EE - 453

Power Quality and Harmonics

Modelling of Networks

Dr. Supriya Jaiswal

Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Hamirpur
 Contents
• Modelling of networks and components under non-sinusoidal
conditions:

transmission and distribution systems

shunt capacitors
transformers
electric machines
ground systems

• Loads that cause power quality problems

• Power quality problems created by drives and impact on

drives.
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 Nonlinear
Harmonic Models of
Transformers

3
 Sinusoidal (Linear) Modelling of
Transformers
• Transformer simulation under sinusoidal operating conditions
is a well-researched subject and many steady-state and
transient models are available.
• However, transformer cores are made of ferromagnetic
materials with nonlinear (B–H) or (v – i) characteristics.
• They exhibit three types of nonlinearities that complicate their
analysis: saturation effect, hysteresis (major and minor) loops,
and eddy currents.
• These phenomena result in nonsinusoidal flux, voltage and
current waveforms on primary and secondary sides, and
additional copper (due to current harmonics) and core (due to
hysteresis loops and eddy currents) losses at fundamental and
harmonic frequencies. 4
 Sinusoidal (Linear) Modelling of
Transformers
• Linear techniques for transformer modeling neglect these
nonlinearities (by assuming a linear (v – i) characteristic) and
use constant values for the magnetizing inductance and the
core-loss resistance.
• Some more complicated models assume nonlinear
dependencies of hysteresis and eddy-current losses with
fundamental voltage magnitude and frequency, and use a more
accurate equivalent value for the core-loss resistance.
• The transformer total core losses can be approximated as

where Phys, Peddy, Bmax, and f are hysteresis losses, eddy-current losses,
maximum value of flux density, and fundamental frequency, respectively.
Khys is a constant for the grade of iron employed and Keddy is the eddy-
current constant for the conductive material. S is the Steinmetz exponent
ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 depending on operating point of transformer core. 5
 Sinusoidal (Linear) Modelling of
Transformers
• Transient models are used for transformer simulation during
turning-on (e.g., inrush currents), faults, and other types of
disturbances.

• They are based on a system of time-dependent differential

equations usually solved by numerical algorithms. Transient
models require a considerable amount of computing time.

• Steady-state models mostly use phasor analysis in the

frequency domain to simulate transformer behavior, and
require less computing times than transient models.

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 Sinusoidal (Linear) Modelling of Transformers

Linear single-phase, steady-state transformer model for sinusoidal analysis

This model of is not suitable for harmonic studies since constant

values are assumed for the magnetizing inductance and the core-
loss resistance. However, this simple and practical frequency-
based model generates acceptable results if a transformer were to
operate in the linear region of the (v – i) characteristic, and the
harmonic frequency is taken into account. 7
 Harmonic Losses in Transformers
• Losses due to harmonic currents and voltages occur in
windings because of the skin effect and the proximity effect. It
is well known that harmonic current ih(t) and harmonic voltage
vh(t) must be present in order to produce harmonic losses.

• If either ih(t) or vh(t) are zero then ph(t) will be zero as well.
Harmonic losses occur also in iron cores due to hysteresis and
eddy-current phenomena.
• For linear (B–H) characteristics of iron cores, the losses are
dependent on fundamental and harmonic amplitudes only,
whereas for nonlinear iron-core (B–H) characteristics the
phase shift between harmonic voltage and fundamental voltage
is important as well. 8
 Harmonic Losses in Transformers
• For example, a magnetizing
current with maximum peak-
to-peak values results in
larger maximum flux
densities than a magnetizing
current with minimum peak-
to-peak values.
• Proximity losses in windings
and (solid) conducting parts
of a device (e.g., frame)
occur due to the relative
location between the various
Linear and nonlinear iron-core characteristics
windings and conductive
parts.
9
Nonlinear Harmonic Models of Transformers
• Appropriate harmonic models of all power system components
including transformers are the basis of harmonic analysis and
loss calculations.
• Harmonic models of transformers are devised in two steps: the
first is the construction of transformer harmonic model, which
is mainly characterized by the analysis of the core nonlinearity
(due to saturation, hysteresis, and eddy-current effects),
causing nonsinusoidal magnetizing and core-loss currents. The
second step involves the relation between model parameters
and harmonic frequencies. These models are based on one of
the following approaches:
• time-domain simulation,
• frequency-domain simulation,
• combined frequency- and time-domain simulation, and
• numerical (e.g., finite-difference, finite-element) simulation. 10
 Nonlinear Harmonic Models of Transformers
The General Harmonic Model of Transformers

