Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Remote Sensing of Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rse

Detecting heat-inducing urban built-up surface material with multi remote

sensing datasets using reflectance and emission spectroscopy
Nivedita Priyadarshini Kamaraj , Sulochana Shekhar *, V. Sivashankari ,
Karuppusamy Balasubramani , Kumar Arun Prasad
Department of Geography, School of Earth Sciences, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: Jing M. Chen This study aims to evaluate the spatial and spectral characteristics of dominant heat-inducing urban built-up
surface materials (UBSM) in Kalaburagi, Karnataka State (India) using multi remote sensing datasets and
Keywords: field/lab instruments. A total of 16 UBSM were collected at different locations of the study area and spectra were
AVIRIS NG generated using ASD Field spec 3 Spectro radiometer operated at VNIR and SWIR regions (0.35 μm to 2.5 μm).
Fluke infrared thermometer
The collected spectra were then resampled with the spectral range of 0.3–2.5 μm and used for classifying
FTIR
dimensionally reduced AVIRIS-NG (Airborne Visible and Infrared Imaging Spectrometer – Next Generation)
Landsat 8
Kalaburagi dataset through Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) classifier for understanding spatial and spectral characteristics of
LST heat inducing UBSM in the study area. The classification shows that concrete, basalt stones and asbestos are the
dominant UBSM in the study area and its spectral reflectance are comparatively low in the VNIR and SWIR
regions. The land surface temperature (LST) of the study area was retrieved from the Landsat-8 TIRS (Thermal
Infrared Sensor), and compared with the ECOSTRESS (ECOsystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment
on Space Station) LST data product and Fluke Infrared thermometer measurements operated at LWIR (8–14 μm).
All these LST estimation and comparison processes were synchronized at the most possible manner (±7 days).
Additionally, emissivity of collected UBSM were determined using FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Radiometer)
emissivity in the laboratory. The amalgamation of results shows that barren land (mostly basaltic), basalt stones
and concrete surfaces cover dominantly the high LST region of the study area. The FTIR measurements reveal
that, among 16 dominant UBSM, basalt stones had recorded high spectral radiance (0.0309 Wm− 1μm− 1sr− 1) and
emissivity (0.98) followed by concrete (emissivity = 0.94). Whereas marble had the lowest spectral radiance
(0.0246 Wm− 1μm− 1sr− 1) and emissivity (0.49). The results agree with the SWIR reflection spectra (where basalt
stones, concrete and barren rocks shows lower reflectance) and principle of Wien’s displacement law (where
radiance spectra display series of peaks that corresponding to the temperature measurements). Besides proposing
a newer methodology for understanding spatial and spectral distribution of dominant heat inducing urban built-
up surface materials, the results offer baseline data for studying microclimatic variations in the study area.

