Cognitive Psychology and Instruction FIFTH EDITION Roger H. Bruning University of Nebraska-Lincoln Gregory J. Schraw University of Nevada—Las Vegas “Monica M. Norby University of Nebraska-Lincoln Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam CapeTown Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal ‘Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney HongKong Seoul Singapore Taipei TokyoVice President, Editor in Chief: Paul A. Smith Editorial Assistant: Matthew Buchholz Marketing Manager: Joanna Sabella Production Editor: Pauila Carroll Editorial Production Service: Element Manufacturing Buyer: Megan Cochran Hlectronic Composition: Element Cover Designer: Central Covers Credits and ackiowledgments borrowed from other sources and. reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text, Copyright © 2011, 2004, 1999, 1995, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc, publishing as Alyn & Bacon, S01 Bovlston Steet, Boston, MA, (2116. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of ‘America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior o any prohibited reproduction, storage in retrieval system, or transmision in ay form orby any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording o likewise. To obtsin permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request io Pearson Education, Inc. Permissions Department, 501 Boyston Street, Boston, MA, 02116, or email permissionsus@pearson.com. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bruning, Roger H. ‘Cognitive psychology and instruction / Roger H. Braning, Gregory }Schrew, Monica M. Norby. — 5th ed. pcm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Previous ed. cataloged under title. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-236897-1 ISBN-10: 0-13-236897-8 1. Learning, 2. Cognitive psychology. 3. Cognitive learning. Instructional sstems—Pesign I. Sehraw, Gregory J. IL Norby, Monica M, IIL Cognitive psychology and instruction. IV. Tite, 1LB1060.B786 2011 370,15'23—de22 2010032890 987654321 RRDVA 14 13 12 11 10 ISBN-10; 0132368978 ISBN-13: 9780132368971ee “ e ABOUT THE AUTHORS § Roger Bruning is Velma Warren Hodder Professor of Educational Psychology and co-directs the Center for Instructional Innovation at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL). A grad- uate of UNL, his teaching and research examine applications of cognitive principles to teach- ing and learning, especially in Hiteracy, science, and mathematics, Gregg Schraw is Barrick Distinguished Professor of Educational Psychology at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, His work has concentrated on implicit beliefs about intelligence and knowledge and on methods for developing critical thinking, He is a graduate of the University of Utah, Monica Norby is Assistant Vice Chancellor for Research at UNL. Drawing on her background asa plant geneticist and scientific writer, her curtent efforts are focused on research supporting processes of scientific inquiry and on best practices for educating students in science and mathematics. Sheis a graduate of UNL.Monona eR BRIEF CONTENTS Chapter i Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1 PARTONE Information Processing Theory Chapter 2 Sensory, Short-Term, and Working Memory 13 Chapter 3 Long-Term Memory: Structures and Models 37 Chapter4 Encoding Processes 65 Chapter 5 Retrieval Processes 90 PART TWO _Beliefsand Cognition Chapter 6 Beliefs About Self 107 Chapter 7 Beliefs About Intelligence and Knowledge 134 PART THREE Fostering Cognitive Growth Chapter8 Problem Solving and Critical Thinking 160 Chapter9 Classroom Contexts for Cognitive Growth 192 Chapter 10 Technological Contexts for Cognitive Growth 215 PARTFOUR Cognition in the Classroom Chapter 11 Learningto Read 236 Chapter 12 Reading to Learn 260 Chapter 13. Writing 288 Chapter 14 Cognitive Approaches to Mathematics 311 Chapter 15 Cognitive Approaches to Science 335| CONTENTS Preface xiv Acknowledgments xvii “1 introduction to Cognitive Psychology. 1 ABrief History 1 ‘The Associationist Era 1 The CognitiveEra 5 Cognitive Themes for Education 5, An Example 9 Summary 11 Suggested Readings 12 PART ONE Information Processing Theory 2. Sensory, Short-Term, and Working Memory 13 The Modal Model 14 SensoryMemory and Perception 17 Sensory Registers. 