoiding APT reserved words. The symbols provide a means to name the geometric features.
The equals sign separates the symbol from the geometric type.

Geometric type: It describes these features. POINT, LINE, PLANE, and CIRCLE war valid
APT geometric types. The forward slash character separates the geometric type from the
parametric description of the feature.

Parametric description: It specifies the location and size of the feature. It may include
dimensional data, positional data, and other APT words relating the feature to previously defined
APT symbols. The APT language provides a rich means to specify the geometry, as is evidenced
by the following examples.

To specify a point:

Specifies a point at XYZ coordinates 1.0, 1.2, and

PO = POINT/1.0, 1.2, 1.3
1.3, respectively.
. Specifies a point at the intersection of lines L1 and
P1 = POINT/INTOF L l, L2 L2, which must have been defined prior to the
statement.
P2 = POINT/YLARGE, INTOF, L3, C1 Specifies a point at the intersection of line L3 and
circle C1 at a Y position above the center point of
the circle.
 To specify a line:
L1 = LINE/PO, P1 Specifies a line by two points, previously
defined.
L1=LINE/1.0,1.2,1.3,2.0,2.1,2.3 specifies a line by two points, given as explicit
coordinates
Specifies a line through point P2 and parallel to
line Ll.
L2 = LINE/P2, PARLEL, L 1

To specify a plane:
PLO = PLANE/PO, P 1, P2 specifies a plane through three, non-collinear,
previously defined points

PL1 = PLANE/P3, PARLEL, PLO specifies a plane through a point P3 parallel to

a plane PLO

To specify a circle:
CO = CIRCLE/CENTER, P0, RADIUS, 1.0 Specifies a circle of radius 1 from- a center
point of P0.

Lines and planes extend infinitely. Circles are always complete. The same geometry may be
defined only once, and may not have more than one symbol.

5.12.2 Motion Statements:

The format for motion commands follows the pattern:
Motion/description
An example of motion statements is
The statement consists of two sections separated by a slash. The first section is the
basic motion command, which tells the tool what to do. The second section
comprised of descriptive data, which tell the tool where to go. In the example
GOTO/P1 statement above, the tool is commanded to go to point P1, which has been defined
in a proceeding geometry statement. At the beginning of the motion statements, the
tool must be given a starting point. This point is likely to be the target point, the
location where the operator has positioned the tool at the start of the job.
The FROM is an APT vocabulary word which indicates that this is the initial
point from which others will be referenced. In the statements above, TARG is
FROM/TARG
the symbol given to the starting point. Any other APT symbol could be used to
define the target point.
Point-to-point motions
Statement instructs the tool to go to a particular point location specified
GOTO
in the descriptive data.
Command specifies an incremental move for the tool and useful in
GODLTA
drilling and related -

Eg:
The tool is directed to a particular hole location with the GOTO statements and GODLTA
command would be used to drill the hole, as in the following sequence:
GOTO/P2
GODLTA/0, 0, -1.5
GODLTA/0, 0, +1.5
Contouring motion
It is the most common motion used in APT programming, and these statements specify the tool
path continuously throughout the motion. They make use of three surfaces:
a) Drive surfaces: Represent the surface along which the vertical edges of the tool will
follow
b) Check surfaces: describe where the tool will come to rest after it has completed the
motion of the current step
(c). Part surfaces: specify the surfaces the tip of the tool will follow

The TO modifier stops the tool when the first surface of the tool would come into
TO
contact with the check surface.
The ON modifier stops the tool where the center point of the tool would come into
ON
contact with the check surface.
P AST The PAST modifier stops the tool where the last surface of the tool would contact
the check surface.
TANTO And the TANTO modifier stops the tool at the point of circular tangency with the
edge of the tool.
Eg:
The initial contouring motion statement is the GO/TO, which defines the initial drive, part and
check surfaces.
It takes the form:
GO/TO, drive surface, TO, part surface, TO, check surface
GO/TO, LI, TO, PLI, TO, L2
Specifying that the tool should use line L1 as the drive surface, plane P1 as the part
surface, and line L2 as the check surface.

Note: the GOTO and the GO/TO statements are not the same. The former specifies point to point
motion (see below), and the latter initiates contouring motion.

Continuing contouring motion statements are given from the vantage point of a person sitting on
the top of the tool.

