Bangladesh Journal of Environmental Research, Vol.

11, 12-21, 2020 ISSN: 1996-

8914

Exploration of Issues in Local-level Climate Finance Transparency and

Accountability in Southwest Bangladesh

Syed Hafizur Rahman1*, Md. Nurul Islam2, Ziaul Hoque Mukta2

1
Department of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka-1342, Bangladesh
2
Campaign for Sustainable Rural Livelihoods (CSRL), Dhaka, Bangladesh

(Received: 02 January 2020, Revised: 23 May 2020, Accepted: 01 June 2020, Online: 30 June 2020)

Abstract
Financing on climate change mitigation, adaptation and resilience are pressing need in Bangladesh, where
efficiency, transparency and accountability are very critical. The objective of this study was to investigate
the issues in local-level climate finance transparency and accountability. The study was limited to Koyra
Upazila of Khulna district and Shyamnagar Upazila of Satkhira district. This research reviewed the
significant hazards and vulnerabilities along with identified the most vulnerable community of the study
area. It also assesses the need of the community and analyses the capacity of the community following both
desk review and participatory research approaches. A mixture of research techniques has been taken such
as Key Informant Interview, in-depth interview with stakeholders, Focus Group Discussion and case
studies. Semi-structured questionnaire interview with community people administrated to know the
peoples` perceptions, need, and attitude towards climate finance and activities. This study found significant
gaps between communities’ needs and taken initiatives where embankment (polder) and water management
are the most reported need from the communitys` side. Taken initiatives focused on infrastructure
development like roads, cyclone centres. Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) hold the sole
authority over embankment and water management. At the same time, the local government identified as
the first responder to an embankment and water-related crisis without any official mandate or little scope of
the engagement. This study suggested that community engagement through participatory community
monitoring approach could increase the transparency and accountability of the climate related programme
implementation.

Keywords: Shymnagar, Koyra, BWDB, Polder, Adaptation, Local Government.

Introduction
Climate finance requires accountability in the governance of climate change adaptation (Mees and
Peter, 2019) which requires locally applicable activities and community-based solutions to
increase the resilience of the local people to the impacts of climate change (Klijn and
Koppenjan, 2014; Forrer et al., 2010; Grasso, 2010). Although both ‘bottom-up’ and ‘top-down’
actions help in reducing the probable loss of human lives and livelihoods vulnerable by changes
in the climate where bottom-up actions will depend on shaping the debate around national
interests and representing denotative actions on the ground to build confidence (E3G Research
Team, 2011).

*Corresponding Author (hafizsr@juniv.edu)

Citation: Rahman, S.H. et al., 2020. Exploration of Issues in Local-level Climate Finance Transparency
and Accountability in Southwest Bangladesh, Bangladesh Journal of Environmental Research, 11, 12-21.
Bangladesh Journal of Environmental Research, Vol. 11, 12-21, 2020 Rahman et
al.

Bangladesh is one of the principal victims of climate change where financing on climate change
mitigation, adaptation and resilience are noteworthy and essential (Vinke et al., 2017; Mahmood,
2012). The second and third-order adversative effect of climate change could take many forms,
from devastating cyclone to tidal surge, sea-level rise to salinity in surface and groundwater,
massive flood to severe drought, climate pattern disruption to livelihood change and finally
migration. Low economic growth, inadequate infrastructure, and lack of good governance are
making the climate stimuli even worse (Khan, 2017). The south-west coastal region of
Bangladesh has been facing most damaging effects: such as repeated tidal surge, floods, salinity
intrusion and scarcity of freshwater due to its unique and vulnerable geographical location
(Mahmuduzzaman et al., 2014; BARC, 2005).

Since the adverse effect of climate change has gained much attention Bangladesh Government
(GoB) had established a fund called Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund (BCCTF) and
channelling 100 million USD since the establishment (ERD, 2018). Along with the BCCTF,
Bangladesh has been trying to pull resources from several multi-lateral funds, such as Green
Climate Fund (GCF), Adaptation Fund (AF), Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF), Climate
Investment Fund (CIF), Climate Change Fund (CCF).