1. Introduction new urban regions (World Urbanization Prospects, 2019). Conse­

Cities are becoming spatially intricate and heterogeneous as the
world is observing the greatest surge of urban growth in human history
(Kotthaus et al., 2014). According to the United Nations report, the
world population residing in urban areas is expected to rise to a new
high of 68% in 2050 from 55% in 2018. Among all nations, India is
anticipated to append nearly 416 million urban inhabitants in the next
few decades, potentially influencing the expansion and development of
quently, there will be an increase in the size of the cities, which modifies
the land use, and surface materials present on the natural earth surface
(Toparlar et al., 2018). The high thermal admittance of urban con­
struction materials increases the absorption and trapping of solar radi­
ation in built-up surface materials. This alters the radiative balance and
leads to micro climatic variations in the urban areas (Zhou et al., 2017).
Since the reaction of urban materials with the incoming short-wave and
outgoing long-wave radiation influences the urban climate, the use of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: nivi.darshini@yahoo.com (N.P. Kamaraj), sulochana@cutn.ac.in (S. Shekhar), geobalas@cutn.ac.in (K. Balasubramani), arunprasad@cutn.ac.in
(K.A. Prasad).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2021.112591
Received 23 August 2020; Received in revised form 22 May 2021; Accepted 5 July 2021
Available online 20 July 2021
0034-4257/© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
N.P. Kamaraj et al.
built-up surfaces with high reflectivity can lower the temperature of
urban regions (Akbari et al., 2009; Santillán-Soto et al., 2015). However,
reflectance of many Urban build up surface material (UBSM) at con­
strained laboratory conditions show weak or moderate absorptions
influencing temperature rise over 2◦ to 4◦ C (Anbazhagan and Ari­
vazhagan, 2009). As the thermal characteristics of UBSM have a vital
inference towards human well-being, recent developments in environ­
mental eco-design, climate change adaptation, and mitigation have
focused on substituting old built-up surface materials with new mate­
rials (Yang, 2011; Damtoft et al., 2008). Therefore, spectral knowledge
of the built-up surface materials and their spatial distribution is required
to understand the micro-climatic variations in an urban environment
(Kotthaus et al., 2014).
Although studies conducted to discriminate the emissive character­
istics of urban materials, temperature and emissivity of certain intricate
urban materials are still hard to distinguish and thus require extensive
studies in highly diversified urban environments (Sobrino et al., 2012).
Land surface temperature (LST) is a significant factor that helps to un­
derstand the interchange of long-wave radiation and intense heat in­
stabilities at the surface-atmosphere interface (Anderson et al., 2008;
Brunsell and Gillies, 2003; Kustas and Anderson, 2009; Li et al., 2013a,
2013b; Zhang et al., 2008). The spatio-temporal dynamics of LST is
widely studied through Thermal Infrared Sensors and utilized in diverse
fields including urban climate studies (Karnieli et al., 2010; Wang et al.,
2009; Weng et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2009). Although field monitoring
provides accurate datasets on diurnal and seasonal intricacy of surface
temperature, it is expensive and challenging for wider environments,
especially in countries like India. Hence, there are studies attempted to
understand the relationship between varying dynamic urban surface and
their corresponding land surface temperature utilizing thermal infrared
data (Heiden et al., 2007; Deng and Wu, 2013; Song et al., 2014; Chen
and Yu, 2017). However, owing to the coarse spatial resolution of sat­
ellite based thermal/emissivity data, investigations concerning the
surface kinetic temperature of individual dominant urban materials are
very limited (Kotthaus et al., 2014).
Conversely, determination of urban material that emits more heat
can be attempted by comparison of thermal infrared data and field or
lab-based data of dominant urban materials (Kuang et al., 2014). Studies
employed the long-wave infrared spectroscopy analyses for determining
the emissivity of dominant urban materials using the Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) techniques and thermal infrared data
(Carnielo and Zinzi, 2013; Kotthaus et al., 2014). Though such works are
emphasizing the identification of urban materials using reflectance and
emission spectroscopy and building of spectral libraries for materials in
the local terrain, there exists a deficiency in comparing the acquired
results with the real-time surface temperature or satellite-derived tem­
perature values.
In addition to field/lab based approaches for spectral characteriza­
tion of UBSM, spatial mapping of different materials required hyper­
spectral remote sensor data operating at Visible-Short-Wave Infrared
(VIS-SWIR) wavelengths (Heiden et al., 2007). Numerous investigations
displayed that diverse hyperspectral data can be highly helpful in
mapping UBSM, among which Airborne Visible-Infrared Imaging Spec­
trometer – New Generation (AVIRIS-NG) allows enhanced mapping of
urban materials based on the sensor’s high resolution spectral and
spatial characteristics (Adep et al., 2016; Siddiqui et al., 2020). To un­
derstand the thermal characteristics of UBSM in an effective manner,
besides analyzing the short-wave reflectance, analysis of long-wave
emissivity is also essential (Nasarudin and Shafri, 2011; Salisbury and
D’Aria, 1992; Sobrino et al., 2008). Although studying emissivity at a
finer spatial resolution through satellite remote sensing is very difficult,
on-board satellite thermal sensors like Landsat-8 Thermal Infrared
Sensor (TIRS) and ECO System Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer
Experiment on Space Station (ECOSTRESS) allows mapping of emis­
sivity in the form of LST of urban surface (Kumar and Shekhar, 2015;
Prata et al., 1995; Weng, 2009; Zhang et al., 2014).
2
Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591
Therefore, this study aims to detect the heat-inducing urban built-up
surface materials of a part of Kalaburagi city, with field-based reflec­
tance and emission spectroscopy as well as spatially associates them
with LST through multi-remote sensing datasets.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
The study area Kalaburagi (formerly called as Gulbarga) is located in
the northeastern part of Karnataka state, India (Fig. 1). The extent of the
study area demarcated for this work is from 17.360 N to 17.370 N, and
from 76.780 E to 76.830 E, covering an area of 21.93 sq. km. Kalaburagi
falls under the Deccan trap, has traces of tholeiitic Basalt spread for
about 31,500 sq. km., with an estimated thickness of 600 m (Nallusamy
et al., 2018). Kalaburagi has a hot and dry climate with temperature
ranging from 20 ◦ C in winter to 45 ◦ C in summer with an annual rainfall
of about 740 mm (Shekhar, 2020). Most of the urban areas have a
complex built-up structure with diversified built-up surface materials
having different reflectance properties. Such as basalt stones, slabs of
limestone, dyed blocks of concrete as compound walls, roofing mate­
rials, and paver blocks. The presence of basalt in the form of barren rock
as well as an UBSM has a significantly contributes to the high temper­
ature of the city and its surrounding region. Most of the large-scale built-
ups used concrete for surface and structures. Apart from these two
dominant materials in the study area, asbestos is widely used as low-cost
urban building materials for roof shingles, asphalt, floor tiles, and joint
compounds. Limestone is used as a main admixture in the concrete as
well as aggregate for the road basement. In masonry, bricks are used to
construct walls; steel used as a reinforcement element in a deep foun­
dation and basement; red tiles are used for flooring or roof covers as it
has high durability in nature; Marble for flooring, roofing materials,
architectures, and designing sculptures. During the field visits, it is noted
that GI sheets, iron and steel rods, and PVC materials are common in
public and industrial structures of the study area.
2.2. Satellite datasets
The study used satellite images from multiple sources besides field
and lab-based datasets. The AVIRIS NG, a hyperspectral dataset
rendering information in narrow contiguous bands has been chosen for
classification of UBSM based on in-situ samples. The dataset acquired
through Department of Space, Government of India and Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL), NASA, collaborative programme, Phase-1, comprises
432 bands at radiance and 425 bands after reflectance corrected level 2
dataset. The details of remote sensing datasets and In-situ data are
provided in Table 1.
2.3. In-situ data collection
2.3.1. Sampling surface materials
As an urban environment is a mixture of heterogeneous materials,
choosing the true spectral samples was a challenging task. After un­
derstanding the average LST of study area using Landsat 8 data
(2013− 2020) processed in GEE, a total of 30 different urban materials
were collected under 16 categories with proper spatial and non-spatial
attributes. Samples were collected carefully following all the protocols
to avoid confusion while classification. To avoid deterioration of sam­
ples and to keep up the spectral stability, samples were carefully
wrapped up in airtight covers and tagged with unique identification
numbers for easy understanding. Fig. 2 and Table 2 denotes the list of
collected samples in and around Kalaburagi.
2.3.2. Retrieval of temperature using fluke thermometer
In order to compare and understand the variations of satellite-
derived LST (LSTL8), field-based temperature measurements (LSTField)
N.P. Kamaraj et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591