The motion words are: (a) GOLF T; (b) GORGT; (c) GOFWD; (d) GOBACK; (e) GOUP; and
(f) GODOWN.

The sense of these words depends on the direction the tool has been coming from, and is
depicted in Figure

5.12.3 Post Processing Statements:

To write a complete part program, statements must be written that control the operation of the
spindle, the feed and other features of the machine tool. These are called postprocessor
statements. Some of the common postprocessor statements are:
COOLNT/ RAPID END SPINDL/ FEDRAT TURRET/ MACHIN/
Examples:
SPINDL/600 specifies the spindle to be 600 rpm.
FEDRAT/6.0 specifies a feed rate of 6 inches per minute.
TURRET/T2 specifies loading tool # 2 in the turret.
MACHIN/MILL, 2 specifies a mill machine type, and controller type 2

5.12.4 Auxiliary Statements

These are used for cutter size definition, part identification, and so on. The following APT
words used in auxiliary statements are:
CLPRNT INTOL/
CUTTER OUTOL/ PARTNO
An example of the latter is:
CUTTER/0.25 specifies a quarter-inch cutter diameter.
Example APT Problem:
An APT program for the profiling of the part in Figure 2 is to be generated. The processing
parameters are: (a) feed rate is 5.39 inches per minute; (b) spindle speed is 573 revolutions per
minute; (c) a coolant is to be used to flush the chips; (d) the cutter diameter is to be 0.5 inches,
and (e) the tool home position is (0, -1, and 0).

APT Program Listing

PARTNO EXAMPLE labels the program "EXAMPLE"

MACHIN/MILL, 1 selects the target machine and controller type
CUTTER/0.5000 specifies the cutter diameter
PO = POINT/0, -1.0, 0
P1 = POINT/0, 0, 0
P2 = POINT/6.0, 0, 0
P3 = POINT/6.0, 1.0, 0
P4 = POINT/2.0, 4.0, 0 geometry statements to specify the
Ll = LINE/P1, P2 pertinent surfaces of the part
Cl = CIRCLE/CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 1.0
L2 = LINE/P4, LEFT, TANTO, Cl
L3 = LINE/P1, P4
PL1 = PLANE/P1, P2, P3
SPINDL/573 sets the spindle speed to 573 rpm
FEDRAT/5.39 sets the feed rate to 5.39 rpm
COOLNT/ON turns the coolant on
FROM/PO gives the starting position for the tool
GO/PAST, L3, TO, PL1, TO, L1 Initializes contouring motion; drive, part, and check surfaces
GOUP/L3, PAST, L2
GORGT/L2, TANTO, Cl motion statements to contour the part
GOFWD/C1, ON, P2 in a clockwise direction
GOFWD/L1, PAST, L3
RAPID move rapidly once cutting is done
GOTO/P0 return to the tool home position
COOLNT/OFF turn the coolant off
F1N1 end program

5.13 Automation in Manufacturing:

(Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is accomplished without
human assistance. It is implemented using a program of instructions combined with a control
system that executes the instructions) To automate a process, power is required, both to drive the
process itself and to opera-le the program and control, system. Although automation can be
applied in a wide variety of areas, it is most closely associated with the manufacturing industries.

Automated manufacturing systems operate in the factory on the physical product. They
perform operations such as processing, assembly, inspection, or material handling, in some cases
accomplishing more than one of these operations in the same system. They are called automated
because they perform their operations with a reduced level of human participation compared
with the corresponding manual process. In some highly automated systems, there is virtually no
human participation.
Examples of automated manufacturing systems include:
 Automated machine tools that process parts
 Transfer lines that perform a series of machining operations
 Automated assembly systems
 Manufacturing systems that use industrial robots to perform processing or assembly
operations
 Automatic material handling and storage systems to integrate manufacturing operations
 Automatic inspection systems for quality control
Thus, Automation is a technology concerned with the application of mechanical, electronic, and
computer-based systems to operate and control production.
This technology includes:
 Automatic machine tools to process parts
 Automatic assembly machines
 Industrial robots
 Automatic material handling and storage systems
 Automatic inspection systems for quality control
 Feedback control and computer process control
  Computer systems for planning, data collection, and decision making to support
manufacturing activities

5.14 Automation Principles and Strategies:

For a given production situation certain caution and respect must be observed in applying
automation technologies. There are three approaches for dealing with automation projects:
 USA Principle,
 Ten Strategies
 Automation Migration Strategy.
USA Principle
The USA Principle is a common sense approach to automation projects. Similar procedures have
been suggested in the manufacturing and automation trade literature, but none has a more
captivating title than this one. USA stands for'
a) Understand the existing process
b) Simplify' the process
c) Automate the process.
1. Understand the Existing Process: The obvious purpose of the first step in the USA approach
is to comprehend the current process in all of its details like what are the inputs?
What are the outputs? What exactly happens to the work unit between input and output? What is
the function of the process? 1-Iow does it add value to the product? What are the upstream and
downstream operations in the production sequence, and can they be combined with the process
under consideration?