Bangladesh is receiving many other funds and loans to fight climate change from bilateral
Development Partners (DPs) and International Financial Institutions (IFIs). Many development
partners also have different types of interventions to tackle the climate change related to adverse
effect in Bangladesh and expending millions of dollars each year (Mukta, 2012). Bangladesh is
also implementing many climate change-related programmes and projects from its fund through
respective agencies. As, financing on climate change mitigation, adaptation and resilience are
pressing need (UNFCCC, 2014), efficiency, transparency and accountability are very critical for
Bangladesh to design and implement sustainable adaptation strategies and climate change related
funding (Tashmin, 2016).

In this consideration, developing transparency mechanism and ensure accountability in climate

finance, it is important to know local level vulnerability, the impact of climate change,
community’s needs, perception and local level participation in taken initiatives by government
and development partners (Samaddar et al., 2019; Karim and Andreas, 2017; Asia Foundation,
2012; Measham et al., 2011). The objective aimed to investigate the gaps among needs, taken
initiatives and implementation. The study was limited to Koyra Upazila of Khulna district (Figure
1) and Shyamnagar Upazila of Satkhira district (Figure 2).

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Exploration of issues in local level climate finance transparency and accountability

Figure 1: Map of Koyra Upazila of Khulna

district.

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Bangladesh Journal of Environmental Research, Vol. 11, 12-21, 2020 Rahman et
al.

Figure 2: Map of Shyamnagar Upazila of Satkhira district.

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Exploration of issues in local level climate finance transparency and accountability

Methodology
Study Area
Koyra and Shyamnagar Upazila are the coastal upazila of Khulna and Satkhira districts in the
vicinity of Sundarban. They lie in the Ganges Tidal Floodplain (AEZ 13) agroecological zone
(CGC, 2009). In both upazilas, more than 50% of people rely on rainwater, PSF and pond water
for drinking and other household use (BBS, 2012a,b). In Koyra, Amadi and Bagali unions have
an acute problem in the source of drinking water. Uttar Bedkashi and Koyra have most of the tube
wells in the upazila. Monda and Sawntal are the ethnic populations in the upazila. Most of the
Mondas live in Koyra, Uttar and Dakshin Bedkashi unions whereas, Sawntals live only in Koyra
union (Islam et al., 2018a). In Shyamnagar upazila, Ishwaripur, Kaikhali, Bhurulia, and Ramjan
Nagar unions have an acute problem in the source of drinking water. Kashimari and Padma Pukur
have most of the tube wells in the upazila. Monda is the only ethnic population in the upazila who
live in Ishwaripur, Kaikhali, and Ramjan Nagar unions (Islam, et al., 2018b).

Method of Study
This research followed both desk review and participatory research approaches. Secondary data
were collected from related books, journals, articles, reports of government and non-government
organisations, seminar papers and citizen charters of associated institutions in Bangladesh. On the
other hand, to gather specific knowledge regarding programmes and project related to climate
change, a mixture of research techniques have been taken such as Key Informant Interview (KII),
in-depth interview (IDI) with stakeholders, Group Meetings (FGDs) and case studies. Semi-
structured questionnaire interview with community people administrated to know the people’s
perceptions, need, and attitude towards climate finance and activities. Different types of collected
data were analysed using EXCEL software. GIS-based location maps prepared using ArcGIS
software. Different climatic hazards and its impacts, livelihood resources (i.e. natural, physical,
financial, human and social resources as well as practised coping strategies of the study areas)
were identified using the PRA tools (i.e. KII and FGD). Respondent’s observations were found
from personal interviews or group meeting with key persons in the community. The case studies
were collected during fieldwork, which has been conducted in July and in August 2017.