17 ‘The Role of Knowledge and Contextin Perception 20 Amention 22 Automatic Processes 23 Surtmary of Sensory Memory Processes 24 Short-Term and Working Memory 24 Capacity ari Duration 24 Accessing Information 25 Working Memory 26 Working Memory and Learning 28 Cognitive Neuroscience and WorkingMemory 29 The Neuronal Level 30 The Cortical Level 31 Neurological Evidence for Working Memory Functions 32CONTENTS Assessment of Working Memory 32 Implications for Instruction: Guiding and Directing Attention 33 Summary 35 Suggested Readings 36 3 Long-Term Memory: Structures and Models. 37 ‘AFramework for Long-IermMemory 38 Semantic and Episodic Memory 39 Inplicit Memory: Retention Without Remesnbering 40 ‘The Building Blocks of Cognition 42 Concepts 43 Propositions 46 Schemata 48 Productions Sr Scripts 52 Another Dimension of Long-Term Memory: Verbal and Imaginal Representation 52 Evolving Models of Memory 54 NetworkModels 55 TheACTMedel 56 Connectionist Models 58 ‘A Comparison of the Three Types of Models 61 “Assessment of Long-Term Memory Functions 61 Implications for Instruction 62 Summary 64 Suggested Readings 64 4. Encoding Processes 65 Fneoding Simple Information 66 Mediation oF Imagery 68 Mnemonics 6F Encoding More Complex Information 73 Activating Prior Knowledge 74 Guided Questioning 75CONTENTS Levels of Processing 75 Summary of Encoding Processes 78 ‘Metacognition: Thinking About Thinking 79 Research on Metacognitive Processes 60 Research on Strategy Instruction 82 Becoming a Good Strategy User 83 Assessment and Encoding 84 Implications for Instruction 85 Summary 88 Suggested Readings 89 5 Retrieval Processes 90 Encoding Specificity 91 Recognition and Recall 95 Reconstruction 97 Recalling Specific Events 100 Relearning 101 Assessment and Retrieval: Testing as Retrieval Practice? Implications for Instruction 104 Summary 106 Suggested Readings —_ 106 PART TWO Beliefs and Cognition 6 Beliefs About Self 107 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning Theory 107 Enactiveand Vicarious Learning 108 Sel-Efficacy 109 Research on Stucient, Teacher, and School Self-Eficacy 110 Modeling 113 Self-Regulated Learning Theory 114 Implications for Instruction: Improving Self-Efficacy 15 103GONTENTS Attribution Theory 116 The Attributional Process il7 Attributions in the Classroom = 129 Attributional Retraining 120 Tnipications for instruction: Improving Student Astribusions 121 ‘Autonomy andControl 122 Control in the Classroom — 123 Implications for instruction: Fostering Student Ausonomy 130 Assessing Beliefs 131 Swnmary 132 Suggested Readings 133 7 Beliefs About Intelligence and Knowledge 134 ‘Understanding Implicit Beliefs 134 Beliefs About Intelligence 136 Constraints on Classroom Behaviors 139 Is Intelligence Changeable? 140 Guidelines for Fostering Adaprive Goals 140 Beliefs About Knowledge 141 Teachers Bpistemological Beliefs 144 Reflective Judgment — 145 Stages in Reflective Judgment 147 Reflective judgment and Education — 149 Education and Thinking 150 Surnmary of Beliefs About Knowledge 152 HopeandAttitude Change 152 Changing Beliefs 153 ‘Teachers’ Beliefs 154 Implications for Instruction 156 Psychological Assessments and Theory Change 157 Summary 158 Suggested Readings 159CONTENTS PART THREE Fostering Cognitive Growth 8 problem Solvingand Critical Thinking 160 Historical Perspectives on Problem Solving 161 ‘Thorndike, Dewey, and the Gestait Psychologists 161 Contemporary Approaches to Problem Solving 162 Expert Knowledge in Problem Solving 168 Domain Knowledge 168 Ant Example of Domain Knowledge in Cognition 168 General Knowledge 170 Domain Knowledge and Expertise 171 Seven Characteristics of Expert Performance 171 Some Pitfalls of Expertise 173 Role of Deliberate Practice = 174 Problem-Solving Transfer 175 Implications for Instruction: improving Problem Solving 176 Critical Thinking 178 Toward a Definition of Critical Thinking 178 Component Skills in Critical Thinking 179 Does Intelligence Constrain Critical Thinking? 181 Planning a Critical-Thinking Skills Program 184 Examples of Stand-Alone Programs 187 Teaching Wisdom 188 Assessment of Problem Solving 189 Summary 190. Suggested Readings 191 9 Classroom Contexts for CognitiveGrowth 192 Constructivism: The Learuer’s Role in Building and Transforming Knowledge 193 ‘Types of Constructivism: A Closer Look 195 Vygotsky's Dialectical Consiructivism: 196 Social Cognition: Social Factors in Knowledge Construction 198 Rogoff’s Apprenticeships in Thinking Model 198 Schtn’s Reflective Practitioner Model 200 Role of Classroom Discourse in Knowledge Construction 202 ‘Toward a More Reflective Classroom 204