2. Simplify the Process: Once the existing process is understood, then the search can begin for
ways to simplify. This often involves a checklist of Questions about the existing process like,
what is the purpose of this step or this transport? Is this step necessary? Can this step be
eliminated? Can steps be combined? Can steps be performed simultaneously? Can step be integrated into
a manually operated production line?

3. Automate the Process: Once the process has been reduced to its simplest form, then
automation can be considered. The possible forms of automation include those listed in the ten
strategies discussed in the following section. An automation migration strategy might be
implemented for a new product that has not yet proven itself.

Ten Strategies for Automation

if automation seems a feasible solution to improving productivity, quality, or other measure
of performance, then the following ten strategies provide a road map to search for these
improvements.
1, Specialization of operations: The first strategy involves the use special purpose equipment
designed to perform one operation with the greatest possible efficiency. This is analogous to
the concept of labor specialization, which has been employed to improve labor productivity.
2. Combined operations: Production occurs as a sequence of operations. Complex parts may
require dozens, or even hundreds, of processing steps. The strategy of combined operations
involves reducing the number of distinct production machines on workstations through which
the part must be routed.
3 Simultaneous operations: A logical extension of the combined operations strategy is to
perform at the same time the operations that are combined at one workstation. In effect, two or
more processing (or assembly) operations are being performed simultaneously on the same
work part, thus reducing total processing time.
4. Integration of operations: Another strategy is to link several workstations into a single
integrated mechanism using automated work handling devices to transfer parts between
stations. In effect, this reduces the number of separate machines through which the product
must be scheduled. With more than one workstation, several parts can be processed,
simultaneously, thereby increasing the overall output of the system.
5. Increased flexibility: This strategy attempts to achieve maximum utilization of equipment for
job shop and medium-volume situations by using the same equipment for a variety of products.
This normally translates into lower manufacturing lead time and lower work-in-process.
6. Improved material handling and storage: A great opportunity for reducing nonproductive
time exists in the use of automated material handling and storage systems.
7. On-line inspection: Inspection for quality of work is traditionally performed after the
process. This means that any poor-quality product has already been produced by the time it is
inspected. Incorporating inspection into the manufacturing process permits corrections to the
process as product is being made. This reduces scrap and brings the overall quality of product
closer to the nominal specifications intended by the designer.
8. Process control and optimization: This includes a wide range of control schemes intended
to operate the individual processes and associated equipment more efficiently, By this strategy,
the individual process times can be reduced and product quality improved.
9. Plant operations control: Whereas the previous strategy was concerned with the control of
the individual manufacturing process, this strategy is concerned with control at the plant level.
It attempts to manage and coordinate the aggregate operations in the plant more efficiently. Its
implementation usually involves a high level of computer networking within the factory.
10. Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM): Taking the previous strategy one step
further, we have the integration of factory operations with engineering design and many of the
other business functions of the firm. CIM involves extensive use of computer applications,
computer databases, and computer networking in the company.

Automation Migration Strategy

Owing to competitive pressures in the marketplace, a company often needs to introduce a new
product in the shortest possible time. Easiest and least expensive way to accomplish this
objective is to design a manual production method, using a sequence of workstations operating
independently. The tooling for a manual method can be fabricated quickly and at low cost. If
more than a single set of workstations is required to make the product in sufficient quantity, then
the manual cell is replicated as many times to meet demand. If the product turns out to be
successful and high future demand is anticipated, then it makes sense for the company to
automate production. The improvements are often carried out in phases. Many companies have
an automation migration strategy: that is, a formalized plan for evolving the manufacturing
system, used to produce new products as demand grows.
A typical automation migration strategy is the following
Phase 1: Manual production using single-station manned cells operating independently. This is
used for introduction of the new product for reasons already mentioned: quick and low-cost
tooling to get started.
Phase 2: Automated production using single-station automated cells operating independently. As
demand for the product grows, and it becomes clear that automation can be justified, then the
single stations are automated to reduce labor and increase production rate. Work units are still
moved between workstations manually.
Phase 3: Automated integrated productions using a multi-station automated system with serial
operations and automated transfer of work units between stations. When the company is certain
that the product will he produced in mass quantities and for several years, then integration of the
single-station automated cells is warranted to further reduce labor and increase production rate.

