Module 3

LESSON 2

Module No. and Title : M3- Focus on Learning: The Behaviorist Perspective

Lesson No. and Title : L2-Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura

Edward Chace Tolman

Albert Bandura

Learning Outcomes :

 Explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism

 Explain Bandura’s social learning theory
 Give specific applications of each theory in teaching

Time Frame : 3 hours

Introduction:

Hello dear students! Welcome to Module 3 Lesson 2 – Neo Behaviorism:

Tolman and Bandura. With new researches, explanations provided by the basic
principles of behaviorism appeared not to satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories

came into view which maintained some of the behaviorist concepts but excluded

others, and added new ideas which later came to be associated with the cognitive

views of learning. The neo-behaviorists, then, were a transitional group, bridging the

gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning. Enjoy learning Neo

Behaviorism!.

1. SOLVING A MAZE

1. Solve Maze A. Enter on the left side and exit at the top.

2. Solve Maze B. Enter on the top and exit on the left side.
Analysis 1:
1. How did you solve Maze A? What strategy did you use? (trial and error, examined

the maze before proceeding with your pen, etc.)

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2. Was it easier to solve B? Why?

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. ABSTRACTION
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Usually, people who worked on the maze activity you just did would say they

found the second maze easier. This is because they saw that the two mazes were

identical, except that the entrance and exit points were reversed. Their experience in

doing maze A helped them answer maze B a lot easier. People create mental maps of

things they perceived. These mental maps help them respond to other things or tasks

later, especially if they see the similarity. You may begin to respond with trial and

error (behavioristic), but later on your response becomes more internally driven
(cognitive perspective). This is what neobehaviorism is about. It has aspects of

behaviorism but it also reaches out to the cognitive perspective.

There are two theories reflecting neobehaviorism that stands out. Edward

Tolman’s Purposive Bahaviorism and Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.

Both theories are influenced by behaviorism (which is focused on external elements in

learning), but their principles seem to also be reflective of the cognitive perspective

(focused on more internal elements).

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Purpose behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and

is often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman’s theory

was founded on two psychological views: those of the Gestalt psychologists and those

of john Watson, the behaviorist.

Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves

forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing

that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed behavior.

Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs to a

goal, i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He stressed the organized

aspect of learning: “The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by just simple

one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses are

usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a tentative

cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes
and paths and environmental relationships, which finally determines what responses,

if any, the animal will finally make.”

Tolman’s form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli

rather than stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes

associated with already meaningful stimulus (the significance) through a series of

pairings; there is no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning. In your

maze activity, the new stimulus or “sign” (maze B) became associated with already

meaningful stimuli, the significance (maze A). So you may have connected the two

stimuli, maze A and maze B; and used your knowledge and experience in maze A to

learn to respond to maze B.

Tolman’s Key Concepts

Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman asserted that

learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He held the notion that an organism

acted or responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed individuals do more than

merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they

strive toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive and cognitive.

Cognitive maps in rats. In his most famous experiment, one group of rats

was placed at random starting locations in a maze but the food was always in the same

location. Another group of rats had the food placed in different locations which

always required exactly the same pattern of turns from their starting location. The

group that had the food in the same location performed much better than the other
group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a

specific sequence of turns. This is tendency to “learn location” signified that rats

somehow formed cognitive maps that help them perform well on the maze. He also

found out that organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.

Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route going to

school everyday, he acquires a cognitive map of the location of his school. So when

transportation re-routing is done, he can still figure out what turns to make to get to

school the shortest or easiest way.

Latent Learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays

with the individual until needed. It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at

once. According to Tolman it can exist even without reinforcement. He demonstrated

this in his rat experiments wherein rats apparently “learned the maze” by forming

cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this knowledge of the maze only when

they needed to.

Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad operate the tv

remote control and observes how the tv is turned on or how channel is changed, and

volume adjusted. After sometime, the parents are surprised that on the first time that

their daughter holds the remote control, she already knows which buttons to press for

what function. Through latent learning, the child knew the skills beforehand, even

though she has never done them before.

 The concept of intervening variable. Intervening variables are variables that

are not readily seen but serve as determinants of behavior. Tolman believed that

learning is mediated or is influenced by expectations, perceptions, representations,

needs and other internal or environmental variables. Example, in his experiments with

rats he found out that hunger was an intervening variable.

Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman concluded that

reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provides an incentive for

performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was able to acquire knowledge of

the way through a maze, i.e., to develop a cognitive map, even in the absence of

reinforcement.

2. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

1. Read the following news article.

10-Year-Old Boy in Texas Hangs Himself

After Watching Saddam Execution
The Associated Press, Houton Jan. 4, 2007 (AP)
Police and family members said a 10-year-old boy who died by hanging

himself from a bunk bed was apparently mimicking the execution of former Iraqi

leader Saddam Hussein.

 Sergio Pelico was found dead Sunday in his apartment bedroom in the

Houston-area city of Webster, said Webster police Lt. Tom Claunch. Pelico’s mother

told police he had previously watched a news report on Saddam’s death.

“It appears to be accidental”, Claunch said. “Our gut reaction is that he was

experimenting.”

An autopsy of the fifth-grader’s body was pending.

Julio Gustavo, Sergio’s uncle, said the boy was a happy and curious child.

He said Sergio watched TV news with another uncle on Saturday and asked

the uncle about Saddam’s death.

“His uncle told him it was because Saddam was real bad”, Gustavo said. “He

(Sergio) said, ‘OK’. And that was it.”

Sergio’s mother, Sara Pelico DeLeon, was at work Sunday while Sergio and

other children were under the care of an uncle, Gustavo said. One of the children

found Sergio’s body in his bedroom.

Police said the boy had tied a slipknot around his neck while on a bunk bed.

Police investigators learned that Sergio had been upset about not getting a Christmas

gift from his father, but they don’t believe the boy intentionally killed himself.

Clinical psychologist Edward Bischof of California said children of Sergio’s

age mimic risky behaviors they see on TV such as wrestling or extreme sports without

realizing the dangers. He said TV appeared to be the stimulant in Sergio’s case.

 “I would think maybe this kid is trying something that he thinks fun to act out

without having the emotional and psychological maturity to think the thing through

before he acts on it,” Bischof said.

Family members held a memorial for the boy Wednesday in the apartment

complex activity center. Gustavo said the family is trying to put together enough

money to send Sergio’s body to Guatemala for burial.

“I don’t think he thought it was real,” Gustavo said of Saddam’s hanging.

“They showed them putting the noose around his neck and everything. Why show that

on TV?”

(retrieved from www.abcnews.go.com)

Analysis 2 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

1. What do authorities say might be the reason why Sergio hanged himself?

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What facts made them give this reason? ____________________________________

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2. Comment on the opinion of the clinical psychologist. ________________________

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3. What do you think is the effect of television on the behavior of young people

(preschool to college)? Cite specific examples.

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. ABSTRACTION
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social

context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as

observational learning, imitation and modeling. The ten-year old boy Sergio Pelico

did watch Saddam’s execution on TV and then must have imitated it.

Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this

theory.

General principles of social learning theory

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those

behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning

has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior, in contrast social learning

theorist say that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning

may not necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in

a behavior change.

3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning theory has

become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness

and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on

the behaviors that people exhibit.

4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between

behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.

How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling

People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested
that the environment also reinforces modeling.This is in several possible ways:

1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a students who changes
dress to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being
accepted and thus reinforced by the group.

2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the
actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student . The
teacher notices this and compliments and praises the observer for modeling such
behavior thus reinforcing that behavior.

3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behavios

that we learn from others produces satisfying or reinforcing results. For example, a
student in my multimedia class could observe how the extra work a classmate does is
fun. This student in turn would do the same extra work and also experience
enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously.
This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a
response and then the observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura
illustrated this by having students watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown
doll. One group of children saw the model being praised for such action. Without
being reinforced, the group of children began to also hit the doll.

Contemporary social learning perspective os reinforcement and punishment

1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforced and punishment have indirect
effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause.

2. Reinforcement and punishment inluence the extent to which an individual exhibits

a behavior that has been learned.

3. The expectation of reinforcement influence cognitive processes that promote

learning. Therefore, attention pays a critical role in learning, and attention is
influenced by the expectation if reinforcement. An example would be, when the
teacher tells a group of students that what they will study next is not on the test.
Students will not pay attention because they do not expect to know the information for
a test.

Cognitive factors inn social learning

Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors

(actually operant factors).

1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning

through observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned . This is
similar to Tolman’s latent learning.

2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists contend that

attention is a critical factor in learning.

3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people from expectations about the

consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors
to bring reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The learner needs to be
aware, however, of the response reinforcements and response punishment.
Reinforcement increases a response only when the learner is aware of that connection.
4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the
environment and the person. In fact each of these three variables, the person, the
behavior, and the environments can have an influence on each other.

5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live model, an actual
person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can
be a person or action portrayed in some other medium, such as television, video,
computer programs.

