Introduction to Statistics

 It is a branch of science which deals with the collection,

presentation, analysis and interpretation of all kinds of data
pertinent to the study being considered, so that meaningful
conclusion can be drawn.
 The method of analyzing data, can be either quantitative or
qualitative.
 It also includes the whole process of using scientific methods to
answer questions that will help us in making decisions.
These methods can be used in answering questions like:
 What type and how much data are needed?
 How are we going to organize the data?
 How are we going to analyze and interpret the data?
 What are the conclusions that can be drawn from the
analyzed data?

Two Branches of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics
 It is concerned with collecting, describing and
analyzing the subset of data without drawing
conclusions or inferences about the set of data.
 It is a group of statistical measurements that
aims to provide the basic characteristics of a
data set through tables and graphs and other
descriptive measures such as measures of
central tendency, measures of position and
measures of variations.
2. Inferential Statistics
  It is concerned with the analysis of the subset of
data leading to predictions or inferences about
the said data.
 Inferential statistics aims to infer or to make
interpretations by making a concluding
statement about the population based on the
result derived from a data set. Measures
commonly used in inferential statistics include
analysis of variance, t-test, Chi-Square test,
correlation and regression analysis.

Two Sets of Data

 1. Population
 It is the entire set from which the sample is drawn. It is
the set of all elements of a given observational units
under study with at least one characteristic in
common.
2. Sample
 It is a part or subset of a population.

Two Kinds of Numerical Measure

1. Parameter
 It describes the population of interest under study.
2. Statistic
 It is the numerical measure of the sample.
The Four Essential Processes in Statistics:
1. Collection of Data
 Refers to the gathering related information such as (a) what is
useful and needed, (b) where to get information, and (c) how
to get information.
2. Organization and Presentation of Data
 Refers to the systematic way of organizing data. It involves (a)
collecting, (b) classifying and arraying and (c) presenting data
gathered in preparation to its analysis.
3. Analysis of Data
 Refers to extracting relevant information from the data at
hand. It involves (a) comparison and contrast, (b) description
and (c) statistical measurements to come up with numerical
values and qualitative summary as a resulting conclusion.
4. Interpretation of Data
 Refers to the drawing of logical statements from the analyzed
information. It involves (a) generalizing, (b) forecasting and (c)
recommending solutions and interventions about the study.
Data, Information and Variable
Data is a body of information or observations being considered
by the researcher. When the data is processed, information, which is
the basis for decision making is produced.
Variable is used to define certain observable values or
characteristics. It is called variable since the characteristics vary from
one another. The values of the variable are the possible observable
values or characteristics of the variable. These values are the data to
be processed.
Different Ways of Classifying Data
 According to Nature

Quantitative or Numerical Data are those obtained from variables

which are in the form of numbers, example: age, height, weight, and
amount.
Qualitative or Categorical Data are those obtained from variables
which are in the form of categories, characteristics, names or labels,
example: gender, socio-economic status and civil status.
 According to Source
Primary Data are first-hand information, example: data gathered
from a survey, where the person who collected the data is the one
using it.
Secondary Data are second-hand information, example: information
from newspapers or journals, economic indicators. The data being
used are collected by another person or organization.
 According to Arrangement

Ungrouped Data are the data without any specific order or

arrangement. They are referred to as raw data.
Grouped Data are data arranged or tabulated and presented in an
organized manner.

Resources:
pp. 1- 4, Statistics and Probability by Calaca, Uy, Noble and Manalo
Basic Concepts of Probability

Random Experiment
 It is an action or process that leads to one of several possible
outcomes.
 The outcomes must be collectively exhaustive and mutually
exhaustive.
Two Kinds of Outcomes
 1. Collectively Exhaustive
 It means that the
possible outcomes
must be included.
2. Mutually Exhaustive
 It means that no
outcomes can
occur at the same
time.
Examples of Random Experiment

Random Experiment Possible Outcomes

Tossing a coin head, tail

Casting a die 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

Drawing a card from a 13 clubs, 13 spades,

standard deck of cards
13 hearts, 13 diamonds
Sample Space (S)
 It is the list of all possible outcomes.
 Each outcome (O) is called a sample point.
 The total number (k) of the sample points is called the
cardinality of the sample space (n(S)).Thus,
(n(S)) = (k)
Event (E)
 It is any subset of the sample space (S) consisting of one or
more sample points to which a probability is assigned.

Example: Perform a random experiment by tossing a coin twice.

S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}

Event: Getting at least 1 head.
E = {TH, HT, HH}
n(E) = 3
Probability
 It is a numerical measure of the likelihood of the occurrence of
an event.
 Properties of the probability of the occurrence of an event P(E)
1. 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
a. P(E) = 0, if the current event cannot occur;
b. P(E) = 1, if the event occurs every time;
c. Otherwise, the probability is a fraction between 0 to 1.

2. ∑ P(E) = 1 or ∑ P’ (E) = 1
 This means that the list of all outcomes must be a
non-overlapping set of events that includes all the
possible outcomes.
3. P(A) + P’(A) = 1
 This is known as complimentary probability. The
complement of event A is the event that occurs
when event A does not occur. The complement of
event A is denoted by P’(A).
Two Ways of Assigning the Probability of an Event
1. Classical approach
 It is used to determine the probability associated
with games of chance.
In this approach, there are two assumptions:
 The outcomes must be mutually exclusive.
 The outcomes are equally likely to occur.
If all possible outcomes can be listed and the occurrence
of each outcome is equally likely, we can compute the probability
of an event using the formula:
𝒏(𝑬)
𝑷(𝑬) =
𝒏(𝑺)
 where:
n(E) = number of occurrence of E in the sample
space.
n(S) = cardinality of the sample space.
Example:
Find the probability of getting exactly two heads when tossing
a coin twice.
Solution:
S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
Event:
Getting exactly 2 heads when tossing a coin twice.
𝒏(𝑬)
𝑷(𝑬) =
𝒏(𝑺)
𝟏
𝑷(𝑬) =
𝟒
𝑷(𝑬) = 𝟐𝟓%
Answer: The probability of getting exactly 2 heads when a coin is
tossed twice is or 25%.