5.15 An automated system consists of three basic elements:

1. Power to accomplish the process and operate the system.
2. A program of instructions to direct the process, and
3. A control system to actuate the instructions.
The relationship amongst these elements is illustrated in Figure. All systems that qualify as being
automated include these three basic elements in one form or another.

Power to accomplish the automated process

An automated system is used to operate some process, and power is required to drive the process
as well as the controls. The principal source of power in automated systems is electricity.
Electric power has many advantages in automated as well as non-automated processes.
 Electrical power is widely available at moderate cost. It is readily converted to alternative
energy forms: mechanical, thermal, light, acoustic, hydraulic, and pneumatic.
 Electrical power at low levels can be used to accomplish functions such as signal,
transmission, information processing, and data storage and communication.
 Electrical energy can be stored in long-life batteries for use in locations where an external
source of electrical power is not conveniently available.

1. Program of Instructions:
The actions performed in an automated process are defined by a program of instructions. Each
part made in the operation requires one or more processing steps. A new part is completed during
each work cycle. The particular processing steps for the work cycle are specified in a work cycle
program. The work cycle consists of essentially one step, which is to maintain a single process
parameter at a defined level. Process parameters are inputs to the process such as temperature
setting of a furnace, coordinate axis value in a positioning system; valve opened or closed in a
fluid flow system, and motor on or off.
2. Control System
The control element of the automated system executes the program of instructions. The control
system causes the process to accomplish its defined function which is to carry out some
manufacturing operation. The controls in an automated system can be either closed loop or open
loop.

5.16 Advanced Automation Functions

An automated system may also be capable of performing some advanced automation functions,
not particularly associated with any work unit. These functions are generally concerned with the
safety and performance of the equipment. Advanced automation functions are made possible by
special subroutines included in the programme of instructions. Table outlines particular advanced
automation functions
Safety Monitoring Automation systems can be designed to operate safely when human
operators are in attendance. The automation system must also work in a way
that is not self-destructive. It therefore must protect the human operator, and
its own equipment. Safety monitoring involves the use of sensors to track
the system's operation and to spot potentially unsafe working conditions.
Based upon this monitoring, the system is programmed to take necessary
measures to counteract the hazards met. Possible responses vary, from
stopping the system, to warning operators, or taking corrective actions to
remove the risk involved.
Maintenance Complex equipment is generally harder to repair and maintain. Maintenance
and Repair and repair diagnostics uses the system itself to participate in the
Diagnostics identification and sourcing of malfunctions and failures of the system. There
are three modes: status monitoring key sensors and parameters are
continually examined during system operation, to detect malfunctions as
they might occur; failure diagnostics--this is invoked so that the cause of a
failure can be identified; Recommendation of repair procedure suggestions
for repair procedures is supplied to the repair crew.
Error Detection An error detection and recovery system uses an interrupt subroutine: this
and Recovery allows the main programme to be interrupted, upon the detection of an error,
so that a recovery subroutine may be run instead.
In error detection the system's sensors determine, interpret and classify an
error when it occurs. Three types of errors may occur: random errors—
which result from the normal stochastic nature of the process; systematic
errors—which result from an assignable cause in material or equipment; and
aberrations—which result from human mistakes or equipment failure.
Collecting and classifying all possible errors is the largest problem in error
detection.
5.17 Level of Automation
The concept of automated systems can be applied to various levels of factory operations. One
normally associates automation with the individual production machines. However, the
production machine itself is made up of subsystems that may themselves be automated.
For example, a modem numerical control (NC) machine tool is an automated system. However
the NC machine itself is composed of multiple control systems. Similarly, a NC machine is often
part of a larger manufacturing system, and the larger system may itself be automated. Thus there
are various levels of automation is depicted in Figure

1. Device level: This is the lowest level in automation hierarchy. It includes the actuators,
sensors and other hardware components that comprise the machine level. The devices are
combined into the individual control loops of the machine; for example, the feedback control
loop for one axis of a CNC machine or one joint of an industrial robot.

