Ampere’s Law, Potential, Force,

and Magnetic Materials

1
 Try this …
Create a contour for integration (a circle seems to make sense here!)
I
B= a from the Biot-Savart law (a is tangential to circle)
2 R
  I 
Calculate  B.dl =    a.dl note : B and dl are parallel
 2 R 

 B.dl =  Bdl = B  dl , ( B = constant)

 I   I 
dl
 B.dl =    dl =    2 R = I
 2 R   2 R 
B B
 B.dl = I
I
 B.dl = I dl
B
dl
 H.dl = I B 2
 H.dl = Current Ienclosed
• This is, as it turns out, Ampere’s law and is the
magnetic-field equivalent of Gauss’s law
• We defined H=B÷μ, or B=μH. Thus
H.dl = Current “enclosed” = J.ds

I4 Take a closed contour

I5
I1

I3 These currents are “enclosed”

I2 And these currents are not!

3
I6
 H.dl = Current Ienclosed
I4

I1

I3

I2

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 Ampere’s Law – Worked Example
• Calculate the magnetic field H or B both
outside (r>R)
and
inside (r<R)
a wire with uniformly-distributed current I, of
current density J=I/A

B? |J| = I/A

B? R
I

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 Outside … r>R, H.dl = Ienclosed
 H.dl = Ienclosed
 H.dl =  Hdl (H and dl parallel again)
 H.dl = H  dl ( H constant again) I
H=
 H.dl = H  2 r B 2 r
r H, B I, |J|=I/R2

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 Inside … r<R, H.dl = Ienclosed
r 2 r2
 H.dl = Ienclosed = I  = I  2 (ratio of areas)
R 2
R
 H.dl =  Hdl (H and dl parallel again)
 H.dl = H  dl ( H constant again)
 H.dl = H  2 r2
r r
H  2 r = I  2 , H = I 
R 2 R 2 I, |J|=I/R2
I =I r2
B? r R
R2

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Inside (r<R), and Outside (r>R)
r

I
H=
2 r

r
H =I
2 R 2

B,H
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 Example: The Coaxial Line
 H .dl = I enclosed
• a<r<b
I
H (2 r ) = I  H = x
2 r
• r>c I x
H (2 r ) = I − I = 0 H =0 x H
• r<a
r2 Ir
H (2 r ) = I 2 H = a• I
a 2 a 2 x a x
 D  ds = Q c b
• b<r<c
enclosed

b r
 r 2 −  b2 c2 − r 2
H (2 r ) = I − I 2 =I 2 2
c −b 2
c −b x x
I c −r 2 2
H= x
2 r c 2 − b 2

• H is circular in all cases. H = H a

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Example: A Current Sheet

B-field here?

i.e. what is the magnetic field

above and close to a metal “track”
on a printed circuit board or chip?
I

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What does the B-field look like?

B-field lines

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 H.dl = Ienclosed?

Width L

Contour for integration

b

Current enclosed = aI/L

I/L Amps/meter of width, out of the diagram

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 H.dl = Ienclosed?
H.dl = aH
(H, dl parallel)
H

H.dl = 0
(H, dl perpendicular) a H.dl = 0
b b (H, dl perpendicular)

H
H.dl = aH
(H, dl parallel)
Current enclosed = aI/L
H.dl = aH + aH = 2aH
H.dl = Ienclosed → 2aH = aI/L
|H| = _I_
2L
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H.dl = Ienclosed?

|H| = +I_
2L

|H| = +I_
2L

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 Previous Knowledge
• .D =  (First Maxwell’s equation)
• .B = 0 (Second Maxwell’s equation)
• Ampere’s law:  H .dl = I enclosed =  J .ds
• Using Stoke’s Theorem S

 H .dl =  (  H ).ds
S

• Therefore
  H = J (Third Maxwell’s equation)
(Incomplete)

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 Previous Knowledge
• From before
 E.d l = 0 for static electric fields.
• Applying Stokes’s theorem  E.dl =  (  E ).ds = 0
• This is true for any path. S

• Thus   E = 0 (Fourth Maxwell’s equation)

(Incomplete)
• In addition we have
D = o E
B = O H
E = −V

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 Summary
.D =   D.ds =   dv
.B = 0  B.ds = 0
 H = J . =  Jds
 Hdl .
 E = 0  E.dl = 0

D = o E
B = O H
E = −V
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 Mathematically …
ax ay az Animate

d d d
 V =
dx dy dz
 dVV
z x
dVyVdV
y x V
dV
zz dV dV 
 V =  − , − , y − x
 dy dz dz dx dx dy 

But what does Curl measure

and what does it mean?
 Curl and Line Integrals

Just as  D.ds =  dv is the same as .D = 

(Gauss’s Law : Maxwell’s 1st Equation)

 H.dl =  J.ds is the same as   H = J

(Ampere’s Law : Maxwell’s 3rd Equation)
 The Magnetic Scalar Potential
• We want to find a scalar function V m such that

H = −Vm
• Since
  H = J  .. −  Vm = J
• But   Vm = 0 for any scalar function.