Behaviors that can be learned through modeling

Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly through modeling. Examples

that can be cited are, students can watch parents read, students can watch the
demonstrations of mathematics problems, or see someone act bravely in a fearful
situation. Aggression can be learned through models. Research indicates that children
become more aggressive when they observed aggressive or violent models. Moral
thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and modeling. This
includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop
through modeling.

Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur

Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can
successfully model the behavior of someone else:

1. Attention - the person must first pay attention to the model.

2. Retention - The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has
been observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.

3. Motor reproduction - The third condition is the ability to replicate the

behavior that the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be
able to replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready
developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children have difficulty
doing complex physical motion.

4. Motivation - The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is

motivation. Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember
that since these four conditions vary among individuals, different people will
reproduce the same behavior differently.

Effects of modeling on behavior:

1. Modeling teaches new behavior.

2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.

3. Modeling may encourage of similar behaviors. For example a student might see a
friend excel in basketball and he tries to excel in football because he is not tall enough
for basketball.

Educational implications of social learning theory

Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.

1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate

behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners
about the rewards and consequences of various behaviors.

3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead

of using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide a faster, more
efficient means for teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling, a teacher
must make sure that the four essential conditions exist; attention, retention, motor
reproduction, and motivation.

4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they
do not model inappropriate behaviors.

5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is

especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.
 This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed
under CC BY-SA

Assessment Task - Table of Personal Message

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

State a personal message derived from the key concepts of Tolman’s

purposive behaviorism. Use the Table provided below.

Key Concepts of Tolman’s Theory on Personal Message

Purposive Behaviorism

1. Learning is always purposive and 1.1. To make my students do what I

goal-directed require them to do, I should state the
goal clearly and specifically.

1.2.

1.3.

2. Cognitive maps help students perform 2.1

well. Organisms select the shortest or
easiest path to achieve a goal.

2.2.
 3. Latent learning stays with the 3.1.
individual until needed.

3.2.

4. Learning is influenced by 4.1

expectations, perceptions,
representations, needs and other internal
variables like hunger.

4.2.

4.3.

Assessment Task - Table of Application of Learning Theory

Choose 3 key concepts of Bandura’s social learning theory then state how you
apply the concept as you teach. Use the Table provided for this purpose.

Read a research or study related to behaviorism. Fill out the matrix below.
 3 Key Concepts of Albert Bandura How I apply it in my teaching

1. 1.1

1.2

2. 2.1

2.2

3. 3.1

3.2
 Congratulations! You had just finished Lesson 2 of Module 3 - Neo Behaviorsm:
Tolman and Bandura. Now let us assess your knowledge on Module 2
- Focus on Learning: The Behaviorist Perspective
by answering the Module Assessment.

Module Summary:

Module 3 - Focus on Learning: The Behaviorist Perspective discusses

Behaviorism according to Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner. The theory of
behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. Pavlov
contributed the classical conditioning theory. It cited that a learning process occurs
when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the
second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone. Thorndike
introduces connectionism theory. Thorndike’s theory on connectionism states that
learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and
response is formed. He also introduces the three primary laws namely: (1) Law of
Effect; (2) Law of Exercise; (3) Law of Readiness. Moreover, Watson’s behaviorist
theory focused not on the internal emotional and psychological conditions of
people, but rather on their external and outward behaviors. He believed that a
person’s physical responses provided the only insight into internal actions.
Skinner’ s theory on Operant Conditioning is a method of learning that occurs
through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an
individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence.
Lesson 2 discussed Neo Behaviorism according to Tolman and Bandura.
Tolman’s purposive behaviorism combines the objective study of behavior while also
considering the purpose or goal of behavior. Tolman thought that learning developed
from knowledge about the environment and how the organism relates to its
environment. Tolman's goal was to identify the complex cognitive mechanisms and
purposes that guided behavior. His theories on learning went against the traditionally
accepted stimulus-response connections. Bandura’s social learning theory of Bandura
emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and
emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory explains human behavior in
terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an
environmental influences. The component processes underlying observational
learning are: (1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective
valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics
(sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2) Retention,
including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor
rehearsal), (3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation
of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and (4) Motivation, including external,
vicarious and self reinforcement.

Module Assessment:

1. Explain the basic principles of behaviorism.

2. Make a simple plan applying the principles of learning.
3. Explain how to use rewards in the learning process effectively.
4. In your own words and in not more than 5 sentences each, explain:
a) Tolman’s purposive behaviorism
b) Bandura’s social learning theory
5. Give at least one teaching application of each theory.

Reference:
Lucas, M. & Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating learning: a metacognitive process.
Quezon City, Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.