2. Machine level: Hardware at the device level is assembled into individual machines. Examples
include CNC machine tools and similar production equipment, industrial robots, powered
conveyers, and automated guided vehicles. Control functions at this level include performing the
sequence of steps in the program of instructions in the correct order and
making sure that each step is properly executed.

3. Cell or system level: This is the manufacturing cell or system level, which operates under
instructions from the plant level. A manufacturing cell or system is a group of machines or
workstations connected and supported by a material handling system, computer and other
equipment appropriate to the Manufacturing process. Production lines are included in this level.
Likely functions include part dispatching and machine loading, coordination among machines and
material handling system, and collecting and evaluating inspection data.
4. Plant level: This is the factory or production systems level. It receives instructions from (he
corporate information system and translates them into operational plans for production. Likely
functions include: order processing, process planning, inventory control, purchasing, material
requirements planning, shop floor control, and quality control.

5. Enterprise level: This is the highest level consisting of the corporate information system. It is
concerned with all of the functions necessary to manage the company: marketing and sales,
accounting, design, research, aggregate planning, and master production scheduling.

5.18 Process industry VS discrete manufacturing industries

Having understood the basic elements and contents of automation, we now look in more detail at
industrial control systems. We divide industries and their production operations into process
industries and discrete manufacturing industries. These labels help describe the sorts of
automation that occurs in each type of industry. Table details the two industry types, and their
respective automation uses for each level of automation.

Table: Automation levels for process and discrete industries

Process Industry Automation Discrete Manufacturing Industry
Level
Automation
Corporate level: Management Corporate level: Management
information systems; strategic information systems; strategic planning
5
planning systems; high-level systems; high-level management of
management of enterprise enterprise
Plant or factory level: Scheduling;
Plant level: Scheduling; tracking
4 tracking work-in-process; routing parts
materials; equipment monitoring
through machines; machine utilization
Supervisory control level: control Manufacturing cell or system level: control and
and co-ordination of several co-ordination of groups of machines and
3 interconnected unit operations that make supporting equipment working in co
up the total process ordination, including material handling
equipment
Machine level: Production machines and
Regulatory control level: Control of unit
2 workstations for discrete part and product
operations
manufacture
Device level: Sensors and Device level: Sensors and actuators to
1 actuators comprising the basic control accomplish control of machine actions
' loops for unit operations
Significant variations exist at lower levels owing to the differences in demo, and equipment used
in the two industries. At higher levels, the control of the unit, or the control of machinery
provides the basis for the differences between levels two and three. Levels four and five are, in
comparison, fairly similar across both process industries and discrete manufacturing industries.
Thus Automation is applied differently across process industries and discrete manufacturing
industries, especially at the lower levels of automation.
 Fig 5.14 Process and discrete industries respectively
The variables and parameters used by the productive operations of the two industries
also differ significantly. In process industries variables and parameters tend to be
continuous; in discrete manufacturing industries they tend to be discrete.
A continuous variable or parameter is one that is uninterrupted as time proceeds: it is
considered to be analogue that is, it can take on any value within a certain range; examples
include force, temperature, flow rate, pressure and velocity.
A discrete variable or parameter is one that can take on only certain values within a given
range: the most common examples are binary (open/closed, on/off, etc.), and discrete other
than binary that is, it can take on more than two possible values but less than an infinite
number.
In process industries variables and parameters tend to be continuous control; in discrete
manufacturing industries they tend to be discrete control.
5.19 Continuous VS discrete control
There are two types of control: continuous control, and discrete control. In continuous control the
variables and parameters are continuous and analogue; in discrete control the variables and
parameters are discrete—mostly in binary format. Continuous and discrete control factors are
compared in Table

Table: Continuous and discrete control

Factor Continuous control Discrete control (discrete
(process industries) manufacturing industries)

Product output Weights, liquid volumes, solid Numbers of parts and products
measures volumes

Quality Consistency, solution Dimensions, surface finish,

measures concentration, appearance, absence of defects,
Absence of contaminants, product reliability
specification conformance
Variables and Temperature, volumeflow rate, Position, velocity, acceleration, force
parameters pressure