Fig. 1. Location of Kalaburagi in India and sample locations of built-up surface materials.

phases of data acquisition were carried out during June 2019 and
Table 1
December 2019 in which sampled UBSM were given due importance.
Details of satellite and in-situ datasets used in the study.
The instrument was placed at an altitude of less than 1.5 m above the
Mission/ Data Characteristics used for the Date/Time of reference surfaces and a white medium was used as a standard reference
Instrument/Type study acquisition
to calibrate the instrument from external intensities during the acqui­
AVIRIS NG Spectral range is from 376 to 2500 18th December 2015 sition process. The LSTField recorded for 16 samples/surfaces comprising
nm spatial resolution of 4–8 m Time: 10:42:06
predominant urban materials.
LANDSAT-8 OLI/ TIRS bands 10 and 11 (10.895 μm Coverage years:
TIRS and 12.005 μm) spatial resolution of 2013–2020
100 m Time: 10:45 IST 2.4. Laboratory data collection
LANDSAT-8 OLI/ TIRS bands 10 and 11 (10.895 μm Summer: 08th June
TIRS and 12.005 μm) spatial resolution of 2019
100 m Winter: 17th 2.4.1. Reflectance spectra collection
December 2019 The short-wave spectroscopic measures render reflectance spectra
Summer: 03 May 2019 operated between 350 and 2500 nm wavelength range. The reflectance
Time:10:45 IST
spectra were collected using the Analytical Spectral Devices (ASD) Field
ECOSTRESS thermal bands between 8 and 12 μm Summer: 07th June
spatial resolution of 70 m 2019 Spec 3 Inc. spectroradiometer at controlled laboratory conditions. The
Time: 11:31 IST specifications of the ASD Field Spec 3 are mentioned in Supplementary
Winter: 18th Table S1 (Annexure). The target samples of 16 classes of UBSM were
December 2019 prepared for laboratory data collection following standard procedures
Fluke Spectral rage 8 to 14 μm Summer: 2nd June
Thermometer 2019
(Chen et al., 2014; Prasad et al., 2015). Since the urban materials are
Winter:7th December considerably non–degradable over a short period, it is viable for them to
2019 (10–12.30 IST) be carried to the laboratory for further spectral investigation. Samples
are placed on pure black cloth in order to nullify noise from the back­
ground while reading the measurements. Constant energy through a
were obtained using the Fluke 62+ Max Infrared thermometer. The
source of illumination was provided using a tungsten filament halogen
specification of the Infrared thermometer is provided in the Supple­
lamp. A pistol gun was mounted on a tripod which is connected to the
mentary Table S2. The LSTField measurements are operated at suitable
instrument using an optical cable. The pistol gun focused on the target
climatic conditions having lower interventions of ambient temperature
element is placed at nadir position above an altitude of 80 cm with a
and are calibrated (Sun, 2016). The LSTField is considered a supposition
Field Of View (FOV) of 250 so that sample covers the sensor’s field of
with relative air temperature that is highly correlated with the tem­
view. A standard medium of white reference was used for maintaining
perature of urban materials. There may be other external factors such as
stability in the calibration of the instrument. In such a way, 50 true
stray light, geometric parameters, and atmospheric influences deterio­
reflectance spectra for each sample at a shorter wavelength (350 nm to
rating signal strength causing flaws in readings. However, measurement
2500 nm) were recorded. Homogeneous materials collected from varied
from ground instruments in conjunction with satellite observations offer
locations were used to verify spectral characteristics during the labo­
insights to understand the thermal behavior of different materials on the
ratory process.
field and its relative context in the satellite images. Hence, field obser­
vations were carried out in a possible concurrent dates as that of satellite
2.4.2. FTIR measurement
overpass schedule to ease the validation of temperature measures. Two
To determine the spectral emissivity of different materials, analyses