Results
Hazards and Vulnerability
Due to Koyra’s geographical location, it is vulnerable to several climatic hazards. Among, the
riverbank erosion is the foremost. Apart from that, salinity in surface and groundwater (foster
drinking water crisis), floods due to bank failure and heavy rains, tidal surges, cyclone are other
hazards which affect life and livelihood of the local community. Some unions of Shyamnagar
upazila are vulnerable to several climatic hazards due to their geographical location. Among,
salinity in surface and groundwater is the principal hazard. Apart from that, polder failure,
riverbank erosion, floods due to bank failure and heavy rains, tidal surges, cyclone are other
hazards which affect life and livelihood of the local community.

In both upazilas, leasing of khals (canals) poses vulnerability to local communities. Local
ecosystem and communities are still suffering from the effects of cyclone Aila which passed
south-west Bangladesh in 2009. Due to salinity, drinking water crisis upturns; local trees are

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al.

dying; soil made homestead are falling; many people lost their jobs and migrated towards town.
The community, mainly women and children, are suffering from health diseases for salinity.
Many farmers changed their livelihood to the labourer in the shrimp farm due to salinity in their
agricultural land. Groundwater salinity abandoned many shallow tubewells which were
previously used as a sole drinking water source in the upazila.

In Koyra, due to climate change, the most vulnerable and affected unions are Uttar Bedkashi and
Dakkhin Bedkashi. Koyra Upazila is bounded by the polder no. 13/14-1 and 13/14-2, built by
Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB). It is also found that Seven no. Dakkhin
Bedkashi ward is the most vulnerable area due to damaged polder. During and after Sidr and Aila,
the polders were affected most which made local agriculture more vulnerable in five unions out of
seven. The polders were damaged about fourteen times since 2014.

In Shyamnagar, due to climate change, the most vulnerable and affected unions are Gabura and
Kaikhali. In Gabura union, excessive salinity intrusion along with polder failure makes the union
most vulnerable. Drinking water crisis due to saline water intrusion makes Kaikhali union
vulnerable where women and children suffer most. There are around 126 khals (canals) in the
Shyamnagar Upazila, of them, most are illegally occupied. People of Gabura and Padma pukur
unions are suffering for leasing the canals as leaseholders sometime destroy polders. Burigoalini
and Koikhali have also agonised for canal leasing. In Gabura and Shyamnagar Sadar unions,
maximum canals are illegally occupied. Due to management failure, crop production is reducing.
Padma pukur has the same vulnerability as Gabura, but some freshwater pond and tubewells are
present in the union. Waterlogging and illegal canal occupancy are significant problems in
Ramjan Nagar union. Mismanagement in canal leasing also presents to the union. In Iswaripur,
slight salinity problem present. Excessive saline water and vulnerable polder present in a village
named “Jhapali” in Kashimari union.

Most Vulnerable Groups (MVGs)

From the data of the questionnaire survey and key informant interviews, it has been found that
impacts of climate change and disaster indiscriminately affects all but women, children, and older
adults are more vulnerable than others. Youth and ultra-poor and ethnic groups are also impacted
in different ways. Traditionally Women play the sole role in collecting drinking water for their
family. Due to the unavailability of freshwater, they now spend more time and walk an extra mile
to find and collect water. The impacts of climate change have created an additional burden of
work on women. Women, children and older adults suffer from health and sanitation problems
during the floods and other disasters. In emergencies, women and children left behind in their
household belonging. In an emergency, sometimes it would be difficult for them to go to the
nearest hospital due to distance and vehicle support. Due to lack of jobs, some of the youths of
the Koyra and Shyamnagar moved to town for a job. Ultra-poor and ethnic group are also
impacted due to the financial condition and lack of education. They mostly depend on natural
resources like open water, forests for their livelihoods. Any change or shrinks in these natural
resources could force them to abandon their traditional livelihoods and migrate. Most of them do
not have their land to cultivate. Due to salinity and flood, they are getting more marginalised.