•  H = −Vm is defined for current free regions only, (when J=0).

• Vm is the magnetic scalar potential.

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 The Magnetic Scalar Potential
• Since .B = 0..   .H = 0..   .Vm = 0

• 2Vm = 0, when..J = 0, i.e. Vm satisfies Laplace’s equation.

a

• In electric fields Vab = −  E.dl (independent of the path

from b to a) b

a
• In magnetic fields Vm , ab = −  H .dl ( at a specific path from
b to a) b

• The scalar magnetic potential has the dimension (A/m)(m) = A

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 Example : Infinite Long Conductor
H

r P

I I is out of the page
• At Point P H= a
2 r I
Ф

1 Vm 
H = −Vm = − a
r  Infinite long conductor

I 1 Vm
=−
2 r r 
Vm − I −I
=  Vm = 
 2 2
• The angle Ф at P = Ф+2nπ, n=0,1,2,….
• Vm is not constant at the same point.
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 The Magnetic Vector Potential
• From Biot- Savart law
 
 I dl  ar  J  ar
B=
4  r 2
=
4  r 2
dv

• From Maxwell’s equation # 2 .B = 0

• Thus B can be expressed as B =   A since .(  A) = 0
for any vector field A

• We can select A such that . A = 0

• A is the magnetic vector potential.
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 The Magnetic Vector Potential
• We know that B =  H    B =    H =  J
• If, B =   A     A =  J
• From vector analysis    A = (. A) −  2 A
• Thus  2 A = −  J , since . A = 0 in our case.
• If A = ( Ax , Ay , Az ) and J = ( J x , J y , J z ) then
 Ax = −  J x ,.. Ay = −  J y ,..and .. Az = −  J z
2 2 2

−
• Compare these with V=
2


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 The Magnetic Vector Potential

• It can be shown that

 Jx  Jy  Jz
Ax =
4  r dv,..Ay = 4  r
dv, and .. Az =
4  r dv
 J  I dl
A=
4  r
dv =
4  r

• A has no physical meaning. It is a mathematical tool

to find B at a point.
• Remember that ( B =  A)
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 Example : Infinitesimal Current
Element
• I is in the direction of z. Thus we have Az only. P

I L/2 z
Az = 
4 r − L / 2
dL......r  L

 IL  IL
I r
Az =  A= az θ
4 r 4 r L
y
Az Az
B =  A = ax − ay
y x
 IL   1  1  x
B=  ax − ay 
4  y r x r 
But...r 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
 IL −y x   IL
B=
4 r 2  r ax + r a y  = 4 r 2 sin .a
  26
 Force on a Differential Current Element
It was shown that a force I B
dF will be produced in the configuration dL 
shown. This force is given by
dF= (IdL sinθ)B (N)
The direction of dF is into the page.
dF = I dL × B
In general
dF = I dL × B = J × B dv = K × B ds
The total force in any closed path

F=  I dL  B =  K  Bds =  J  Bdv
S v
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 Force Between Differential Current
Elements
• The force on the current element (2) I2
due to the field of the current element (1)
is given by dL2
I1
d(dF2)= I2 dL2×dB12 r

dL1 â12

• But  I1 dL1  aˆ12

dB12 =
4 r 2
 I1 I 2
d (dF 2 ) = dL 2  dL1  aˆ12
4 r 2

• The total force will be

 I1 I 2 dL 2  dL1  aˆ12
F2 =
4  r 2 28
 Example : Force Between Two Parallel
Conductors
• B12 is found to be
I
B12 =
2 r I I
and is pointing perpendicular through the page. dL1 dL2
r
 I dL2
2
I L 2
F F
dF2 =  F2 = ....( N )
2 r 2 r
where L is the conductor length. (1) (2)
• The force per unit length will be

F I 2
= .......( N / m)
L 2 r
This force is directed as indicated.

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 Example : Torque on a Loop
F
Axis of rotation

I Ft
F
I
I B
F I l
 B
d
ân

Ft
• Forces acting on the loop tend to rotate it.
dF = I dl  B.....  F = IlB
• If the plane of the loop is at an angle α, the tangential force
will be
Ft = F sin  = IlB sin 
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 Example : Torque on a Loop
F
Axis of rotation

I Ft
F
I
I B
F I l
 B
d
ân
• The total torque on the loop will be
Ft
d
T = 2 Ft = ( IlB sin  )d = IldB sin  = IsB sin  , ...s = loop..area
2

 T = mB sin  ,....m = Is  T = m B

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 Example : Torque on a Loop
F
Axis of rotation

I Ft
F
I
I B
F I l
 B
d
ân
T = m B
Ft
• This equation applies to any shaped current loop.

m = man , .......an = unit.vector. perpendicular.to.the.loop.