3
N.P. Kamaraj et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591

Fig. 2. Photograph of different urban material samples that are collected in and around Kalaburagi.

cm. Vegetation samples were avoided due to the high level of moisture
Table 2
content present in leaves which may cause misinterpretation (Joseph,
List and number of samples and their respective geocoordinates.
2005). For enhancing the determination of the emissivity of samples
Material Classes Latitude Longitude No. of connected to dynamic temperature conditions, the FTIR was turned on
Samples
an hour former to the analysis initiation, enabling it to stretch its
Basalt stones 17◦ 21′ 76◦ 49′ 3 running temperature. In the laboratory setting, the specimens were
54.9288” N 32.4696′′ E
heated to average hotness of 60–70 ◦ C where the pair of flexible warmer
Paver block 17◦ 21′ 32.31” N 76◦ 49′ 2
26.4108′′ E
and colder BB were fixed to the temperature of 15 ◦ C and 40 ◦ C indi­
Limestone 17◦ 20′ 76◦ 47′ 1 vidually, to limit the specimen temperature and to avoid any distur­
54.4704” N 24.9504′′ E bance caused by radiance from other objects. Two BB elements, one at
Concrete 17◦ 21′ 76◦ 49′ 3 cold temperature and the other at warm temperature were utilized for
34.4952” N 18.2892′′ E
radiometric calibration.
Barren land 17◦ 21′ 76◦ 48′ 3
43.1208” N 12.6396′′ E The emissivity and dynamic temperature of tested samples detected
Asbestos 17◦ 21′ 76◦ 48′ 2 using FTIR also contain a portion of inward radiance that is returned
34.5816” N 13.1112′′ E from the backdrop which is estimated through examining a reference
Brick 17◦ 19′ 76◦ 47′ 36.492′′ 3
component having the least emissivity and maximum reflectivity such as
52.5108” N E
Non-rusted steel 17◦ 20′ 76◦ 48′ 2
quartz. The radiation Dλ that inflows the components of the FTIR spec­
52.0512” N 55.4616′′ E trometer is given by the following equation (Kotthaus et al., 2014):
GI sheet 17◦ 20′ 76◦ 49′ 1
43.1556” N 39.6336′′ E Dλ = Oλ + Aλ × eλ (1)
Rooftop (made of local 17◦ 21′ 3.2184” 76◦ 48′ 2
materials) N 29.1888′′ E where Oλ denotes the radiance that emerges within the instrument;
Red soil 17◦ 21′ 5.8356” 76◦ 48′ 1 Aλrepresents the gain; eλ specifies the determined energy. For resolving
N 58.8636′′ E
such calibration difficulties arising while measuring the thermal emis­
PVC 17◦ 21′ 1.6812” 76◦ 48′ 1
N 52.2288′′ E
sivity, numerous instant procedures were developed in the past (Hook
Red tile 17◦ 20′ 13.776” 76◦ 49′ 12′′ E 2 and Kahle, 1995; Lindermeir et al., 1992; Revercomb et al., 1988; Ruff
N et al., 1997) and such calibration includes testing specimens with
Iron rod 17◦ 20′ 0.1104” 76◦ 48′ 1 reference systems such as two BB approach (Hook and Kahle, 1995; Korb
N 47.7288′′ E
et al., 1996) whose temperatures (tb1and tb2) were known. Even though
Rusted steel 17◦ 20′ 76◦ 48′ 2
33.7704” N 41.6808′′ E the three BB system can be utilized, still, two BB approach is the most
Marble 17◦ 20′ 76◦ 48′ 1 popular and recognized reference system (Hook and Kahle, 1995). The
27.6756” N 41.9436′′ E Dλ values of two BB were given based on Planck’s law as follows (Kot­
thaus et al., 2014):
of the specimen’s thermal emission radiance spectra can be utilized Dλ (tb1 ) = Oλ + Aλ × eλ (tb1 )
(2)
(Christensen et al., 2000; Ruff et al., 1997; Strackerjan, 2008). In this Dλ (tb2 ) = Oλ + Aλ × eλ (tb2 )
research, FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Radiometer) was used, to
Using the following expressions (Eq. 3, and 4) the Oλ, and Aλof FTIR
trace the emissivity of samples in the long-wave IR region (8 and 14 μm)
components can be computed:
of the electromagnetic spectrum. This portion of the spectrum is sig­
nificant for measuring the emissivity examinations linked with the dy­ Dλ (tb1 )eλ (tb2 ) − Dλ (tb2 )eλ (tb1 )
Oλ = (3)
namic temperature of objects. A pure blackbody (BB) in temperature T, eλ (tb2 ) − eλ (tb1 )
obeys Planck’s law (Planck, 1901) owing to the connection between the
wavelength (λ) and IR radiance transmitted through a BB (Kotthaus Dλ (tb2 ) − Dλ (tb1 )
Aλ = (4)
et al., 2014). The analysis consists of 16 samples which were measured eλ (tb2 ) − eλ (tb1 )
in two sets beforehand and subsequent calibrations using two BB ele­
Based on Eq. (2), (3), and (4), eλ(sample)can be calculated. As
ments and the quartz reference that were interchanged physically and
mentioned above, the analysis of BB is compulsory beforehand, and
fixed perpendicularly in the forepart of the FTIR with a gap of around 10
afterwards, for the evaluation of samples as it can aid in reducing the