Physical model of a single-phase transformer

The corresponding electrical and magnetic equations are

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 Nonlinear Harmonic Models of Transformers
The General Harmonic Model of Transformers
Dividing by Np yields

• where iexc (t) = Hl/Np is the transformer excitation (no-load)

current, which is the sum of the magnetizing (imag(t)) and core-
loss (icore(t)) currents.
• It is clear that the no-load current is related to the physical
parameters, that is, the magnetizing curve (including saturation
and hysteresis) and the induced voltage.
• Based on Eqs., the general harmonic model of transformer is
obtained. There are four dominant characteristic parameters:
• winding resistance,
• leakage inductance,
• magnetizing current, and
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• core-loss current.
 Nonlinear Harmonic Models of Transformers
The General Harmonic Model of Transformers
• Some models assume constant values for the primary and the
secondary resistances. However, most references take into
account the influence of skin effects and proximity effects in
the harmonic model.
• Since primary (Φpl) and secondary (Φsl) leakage fluxes mainly
flow across air, the primary and the secondary leakage
inductances can be assumed to be constants.
• The main difficulty arises in the computation of the
magnetizing and core loss currents, which are the main sources
of harmonics in power transformers.

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 Nonlinear Harmonic Models of Transformers
Nonlinear Harmonic Modeling of Transformer
Magnetic Core

• Accurate transformer models incorporate nonlinear saturation

and hysteresis phenomena.

• Numerous linear, piecewise linear, and nonlinear models are

currently available in the literature for the representation of
saturation and hysteresis effects of transformer cores.

• Most models are based on time-domain techniques that require

considerable computing time; however, there are also a few
frequency-based models with acceptable degrees of accuracy.

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 Nonlinear Harmonic Models of Transformers
Nonlinear Harmonic Modelling of Transformer
Magnetic Core
Time-Domain Transformer Core Modelling by Multisegment
Hysteresis Loop:
The transformer core can be accurately modelled in the time
domain by simulating its (λ – i) characteristic including the major
hysteresis loop (with or without minor loops), which accounts for
all core effects: hysteresis loss, eddy-current loss, saturation, and
magnetization.

Time-domain nonlinear model of transformer with the complete (λ - i) characteristic

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Time-domain nonlinear model of transformer core with the complete hysteresis
loop; (a) using five segments, (b) using four segments 16
• The (λ – i) loop is divided into a number of segments and each
segment is approximated by a parabola, a polynomial, a
hyperbolic, or other functions.
• The functions expressing the segments must be defined so that
di/dλ (or dH/dB) is continuous in the entire defined region of
the (λ - i) or (B–H) plane.
• As an example, two typical (λ - i) characteristics are shown in
Fig. Five segments are used in Fig. a to model the (λ – i) loop.
The first three are approximated by polynomials of the 13th
order while the fourth and the fifth segments (in the positive
and negative saturation regions) are represented by parabolas.
• Expression for describing the four-segment loop of Fig. b is

17
• There is a major difficulty with time-domain approaches. For a
given value of maximum flux linkage, λmax the loop is easily
determined experimentally; however, for variable λmax the loop
not only changes its size but also its shape.
• Since these changes are particularly difficult to predict, the
usual approach is to neglect the variation in shape and to
assume linear changes in size.
• This amounts to scaling the characteristics in the λ and i
directions for different values of λmax.
• This is a fairly accurate model for the transformer core;
however, it requires considerable computing time.
• Some more sophisticated models also include minor hysteresis
loops in the time-domain analysis

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 Nonlinear Harmonic Models of Transformers
Nonlinear Harmonic Modeling of Transformer
Magnetic Core
Frequency-and Time-Domain Transformer Core Modeling by
Saturation Curve and Harmonic Core-Loss Resistances:
• In these models, transformer saturation is simulated in the time
domain while eddy current losses and hysteresis are
approximated in the frequency domain.
• If the voltage that produces the core flux is sinusoidal with rms
magnitude of E and frequency of f,