Sensors Flow meters, thermocouples, Limit switches, photoelectric

pressure sensors sensors, strain gauges, piezoelectric
sensors

Actuators Valves, heaters, pumps Switches, motors, pistons

Process tune Seconds, minutes, hours Less than a second
constraints

In reality a combination of both control types actually exist in both process and discrete
manufacturing industries. This means industrial controllers have to be designed to capture both
data forms – continuous and discrete.
Further, with the emergence of computer systems taking-over from outdated analogue
controllers, continuous process variables have started to be measured in samples, thus creating
a discrete sample-data system that approximates the actual continuous system. One example of
a controller that uses both continuous and discrete control and where continuous control is
achieved using frequent sampling of continuous data is the Lego NXT controller illustrated in

In reality, continuous control systems are often segmented into smaller parts, with many
feedback loops, all of which have to be individually controlled and coordinated, so at to maintain
the overall output variable.

Continuous control systems are to be found throughout the chemical industry, where many
parameters related to chemical reactants—such as temperature, pressure, and flow rates—must be
maintained. They are also to be found in conventional manufacturing systems, in certain situations,
such as the positioning of a work-part relative to a cutting tool by using x, y, z co-ordinates.
 Fig 5.15 NXT controller with three actuators (motors) and four sensors
These have their objective to maintain an output value at a desired level. Often, however,
continuous control systems may be segmented into smaller parts, all of which have to be
individually controlled aid coordinated, so as to maintain the overall output variable.

Continuous control systems can achieve its control objective in a number of ways; these
include methods of: regulatory control; feed-forward control; steady-state optimization; and
adaptive control as mentioned in Table.
Table: Control objectives for continuous control systems
Regulatory Objective is to maintain process performance at a certain level or
control within a given tolerance band of that level. Performance measures, or
the index of performance, are calculated based on the output of several
variables. Disadvantage with regulatory control is that compensatory
actions can only occur after a disturbance, and not before.
' Feed-forward control Objective is to anticipate the effect of disturbances on the system, and
to compensate for them before they can occur. Corrective action takes
place as the process is ongoing, by the correction of variables that act
as new inputs (i.e. a feed-forward) into the system. Disadvantage is
reliance upon measurement of variables in mid-process, which may not
be 100% accurate, thus affecting final output variables. Feed-forward
control often combined with feedback control in many models to
overcome problems
Steady-state Open-loop control system that uses performance measure the index of
optimization performance, mathematical models of the process, and optimization
algorithms to determine input parameters, to drive the process. The
control system is effectively separate from the process system, and
relies upon the quality and excellence of its performance models to
input correctly suitable input parameters to achieve required output
variables. Disadvantage is obviously related to the creation and
maintenance of such accurate performance models for the control
system, which can be affected by disturbances to the process system
not accounted for in the control system design.
Adaptive control To overcome the disturbances which steady-state optimization is prone
 to, adaptive control uses feedback control and optimization by
combining both practices. Feedback is provided in its usual external
manner by the system, but the results are then utilized by a control
algorithm that attempts to optimize an index of performance, as in the
steady-state optimization system. Thus adaptive control can cope with a
time-varying environment, as its internal parameters and mechanisms
are not fixed.
It has three principle functions:
the identification function—which determines a current index of
performance, based upon feedback from the process system; the
decision function—which determines what changes have to be made to
improve performance, and alters input parameters accordingly; and
The modification function—which implements the decision function's
output.
On-line search Objective is to improve the adaptive control decision function,
strategies described above. Sometimes the decision function cannot be
sufficiently defined; that is, the relationship between the input
parameters and the index of performance is not known precisely
enough to take action. In such cases experiments must be performed on
the process to determine the appropriate input parameters to input.
Small changes in experimental input parameters gives a pattern, or
tendency, that controllers can used to implement input parameters with
the confidence that they are correct. Techniques deployed in
experiments range from trial-and-error methods, to gradient methods.
Others There are some specialized techniques that may be used, including:
learning systems, expert systems, neural networks, and artificial
intelligence methods.