4
N.P. Kamaraj et al.
impact of the backdrop and wander of FTIR.
2.4.3. FTIR backdrop rectification
To minimize the spectral deviations from background interferences,
proper application of background correction is necessary. Therefore, this
procedure was carried out with utmost care. According to Planck’s
theory, the temperature emitted by a sample is
( ) ( )
Dλ tsample = τλ ελ lλ tsample BB + (1 − ελ )Dλd ↓ + Dλ (T↑)q (5)
where τλ represents atmospheric transmittance; ελ denotes emissivity of
the sample; lλ(tsample)BB specifies radiance emitted by a BB; Dλd↓ is the
inward radiance from backdrop; Dλ(T↑)qrefers to the impact of air in-
between the sample and instrument (Ottle and Stoll, 1993). Owing to
the minimum gap between the sample and instrument while measuring,
Dλ(T↑)q is ignored and τλ is provided with a value of unity which shortens
Eq. 6 as follows:
( ) ( )
Dλ tsample = ελ lλ tsample BB + (1 − ελ )Dλd ↓ (6)
Thus, using a quartz reference with known emissivity (ελquartz) aids in
accessingDλd↓. The variance of radiation among quartz reference and Eq.
(7) is expressed as follows:
( ) ( )
Dλ tquartz − (ελ )quartz lλ tsample BB
Dλv = (7)
1 − (ελ )quartz
Understanding that backdrop situations prevail fixed during the
analysisDλd↓is utilized to determine the total emissivity of samples
which is given as:
( )
ελ = (
Dλ tsample − Dλd
) (8)
lλ tsample BB − Dλd
Likewise, the thermal emissivity of urban built-up surface material
samples was acquired in the long-wave IR portion of the spectrum. Ac­
cording to Wein’s displacement law given in Eq. (9), the materials
radiating high thermal emissivity tend to have a shorter wavelength
(Romaniello et al., 2020; Waigl et al., 2019).
λmax =
z
(9)
t not accounted for further analysis.
where z represents a constant equivalent to 2898 μm*K and t specifies
the temperature emitted. Thus, the urban built-up surface material
which radiates high temperature has a shorter wavelength, by this way
the material emitting high temperature among the UBSM was
determined.
2.5. Processing of hyperspectral data
2.5.1. Optimal band selection
The AVIRIS bands are to be dimensionally reduced before extracting
any useful information from it. Thus, it is mandatory to apply trans­
formations to decorrelate or remove noise from the data without
compromising the image quality of the resultant dataset (Chippy et al.,
2017). After manually removing the water absorption bands, remaining
263 bands (λ50 = 621 nm to λ194 = 1343 nm, λ224 = 1493 nm to λ280 =
1773 nm, λ335 = 2049 nm to λ395 = 2349 nm) were considered suitable
for further analysis. The Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF), an unsuper­
vised dimensionality reduction technique has been opted as its compo­
nents yield weighted information on the maximum variance across each
band. The top most eigenvalue components (eigenvalues = 20) retaining
raw bands with more information are selected as presiding components
(Stephanie et al., 1999; Boardman, 1993). The process comprises two
stages where phase one computes a covariance matrix that normalizes
noise through “noise whitening” followed by correlating weighted
eigenvalue spectral decomposition. The resultant components from
MNF transformation are ordered by decreasing the signal-to-noise ratio.
5
Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591
Hence, only bands rendering more information (eigenvalue >1) on the
land cover are considered (Priyadarshini et al., 2019a). The rest of the
bands are ignored for having a lower signal to noise ratio that may cause
significant uncertainty and are repetitive with noisy information. It is
justified through inverse transforms where image variance towards
lower order is highly influenced by noise and thus omitted. Table 3 and
Supplementary Fig. S1 corresponds to the MNF transformation bands
with associated eigenvalues opted for further processing.
2.5.2. Classification
Material discrimination using hyperspectral sensors identifies sur­
face materials are better when we importing spectral libraries (Bene­
diktsson et al., 2005; Hegde et al., 2014; Le Bris et al., 2016; Nidamanuri
and Ramiya, 2014). Spectral libraries of each sample are material-
specific and it is associated with unique endmember. Classical
methods of classification are crucial when applying for the AVIRIS NG
dataset due to the higher number of bands. In order to maintain class
accuracy, sufficient training samples are to be defined when compared
to the established statistical integrity of bands asserting the Hughes
phenomenon. Due to high spectral dimensionality, classifiers when
applied to raw reflectance bands or MNF transformed bands, loses the
ability to classify if the same set of training samples are being opted
(Thenkabail, 2014; Thenkabail et al., 2013). Hence the developed
spectral libraries were resampled in accordance with AVIRIS NG bands
and imported to apply Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) classification of
AVIRIS NG imagery. In the SAM classifier, each of the pixels will be
assigned the class based on the angle between the target pixel and the
reference vector (usually the endmember) projected in the k-dimen­
sional space, where k is the number of bands used. The reason for
choosing SAM classification was the fact that it was efficient for
discriminating spectra and used as an optimal classification algorithm
for hyperspectral imagery (Murphy et al., 2012; Qiao et al., 2017; Tri­
pathi and Govil, 2019). A total of 17 endmembers were imported to the
spectral library, of which 16 represent UBSM, and the remaining one
represents vegetation. The vegetation endmember represents all species
that form the total vegetation cover present in the study area. The reason
for considering the vegetation spectra is only to portray the density of
vegetation inside core urban spheres using the greenness index and are
2.6. Land surface temperature (LST)
2.6.1. LST retrieval from Landsat 8 images
Both LST and thermal infrared data are closely associated based on
the expression of radiative transfer (Li et al., 2013a, 2013b). The Landsat
8 TIRS acquires LST using dual adjacent thermal bands, which obtains
thermal characteristics of the objects present on the earth’s surface (Yu
et al., 2014; Du et al., 2015). Therefore, the Split Window Algorithm
(SWA) is utilized for the estimation of LST from Landsat 8 using both
thermal bands. The radiance which is a non-sequential function ob­
tained from the band 10 (C10) and band 11 (C11) is given as follows
(Mao et al., 2005):
Table 3
Eigenvalues for MNF components.
MNF Eigen Values
1 20.1431
2 13.0327
3 9.3705
4 7.7723
5 6.6194
6 6.2505
7 5.6833
8 5.2903
9 5.1095
N.P. Kamaraj et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591