• Although the application of superposition is incorrect for

nonlinear circuits, in some cases it may be applied cautiously
to obtain an approximate solution.
19
• If superposition is applied, the core loss due to individual
harmonic components may be defined to model both hysteresis
and eddy-current losses by dividing previous equation by the
square of the rms harmonic voltages.
• We define the conductance Geddy (accounting for eddy-current
losses) and harmonic conductance Ghys (h) (accounting for
hysteresis losses at harmonic frequencies) as

where f and h are the fundamental frequency and harmonic

order, respectively.
• Therefore, eddy current (Peddy) and hysteresis (Phys) losses are
modeled by a constant conductance (Geddy) and harmonic
conductances (Ghys (h) ), respectively, and the transformer (λ - i)
characteristic is approximated by a single-valued saturation
curve.
20
 Frequency- and time-domain nonlinear model of transformer core with harmonic
conductances and a single-valued saturation curve; (a) transformer model, (b) the piecewise
linear model of saturation curve, (c) the incremental model of saturation curve 21
• There are basically two main approaches for
modeling the transformer saturation curve:
piecewise linear inductances and incremental
inductance, as shown by Fig. b,c.
• The incremental approach uses a polynomial,
arctangent, or other functions to model the
transformer magnetizing characteristic.
• The incremental reluctances (or inductances) are
then obtained from the slopes of the inductance-
magnetizing current characteristic.

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 Nonlinear
Harmonic Models of
Three-Phase
Induction Machines
23
 Sinusoidal Equivalent Circuit of
Three-Phase Induction Machine
• Simulation of induction machines under sinusoidal operating
conditions is a well-researched subject and many transient and
steady-state models are available.
• The stator and rotor cores of an induction machine are made of
ferromagnetic materials with nonlinear (B–H) or (λ – i)
characteristics.
• Magnetic coils exhibit three types of nonlinearities that
complicate their analysis: saturation effects, hysteresis loops,
and eddy currents.
• These phenomena result in non sinusoidal flux, voltage and
current waveforms in the stator and rotor windings, and
additional copper (due to current harmonics) and core (due to
hysteresis loops and eddy currents) losses at fundamental and
harmonic frequencies. 24
 Sinusoidal Equivalent Circuit of Three-Phase
Induction Machine
• Under nonsinusoidal operating conditions, the stator magnetic
field will generate harmonic rotating fields that will produce
forward- and backward-rotating magnetomotive forces (mmfs)
• In addition to the time harmonics (produced by the nonsinusoidal
stator voltages), space harmonics must be included in the analyses.
• Another detrimental effect of harmonic voltages at the input
terminals of induction machines is the generation of unwanted
harmonic torques that are superimposed with the useful
fundamental torque, producing vibrations causing a deterioration
of the insulation material and rotor copper/aluminum bars.
• Linear approaches for induction machine modeling neglect these
nonlinearities (by assuming linear (λ–i) characteristics and
sinusoidal current and voltage waveforms) and use constant values
for the magnetizing inductance and the core-loss resistance. 25
Sinusoidal Equivalent Circuit of Three-
Phase Induction Machine

Complete linear per-phase equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction

machine for sinusoidal analysis

26
Sinusoidal Equivalent Circuit of Three-
Phase Induction Machine

Simplified per-phase equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction machine for

sinusoidal analysis

27
Replacing the network to the left of line a–b by Thevenin’s
theorem (TH) one gets

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Thevenin (TH) adjusted equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction machine for
fundamental frequency (h = 1)

The fundamental (h=1) slip is

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30
This relation is called the small-slip approximation for the torque. 31
Fundamental electrical torque-speed characteristics for a three-phase induction machine

32
Mechanical output power (neglecting friction and windage
losses) is

The air-gap power is

Definition of air-gap power 33

Loss breakdown within induction machine neglecting frictional and windage losses

34
Complete fundamental torque-speed relation detailing braking,
motoring, and generation

35
 Spatial (Space) Harmonics of Three-
Phase Induction Machine
Due to imperfect (e.g., nonsinusoidal) winding distributions and
due to slots and teeth in stator and rotor, the magnetomotive
forces (mmfs) of an induction machine are nonsinusoidal.

For sinusoidal distribution one obtains the mmfs

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The magnetomotive force (mmf) originates in the phase belts a–a’,
b–b’, and c–c’
The total mmf is

where

Definition of phase belts

and their associated axes in
an induction machine

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39
Therefore, total mmf is simplified as,

40
Graphical representation of spatial harmonics (in the presence of
fundamental, third, and fifth harmonics mmfs) with phasors is
shown in Fig. Note that the 3rd harmonic mmf cancels (is equal
to zero).
Similar analysis is performed to determine the rotating directions
of each individual space harmonic, and the positive-, negative-,
and zero-sequence harmonic orders can be defined, as listed in
Table.