5.21 Discrete Control Systems

For discrete control systems, parameters and variables may change at discrete moments
in time, with the parameters and variables themselves being discrete, typically binary discrete i.e.
on or off. The changes are scheduled, for example as part of the work cycle, and are executed
either because the system has changed, or because a certain period of time has elapsed. These
two changes are called: event-driven changes; and time-driven changes.
An event-driven change occurs when the system is altered, for some reason, and the
controller reacts to this alteration by executing some action in response. Examples of event-
driven changes in manufacturing include: a status change for a production machine, from being
idle to becoming active, which is triggered by the placing of a part into the machine's work-
fixture, thus starting the automatic machining cycle; and part-counting by a sensor on a conveyor
belt, whereby the sensor once it detects a part triggers the movement of the conveyor.
A time-driven change is executed using time as the parameter of change; that is, after a
specific quantity of time has elapsed, or at a specific point in time. The change occurs regardless
of the status of the system, as in the event-driven change, but rather as a result of the time
constraints imposed upon the system. As a result, for time-driven changes, the deployment of
accurate timings is crucial for the change to operate effectively. Examples of time-driven
changes in manufacturing include: specific starting and ending times of shift workers; and the
length of time of heat treatments in some manufacturing processes.

5.22 Computer Process Control

With the advent of digital computers, and their initial exploitation in continuous process
industries in the late 1950s, comes the concept of computer process control. Previously analogue
controllers for continuous control systems, coupled with relay systems for discrete control
implementation, dominated manufacturing system control. These systems were gradually
replaced by computing systems throughout the 1960s and 70s, as computer technology embraced
one innovation after another. Today, with the development of the computing microprocessor, we
have a situation whereby virtually all industrial processes are controlled by one form or other of
computer process control, based upon microprocessor technology.
Digital computers are programmed to coordinate and manage all aspect of continuous and
discrete control of an automated system. The computer issues digital signals to actuators and
receives digital signals from sensors. The computer communicates with non-digital actuators and
sensors using digital to analogue converters (DAC) and analogue to digital converters (ADC).
These converters are typically housed within separate circuitry to the computer controller but
together make up a controller element of the control system.
There are a number of specific control requirements that are required if computer process
control is to be made operable. These requirements typically revolve around the need to
communicate and interact with the process on a real-time basis.
A real-time controller is one which can respond to the process within a khan enough time
periods to stop the onset of performance degradation. It needs to be able to handle more than one
task simultaneously, without letting them interfere with one another; this is called multi-tasking.
The control requirements to allow a computer process control system to reach real-time control
are presented in Table

Table: Control requirements for computer process control

Requirement Description
Controller must be able to respond to incoming signals from the process. This
may involve prioritizing tasks to be performed by the computer, as the
Process- emergence of higher priority issues must be dealt with first, regardless of their
initiated order of appearance. A typical example is abnormal working conditions
interrupts requiring immediate corrective action.

Controller must have the ability to implement certain actions at specific points in
time, as necessary. Time intervals can range from milliseconds to several
Timer- minutes, depending on what action is being performed. Typical examples
initiated include the operation of sensors, switches, motors and other binary devices in
actions the process, as necessary.

Computer
commands to Controller must be able to send instructions to the process and have them
process obeyed.
 These relate to the commands and instructions that are passed between the
System- and computer system to itself, and to peripheral devices. System-initiated events
programme- refers to communication and control between networks of computers;
initiated programme-initiated events refers to communication and control between the
events computer and peripheral devices, such as monitors and printers.

Controller must be able to accept input from operating personnel. Examples

Operator- Typically include: loading new programmers; entering performance
initiated instructions; requesting process data; etc.
events
A number of control requirements are necessary to allow a computer process control
system to reach real-time control and include: process-initiated interrupts; timer-initiated actions;
computer commands to the process; system- and programme-initiated events; and operator-
initiated events.
The above controller requirements provide it with a number of important system
capabilities or specifications. These capabilities are outlined in Table
Capability Description
Polling, or Data sampling To understand the status of the process we must regularly
sample, or poll, the process for its data. In general, whether the
control system is discrete or continuous, polling occurs by
sampling a discrete series of numerical values that represent
the continuous or discrete signal of the process.
Interlocks This prevents interference between devices when they are
operating simultaneously. They allow for the sequencing of
activities in a work cell, and ensure that one sequence of
actions is complete before the next set start. Interlocks operate
by regulating control signals between the device and
controller. There are two types of interlock, defined relative to
the controller: input interlocks which uses a signal from an
external device, and sends it to the controller; and an output
interlock which uses a signal from the controller, and sends it
to the external device.
Computers can be used to control a process via process monitoring or process control. As the
names suggest, in process monitoring the computer is used as a facility to collect sufficient data
from the process to build a picture of its operative performance; whereas in process control,
which in turn can be broken-into open loop and closed-loop process control (based upon the
delineation of those terms made previously), the computer has a direct impact upon the process
itself, by acting as a regulator on its operation.
5.23 Other forms of computer process control
Computers can be used to control a process via process monitoring or process control.