C10 = ε10 ι10 (lst) + (1 − ι10 )(1 + (1 − ε10 )ι10 )C10 (AT )
( ( ) )
C11 = ε11 ι11 (lst) + (1 − ι11 ) 1 + 1 − ε11 ι11 C11 (AT )
where lst specifies land surface temperature; ε10andε11 refers to the
emissivity of land surface from band 10 and 11 respectively. The at­
mospheric corrections are executed to both the bands of TIRS in SWA
using variance atmospheric absorption (Yu et al., 2014). The brightness
temperature (BT) is computed as follows:
Bi (TempB) = Bi (BT) + (TempB − BT)∂Bi (BT)/∂BT
where T Bi (TempB) denotes the BT of TIRS band 10 and 11. Further, the
calculation of BT and Bi (TempB) are provided in (Yu et al., 2014). The
LST is estimated using the following equations:
lst = BT 10 + D1 (BT 10 − BT 11 ) + D2
where
S11 (1 − E10 − S10 )l10 − S10 (1 − E11 − S11 )l11
D1 =
S11 E10 − S10 E11
D2 =
S10
S11 E10 − S10 E11
(10) The calculation εi for respective bands differs based on the values of
ν, which is stated in Eq. 16. Finally, the Mi can be accessed through the
(11) following expression (Sobrino and Raissouni, 2000):
( )
Mi = εv,i − εv,i εs,i × G × (1 − Fν ) (23)
Where G represents a geometrical parameter that varies between
0 and 1.
We used USGS Landsat 8 surface reflectance tier 1 data collection
having a land cloud cover of less than 1% for estimating the LST for
(12) temporal median of the study area from 2013 to 2020. This could be
achieved by Google Earth Engine (GEE), a cloud computing platform
was used to process Landsat 8 datasets and to calculate the yearly
average of LST (Gorelick et al., 2017). The TIRS bands B10 and B11 were
selected for SWA method in GEE to estimate the brightness temperature
from each respective band. Following the computation of brightness
(13) temperature, NDVI based emissivity is estimated by choosing the NIR
and IR bands of the Landsat-8 OLI sensor, which is used for the inversion
of LST. From the derived images, the LST of the study area is retrieved
based on Eq. 9. Finally, the derived LST in Kelvin is converted into
(14)
Celsius by subtracting the resultant LST with 273.15. In order to
compare the field based temperature measurements, Landsat − 8 data of
(15) May, June and Dec 2019 were also processed in the GEE platform and
LST maps were prepared.