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Exploration of issues in local level climate finance transparency and accountability

Needs Assessment
Koyra Upazila people’s first need is safe polders. Polders should be maintained in proper time.
Most of the hazards in the area are related to the failure of the polders. Shyamnagar Upazila
people’s first need is safe drinking water. It is necessary to provide customised safe water
technology (e.g., rainwater harvesting, PSF, MAR) to the community. Comprehensive
groundwater investigation could discover localised freshwater aquifer in the upazila. Gaibandha
Sadar Upazila people’s first need is a safe river bank. Riverbank protection through river training
activities like dredging, hardpoint, embankment CC Block revetment should be undertaken in
Kamarjani, Gidari, and Mollar char unions. Flood is often related to riverbank failure. For youth
community job creation is necessary. Road communication should be improved. Medical
facilities need enhancement.

The demand for both Koyra and Shyamnagar Upazila's local community is ‘lease free canals’ for
irrigation and freshwater fish culture. Recovering illegal grabbed canals and dig up sediment-
filled ponds and canals are also local communities need in the region. In some unions, polders
should be maintained in proper time as most of the hazards in the unions are related to the failure
of the polders. It was suggested that an in-depth scientific study is required to divulge significant
climate-related vulnerabilities and hazards of different ethnic groups. For youth community job
creation is also demanded. Instead of an exotic variety of plantation (e.g., Akash Moni,
Eucalyptus), local community needs salt-tolerant local variety (e.g., Kayra, Goran, Gaoa, Baigh)
to be planted in the area. The local farmer needs salt-tolerant seeds for agriculture and training.
From the interview of Chairman and UP officials, it was found that they need more fund for
proper management of upazila activities. They need projects on infrastructure development and in
the cumulative adaptive capacity of the local community.

Capacity Analysis
From KII and structured questionnaire survey, it was found that Upazila Parishad, Union Parishad
and NGOs of Koyra and Shyamnagar upazila work together to increase five (natural, human,
social, physical, and financial) resources. The Women and Children department provides old
ration money, stipend ration (Upobritti) to increase the financial resources of the community.
They mostly work with the ultra-poor, widows, orphans and autistics. They also increase financial
resources through a loan programme with 5% service charge (10,000-15,000 Tk for 1-2 years) to
the women. To increase social capital, they organise awareness programme (“Uthan Boithok”) on
early marriage, women harassment. They also arrange tailoring training for ultra-poor women
with payment (60 taka/day). Agricultural office tried to increase physical resources by providing
seeds and training. Public health engineering office provides tube wells, rainwater harvesting
system and supporting human and natural resources of the community. Apart from a government
organisation, different NGOs implemented numbers of projects to increase five resources of the
community.

LGED Office of Shyamnagar Upazila is working to enhance human and physical resources of the
region. A project titled CCRIP (Coastal Climate Resilience Infrastructure Project) of budget 1700
crore is running to make the roads higher than before, which will expire in June 2018. In
collaboration with BUET, LGED is also working with the salinity problem. A new idea “Vetiver

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al.

grass” is going to use on the sides of the roads. It is estimated that the root of the grass can spread
up to 3-5 m which may strengthen the road structure. Another project entitled ECRRP
(Emergency Cyclone Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Program) has been running since 2007.
Under which twenty-one cyclone shelters are built. Fisheries department of the Upazila is also
working on increasing the physical and financial resources of the community through ‘Kakra-
Kuchia’ Project. Agricultural office tried to increase physical resources by providing seeds and
training. Public health Engineering office provides tube wells (450 in 2017), PSF (600 in 2017),
rainwater harvesting system (around 200-300 in 2017), MAR (around 10) and supporting human
and natural resources of the community.

Gaps Analysis and Way Forward

From vulnerability and hazard mapping, local need and adaptive capacity assessments, the
following gaps are identified which need to be addressed for the way forward:

GO-NGO project transparency: Local government implements different types of climate change-
related and development projects in the upazilas. Participation of the local community in
planning, designing, and implementing the projects is inadequate. Sometimes, only upazila and
union Parishad members know the outline of the projects. Active participation of the local
community helps the proper implementation of the project. If they know the terms of reference
for the project, they can monitor and ask for any deviation. During FGD in Koyra, local landless
women told that they worked as labourers in the embankment project in their area. If they know
the design height and length of the embankment, they will ensure that for their betterment. There
should be some mechanism to participate and monitor government and nongovernment projects
by the local communities. Moreover, a reporting and verification tool needs to be developed for
proper implementation of development projects.