The various forms of computer process monitoring and computer process control systems that
are in use today are listed in Table
Form Description
Computer process The computer observes, collects and records data on the process, but is not
monitoring used to directly control the process. Control is human-oriented, but use is
made of the computer collected data in decision-making for the process.
Three types of data may be collected:
process data such as process performance indicators, for example input
parameters and output variables;
equipment data such as equipment status indicators, for example utilization
metrics, breakdown data etc.; and
Product data performance metrics on product type, volumes or numbers
etc.; often required by regulatory bodies.
Direct digital One of the first computer control systems, no longer in use, but showed the
control way forward for later innovations. First used as a more efficient substitute
for the old analogue control loop, it replaced much existing analogue
technology with 'direct digital' control facilitated by the computer. Later
innovations meant that the concept became more than just a substitute for
outdated technology, and, in time, it offered the following benefits in its
own right: more control options than with analogue—that is, more complex
control algorithms could be used; integration and optimization of multiple
loops—that is, it efficiently integrated multiple feedback loops and could
optimize strategies for new input parameters; and the ability to edit control
programmes—that is, unlike the hardware of analogue equipment, software
control programmes could be reprogrammed and changed as necessary.
 Direct digital control is a forerunner of distributed control systems

Numerical Numerical control involves the use of a computer to direct a machine tool
control bind through a particular sequence of process steps defined by a programme of
robotics instructions specifying all necessary details. Geometric calculations are
also involved as the work part is processed in three- dimensional space.
Robotics is related to numerical control. A robot arm, or manipulator, is
controlled by the movement of arm joints through a selected sequence of
positions to carry-out the work task during a work-cycle.
Typically the arm works with other production equipment with which it
may be in communication with. Again geometric calculations are
involved as the robotic arm moves through various positions.

Programmable This is a micro-processor based controller that uses stored instructions in a

logic controllers programmable memory to implement logic, sequencing, timing, Counting,
and arithmetic control functions for controlling machines and processes
Supervisory A control system that is tightly integrated with lower systems of control
control (i.e. those in the rows above) to direct their overall operations. In both
discrete manufacturing and in continuous process industries, supervisory
control manages the activities of a number of units or production
machinery based upon predefined parameters of performance. Supervisory
control generally has an interface with human operators which allows it to
be programmed to optimize specific performance parameters—such as
economic or productivity metrics—which it can then monitor and oversee
for the entire production unit.
Distributed Thanks to the microprocessor, control could become distributed to multiple
control systems computer systems, and re-integrated as necessary via a communications
network to a central control room. In this way, the following benefits have
arisen: individual process control issues can be handled separately, but still
integrated at an overall level; supervisory control could be run in the
central control room to oversee distributed control systems; and local
operator stations could be distributed across the plant to take-over control
activities at a local level, or at an overall level, should central control fail.
The system can be easily extended or reduced as necessary; it was found to
be ideal for multi-tasking purposes; it had built-in redundancy, whereby
other parts of the system could take-over should a specific locational
failure occur; cabling was found to be reduced when compared against
central computer control facilities; and the benefits of networking were felt
plant-wide. See Figure

PCs in process PC implementations in manufacturing consist of operator interfaces, and

control direct control. As an operator interface PCs can be connected as peripheral
devices, or as more integral parts of the control system. In this capacity the
PC performs a human-led monitoring and supervisory function that can
oversee all control operations of programmable logic controllers.
PCs can also be used for direct control. PCs, in effect, have made the
 concept of the distributed control system far easier to operate and to
populate; and with the general inexpensiveness of PCs this can be done
without the heavy financial outlay that was once required. Certain issues
with early PCs, such as their unsuitability for industrial environments, have
been solved, and this has allowed them to be seriously considered for direct
control purposes in the factory.
Enterprise-wide The widespread use of PCs, a flatter management Structures. More
integration of administrative tasks done by operators, and the deployment of extensive
factory data networking technologies—all of these relatively recent innovations has led
to a call for a greater consistency and coherence in the data that is produced
in the factory. If possible it should be streamlined, efficiently stored, and
made available wherever and whenever it is necessary