S10 = (1 − ι10 )(1 + (ι10 − ε10 ι10 ) (16) 2.6.2. LST from ECOSTRESS dataset
The ECOSTRESS LST data present in the ECO2LSTE v001 offers 70 m
S11 = (1 − ι11 )(1 + (ι11 − ε11 ι11 ) (17)
LST and emissivity images that are atmospherically corrected (Hulley
et al., 2019). The derivation of LST data is based on a technique called
E10 = ε10 ι10 (18)
temperature and emissivity separation operating from 8 to 12 μm. The
E11 = ε10 ι11 (19) ECOSTRESS LST product is geolocated using the matching ECO1BGEO
file with ECOSTRESS swath to the geo tiff function. The ECOSTRESS LST
The inversion of LST is carried out using ε, which varies from element data used in this research is taken close in time with the Landsat 8 LST
to element present on the earth’s surface and also based on the angle of images and field-based surface temperature measurement. The LST from
view. Numerous approaches for obtaining ε are developed and are ECOSTRESS is given in Kelvin which is converted into the units of
revealed to be precise for thermal data acquired from space-borne Celsius. The ECOSTRESS LST dataset was considered only for compari­
platforms (Sobrino et al., 2008; Li et al., 2013a, 2013b). In this study, son with Landsat 8 based LST.
Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) based emissivity
approach has been utilized for the LST inversion, which is given as 2.6.3. Comparison of LST
follows (Momeni and Saradjian, 2007; Van De Griend and Owe, 1993): We used different statistical measures such as root mean square error
⎧ (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and Pearson correlation coefficient
⎨ xi βred + yi ν < 0.2
εi = εv,i Fv + εs,i (1 − Fv ) + Mi 0.2 ≤ ν ≤ 0.5 (20) (R2) is utilized for evaluating the discrepancy between the Landsat
⎩
εv,i + Mi ν > 0.5 derived LST and field-based LST measurements. The RMSE, MAE, and R2
are calculated for both the summer and winter seasons through the
where ν refers to NDVI; εsandεvspecifies the emissivity of soil and equations:
vegetation; εi denotes the respective band emissivity; Fv indicates the √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√∑
fraction of vegetation; Mi signifies the coarseness effect of the earth’s √m ( )2
√ LSTL8j -LSTfieldj
√j=1
surface. RMSE = (24)
Tang et al. (2011) approximated the surface broadband emissivity m
using the MODIS thermal infrared channels, which is significant for m ⃒ ⃒
∑
retrieving LST. The values ofεsandεvestimated using the emissivity li­ ⃒ ⃒
⃒LSTL8j -LSTfieldj ⃒
brary through the process elaborated in Tang et al. (2011) are used in MAE =
j=i
(25)
this research, and their values are given in Table 4. The Fv is obtained m
from ν which is acquired using band 5 (NIR) and 6 (IR) of the OLI sensor.
where, LSTL8 is the surface temperature derived from either Landsat 8
b5 − b4 product for the jth pixel, and LSTfield is the equivalent for fluke
ν= (21)
b5 + b4 measurement.
[ ] The graphical representation of methods adopted in the study is
Fv =
ν − νmin
(22) presented in Fig. 3.
νmax − νmin
3. Results