GO-NGO coordination: Although there is a monthly coordination meeting between Upazila

Parishad and NGO personals, there is a gap found about in-coming NGO projects. Sometimes,
government officers are invited to the inauguration and closing sessions of the NGO projects.

NGO coordination: Some NGOs are working in Koyra, Shyamnagar and Gaibandha. There is no
coordination among them about ongoing and incoming projects. It has been seen that more than
one NGOs are working in the same area with the same issue. This gap should be resolved for the
betterment of the community. Donor(s) could distribute work among different NGOs in various
localities.

Canal leasing policy: Considering the ecosystem and community of the upazila, canal leasing
policy should be reviewed. There should be some canals for agricultural irrigation and freshwater
fish culture.

Upazila Parishad Activities: Local government operations should be reviewed. At present local
elected members and chairman are distributed allocated fund to the community and state officers
monitoring the activities. It should be reversed. Local public servants (officers) should take

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Exploration of issues in local level climate finance transparency and accountability

responsibility for distribution and local elected members, and the chairman would oversee their
operations as mentioned in Upazila Parishad Law, 2011.

Union-wise need assessment: It has been found that need varies from union to union. So, needs
should be assessed locality-based, and it should not be generalised in the upazila level.

Polder/embankment Management: Shyamnagar and Koyra Upazila are mostly bounded by the
polders which make the area more vulnerable. When any damage happens in the
polder/embankment, local community first goes the elected authority like members and chairman
of union and upazila then to the Upazila Nirbhahi Officer (UNO). However, they do not have the
power or funds to repair or maintain the polders/ embankment. BWDB is an implementing arm of
the Ministry of Water Resources who are the authority to build, repair and manage the polders.
According to the 4.2 (e) clause of Bangladesh National Water Policy (1999), ‘The Bangladesh
Water Development Board (BWDB) will implement all major surface water development projects
and other FCDI projects with command area above 1000 hectares. The Local Government will
implement FCDI projects having a command area of 1000 hectares or less after identification and
appraisal through an interagency Project Appraisal Committee’. As polders are more than 1000
hectares, BWDB is the responsible agency for construction and management of the coastal
polders.
Although BWDB has an office at the upazila level, there is little coordination between local
government and BWDB. Moreover, local BWDB office does not have a fund of their own for
management of the polders. They just develop projects, and implement, supervise ongoing
projects. A significant gap identified by these two government agencies.

It is suggested that if upazila BWDB office has some authority to maintain polders and if the
office comes under the umbrella of Upazila Parishad, like LGED, Social Welfare, Education,
Agriculture departments, then the local community will be benefitted. Moreover, if any legislative
power and fund authorised to the local government for emergency maintenance of the polders
would be helpful for the local community.

Another way, if the clause 4.2 (f) of Bangladesh National Water Policy (1999) is appropriately
implemented where stated that ’the participation of all project-affected persons, individually and
collectively, will be ensured in the planning, design, implementation, and operation and
maintenance (O&M) of publicly funded surface water resources development plans and projects.
Local Governments (Parishads) will be the principal agencies for coordinating these efforts.
Community-level self-help groups (private) and Non-Government Organisations will also be
relied on to assist in the participatory process.’ there will be no suffering of affected people.

Conclusions
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that local government can play a crucial role in
planning, managing, and monitoring climate change programme and expenditure at the local level
if they have an official mandate. This study suggested that community engagement through
participatory community monitoring approach could increase the transparency and effectiveness
of the implementation of adaptation programme. Availability of the information regarding climate

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al.

change programme and finance at the local level can encourage community people to participate
in monitoring and assess taken initiatives.

Acknowledgements
Authors are highly acknowledged to the Campaign for Sustainable Rural Livelihood (Csrl) and
Promoting Knowledge for Accountable System (PROKAS) programme of British Council,
Bangladesh for their technical and financial support. The views expressed in this manuscript do
not necessarily represent the opinion of the British Council.

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