Fundamental and 5th spatial harmonic of an

induction machine rotating in opposite directions.
Note: F1 is rotating in forward (+) or
counterclockwise direction and F5 is rotating in
backward (–) or clockwise direction.
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• Even and triplen harmonics are normally not present in a
balanced three-phase system!
• In general one can write for spatial harmonics

where +, –, and 0 are used for positive-, negative-, and zero-

sequence space harmonic orders, respectively.

42
Superposition of fundamental mmf with 5th space harmonic resulting in amplitude
modulation of fundamental of 60 Hz with 12 Hz
43
 Time Harmonics of Three-Phase
Induction Machine
A three-phase induction machine is excited by balanced three-
phase f1 = 60 Hz currents containing a fifth time harmonic. The
equations of the currents are for ω1 = 2πf1:

Note that the three-phase system rotates in a clockwise (cw)

manner; that is, in a mathematically negative sense. Assume that
the winding has been designed to eliminate all spatial harmonics.
Thus for phase a the mmf becomes

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46
For the current system (consisting of the fundamental and 5th
harmonic components where the 5th harmonic system rotates in
clockwise direction)

the fifth time harmonic has the angular velocity

47
• Similar analysis can be performed to
determine the rotating directions of
each individual time harmonic and
to define the positive-, negative-,
and zero-sequence harmonic orders,
as listed in Table.
• As with the space harmonics, even
and triplen harmonics are normally
not present, provided the system is
balanced.
• One can write for time harmonics

Forward (+) rotating

where +, –, and 0 are used for
positive-, negative-, and zero-
sequence time harmonic orders,
respectively.
fundamental mmf of an
induction machine superposed
with backward (–) rotating 5th
time harmonic rotating in the
opposite direction. 48
• Therefore, time harmonics voltages have an important impact
on induction machines. Forward- and backward-rotating fields
are produced by positive-, negative-, and zerosequence
harmonics that produce harmonic shaft torques.

49
 Fundamental and Harmonic Torques of
Induction Machine
Starting with the Thevenin-adjusted circuit, one obtains the
current of the hth harmonic

50
51
 Fundamental and Harmonic Torques of Induction Machine
The Fundamental Slip of an Induction
Machine

52
Fundamental induction motor (Te1) and load (TL) torques as a function of angular
velocity and slip s1.
53
 Fundamental and Harmonic Torques of Induction Machine
The Harmonic Slip of an Induction Machine
The harmonic slip (without addressing the direction of rotation of the
harmonic field) is defined as

where ωs1=(ω1)/(p/2) and ω1 is the electrical angular velocity, ω1

=2πf1 and f1=60 Hz.
To include the direction of rotation of harmonicmmfs, in the following
we assume that the fundamental rotates in forward direction, the 5th
in backward direction, and the 7th in forward direction.
For motor operation ωm<ωs1; thus for the 5th harmonic component,
one obtains

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where (–5ωs1) means rotation in backward direction, or

Note that in this equation 5ωs1 is the base (reference) angular

velocity.
Correspondingly, one obtains for the forward rotating 7th
harmonic:

where 7ωs1 is the base.

Therefore, the harmonic slip is

55
Induction motor torque for 7th
time harmonic as a function of
angular velocity and slip s7.

Induction motor torque for 5th

time harmonic as a function of
angular velocity and slip s5.
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 Nonlinear Harmonic Models of
Three-phase Induction Machines
• In order to improve the loss prediction of the conventional
equivalent circuit of induction machines, the core loss and
stray-core losses associated with high frequency leakage
fluxes are taken into account.

• Stray-load losses in induction machines are considered to be

important–due to leakage–when induction machines are
supplied by non sinusoidal voltage or current sources. This
phenomenon can be accounted for by a modified loss model

57
 Modified harmonic loss model of induction motor including separate
resistances for rotor- and stator-core losses, as well as eddy currents due to
leakage fluxes
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 References
• Ewald F. Fuchs, Mohammad A. S. Masoum,
“Power Quality in Power Systems and
Electrical Machines,” Second Edition (2015,
Academic Press_Elsevier).

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Thank You

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