2. Empirical approach
 It is also known as relative frequency approach.
 It is the method of finding the probability that is
based from cumulated historical data or found
through observations and not from theories.
The probability using the relative frequency of an event
(E) can be computed using the formula:
𝒏(𝑬)
𝑷(𝑬) =
𝑵
where:
𝒏(𝑬) = the number of times the event occurred.
𝑵 = the total number of opportunities for the event to
occur.

Example:
In his entire career, a certain PBA player hooped 4, 503 out of 6,
575 free throws. What is the probability that his next free throw will be
successful?
Solution:
𝒏(𝑬)
𝑷(𝑬) =
𝑵
𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟑
𝑷(𝑬) =
𝟔𝟓𝟕𝟓

𝑷(𝑬) = 𝟔𝟖. 𝟒𝟗%

Answer: The probability that the PBA player’s next free throw will be
successful is approximately 68.49%.

Resources:
pp. 1- 14, Statistics and Probability by Yonardo A. Gabuyo and Marjorie C.
Cardenas
 Addition and Multiplication
Rules of Probability
Mutually Exclusive Events
 These are those events which do not have any
sample point in common.
The probability of two mutually exclusive events A and B
can be found using the formula:
P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B)
where:
P(A) = probability of event A.
P(B) = probability of event B.

Example:
What is the probability of getting at least one head in
tossing a coin twice or getting a “5” in casting a die once.
Solution: P(C U D) = P(C) + P(D)
3 1
P(C U D) = 4 + 6
11
P(C U D) = 12

Answer:
The probability of getting at least one head in tossing a
11
coin twice or getting “5” in casting a die is 12.

Non-mutually Exclusive Events

  These are events that have at least one common
element or point of intersection.
The probability of non-mutually exclusive events A and B
can be found using the formula:
P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ∩ B)
where:
P(A) = probability of event A.
P(B) = probability of event B.
P(A ∩ B) = probability of A intersection B.

Example:
What is the probability of drawing a heart (H) or a king (K)
from a standard deck of cards?
Solution:
P(H U K) = P(H) + P(K) - P(H ∩ K)
13 4 1
= + −
52 52 52
16
=
52
4
=
13

Answer:
The probability of drawing a heart or a king from a
4
standard deck of cards is 13.

Independent Events
  Two events are said to be independent events if the
occurrence or non-occurrence of one event gives no
information about the likeness of the occurrence of the other.
Formula:
P(A ∩ B) = P(A) * P(B)
where:
P(A) = probability of A.
P(B) = probability of B.
Example:
Two cards are drawn in succession with replacement.
What is the probability of drawing an ace (A) on the first
draw and a face card (F) on the second draw?
Solution:
P(A ∩ F) = P(A) * P(B)
4 12
P(A ∩ F) = (52) ∗ (52)
3
P(A ∩ B) = 169

Answer:
The probability of drawing an ace card on the first draw
3
and a face card on the second draw is 169.

Resources:
pp. 15 – 24, Statistics and Probability by Yonardo A. Gabuyo and Marjorie C.
Carrdenas
Resources:

pp. 25 - 32, Statistics and Probability by Yonardo A. Gabuyo and Marjorie C. Cardenas
St

Resources:

pp. 25 -32, Statistics and Probability by Yonardo A. Gabuyo and Marjorie C. Cardenas
 Probability Distribution of Discrete
Random Variable
Probability Distribution
 It presents the possible values of a random variable and its
corresponding probabilities in a table.
 Let the random variable X be the number of heads, where
X can take the values of 0, 1, 2, and 3. The probability of each
random variable can be computed using the formula:

𝑛(𝑋)
𝑃 (𝑋 ) =
𝑛(𝑆)

where:

𝑛(𝑋) = number of elements having the

same random variable

𝑛(𝑆) = total number of outcomes in the

experiment
Probability Mass Function

 It is a rule that assigns probabilities to the values of the random

variable.
Histogram

 It is a graphical representation of probability distribution.

Two types of Probabilities

 1. Discrete probability distribution
 It is a distribution that defines probabilities that are
associated with discrete random variables.
 The most common discrete probability distribution
are:
 binomial probability distribution;
 hypergeometric distribution; and
 Poisson probability distribution

2. Continuous probability distribution

 It is a distribution that defines probabilities that are
associated with continuous random variables.
 Normal distribution is an example of this type.

pp. 33 – 38, Statistics and Probability by Yonardo A. Gabuyo and Marjorie C. Cardenas
 Binomial Probability
Distribution
Binomial Probability Distribution

 It is the probability distribution of a binomial experiment.

It has the following characteristics:

1. The experiment consists of n repeated and independent trials.

2. Each trial has two possible outcomes- success or failure.

3. The probability of success is denoted by p and the probability of

failure is denoted by q, and p + q = 1.

4. The binomial random variable x is the number of successful trials that

occur among the n repeated trials. Hence, x may take any value from
0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…,n.
pp. 39 – 54, Statistics and Probability by Yonardo A. Gabuyo and Marjorie C.
Cardenas