• m is the magnetic moment of the loop.
• For the incremental loop dm = Ids. This is called the magnetic dipole
moment.

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 Magnetic Dipoles
• A loop of area A with current I has magnetic moment IA
• The fields at a large distance from this loop are identical with
those of a bar magnet of dipole moment QmL, (here Qm is the
magnetic pole strength and L is the pole separation), provided
that the magnetic moment
of the bar is equal to that of the loop.
• Thus QmL=IA
• An atom with revolving
electrons, is a current loop. Qm Area A
• Any atom can be represented N
magnetically as a tiny bar L
S
magnet. I
-Qm Current loop
Equivalent bar
magnet
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 Magnetization
• The effect of the atomic magnets
(or magnetic dipoles) is described
by the magnetization M.
• M is defined as the magnetic
dipole moment per unit volume. S N S N S N S N
m Qm L
M= = S N
v v S N S N S N S N
• QmL is the total magnetic dipole
moment in the volume v. Long iron rod with uniformly
• In general oriented atomic magnets
m
M = lim
v →0 v

• The units of M is A/m.

(Remember that Qm L=IA)

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 Uniformly Magnetized Rod
L
Area A

n loops N set of
each of loops
area A’

• For the bar magnet shown , with each ting bar magnet of moment Qml
replaced by an equivalent small current loop of moment IA’ = Qml
• The magnetization M = nNIA ' = NI = K ' A/m
LA L
• K’ is the equivalent sheet current density on the outside surface of the rod

• The rod is equivalent to a solenoid of fine wires of N turns having a sheet

current density K=NI/L A/m

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 Uniformly Magnetized Rod
L
Area A

n loops N set of
each of loops
area A’

• Note that K=K’ if the solenoid has the same length

and diameter of the rod.
• At the center of the solenoid
NI
B = 0 = 0 K = 0 H .....(T )
L
• At the center of the rod
B = 0 K ' = 0 M ....(T )
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 Magnetic Vectors B, H, and M
• In an air filled solenoid of area A and length L, with N0 turns
N0 I
Bo = 0 = 0 K = 0 H
L
• If the same winding were placed on an iron bar, B would
increase.
• Imagine now that in place of the iron bar we have the same
air filled solenoid with the bar’s effect replaced by another
solenoidal winding of Nm turns.
• The magnetic field from this winding will be
Nm I
Bm = 0 = 0 K ' = 0 M
L
• The total field will be B=B0+ Bm= μ0 (H + M ).
• Thus we may write μ H= μ0 (H + M ).
• Hence µ=µ0µr=µ0(1+M/H).
• In general we have B = μ0 (H + M ) 37
 Boundary Relations
Bn1 Area ∆S
1 μ1
Ht1
Ht2
2 μ2
Bn2 ∆x

• For the normal component of B

 B.ds = 0  B
S
S − Bn 2 S = 0  Bn1 = Bn 2
n1

• The normal components of B are continuous across the

boundary between two media.
• For the tangential components of H, consider the path shown

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 Boundary Relations
Bn1 Area ∆S
1 μ1
Ht1
Ht2
2 μ2
Bn2 ∆x

 H .dl = I
I encl
 H t1x − H t 2 x = I encl  H t1 − H t 2 = = K ... A / m
x
encl

• K is the linear current density flowing at the surface of

separation between the two media.
If ..K = 0  H t1 = H t 2
• The tangential components of H are continuous across a
current free boundary between the two media.

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 The Magnetic Circuits
• A magnetic circuit is defined as the path which is followed by
a magnetic flux.
 NI
• We know for a solenoid B=
l
 NI
• Ф = magnetic flux = BA = A
l

NI magnitomotive.. force
= =
 l  r.e.l.u.c.t.a.n.c.e
 A
 
• Compare with the expression I=V/R in electric circuits
• Magnetic circuits has their equivalent electric circuit
representations.

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 The Magnetic Circuits
• To solve any magnetic circuit make use of the
formula NI
H= .........or..........NI = HL
L
• Find H for each portion of the composite circuit,
(H=B/µ).
• Find the ampere-turns for each part, (AT=HL).
• Add up these ampere-turns to get the total ampere-
turns for the entire circuit.
• We can also draw an equivalent electric circuit and
analyze it.

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 The Magnetization Curve
(B-H curve)
• It is the relation between the magnetic flux density B
in a given material and the corresponding magnetic
field intensity H.
• Since B=μH , this relation is a straight line if μ is a
constant.
• It was found that this relation is not a straight line.
Thus μ is not a constant. In fact this is the effect of
μr,(μ= μ0μr).
• The relation between B and H for any material can be
found experimentally.

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