Table 4
3.1. Spectral response of materials in SWIR
The values of εs and εv for channel 10 and 11 of TIRS.
Channel (TIRS) εs εv The spectral collection was carried out for 16 groups of UBSM using
10 0.9668 0.9863 ASD spectroradiometer operated at stable laboratory conditions elimi­
11 0.9747 0.9896 nating external distractions. The spectral response of UBSM in SWIR

6
N.P. Kamaraj et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591

Fig. 3. Schematic workflow of the study.

along with material composition, absorption characteristics and emis­ Kannada (Indian language) means stony land). As basalt is a volcanic
sivity are listed in comprehensively in Table 5 and displayed in Fig. 4. rock having low silica content, it has low surface reflectance but high
The study area is dominantly found with basaltic rocks (Kalaburagi in intensity of heat absorption that induces relatively a higher surface

Table 5
Spectral reflectance in SWIR, spectral radiance in LWIR and emissivity of materials.
Material Composition of materials Spectral reflectance in SWIR Principle absorption Spectral radiance Emissivity
wavelength(s) in SWIR (Wm -1μm− 1sr− 1)
(nm)

Basalt stones Igneous rock formed by lava flow, composed of Uniform low reflectance (~0.1) – 0.0309 0.98
plagioclase and pyroxene minerals. Mainly consist of
magnesium oxide and calcium oxide
Barren land Mainly of black soil formed due to weathered lava Uniform reflectance (~0.25) 998,1430 and 1898 0.0296 0.94
rocks rich in calcium, potash and magnesium.
Concrete Combination of cement (calcium, silica, alumina and Uniform reflectance (~0.2) 962,1430 and 1934 0.0297 0.95
iron), aggregate (typically a rocky material), water
Brick Ingredients are silica, alumina, iron oxide, magnesia, Similar to concrete but with dip at 1660 1660 and 1934 0.029 0.90
lime, organic matter nm
Asbestos Combination of hydrous magnesium and silicate Increase with wavelength (~0.3 to 0.4) 1934 0.0294 0.93
minerals
Red soil Contains siliceous and aluminous, formed by Increase with wavelength and peaks 1430 and 1934 0.0265 0.80
weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic around 1350 nm
rocks
Paver block Mixing of small stone hardcore, dyes, cement and Uniformly high reflectance (~ 0.65) 1430 and 1920 0.0305 0.97
other materials in various propositions
GI sheet Zinc coated layer on the sheet, combined with oxygen Increase with wavelength 1085 and 2258 0.0294 0.86
to form zinc oxide. Forms rust, when it get damaged
Limestone Sedimentary rock composed of calcium carbonate Increase with wavelength 998 and 1934 0.0301 0.95
minerals (calcite and dolomite)
Rooftop (Local Variable local materials primarily of limestone Increase with wavelength 1020, 1430 and 1950 0.028 0.82
materials)
Marble Metamorphic rock mainly consist of calcium Decrease with wavelength but increases 1180, 1850 and 1970 0.0246 0.49
carbonate between 1500 and 2200 with peaks
around 1750, 1880, and 2020
Red tile Combination of china clay, feldspar, silica, dolomite, Decrease with wavelength 1414, 1685 and 1934 0.0265 0.71
calcite, nepheline
Non rusted Contains high amount of nickel and chromium, when Uniform low reflectance (~0.18) with – 0.0293 0.87
steel combines with the oxygen to form chromium oxide small trough between 900 and 1100
layer, having high resistant to corrosion
Rusted steel Contains iron oxide, when iron is exposed to oxygen Similar to non-rusted steel but relatively – 0.0253 0.55
for a long time lower reflectance in longer wavelengths
Iron rod Contains carbon, Sulphur, phosphorus, chromium, Follows the pattern of rusted steel 1650 and 1910 0.0264 0.63
copper, carbon equivalent, corrosion resistant
element
PVC Poly vinyl chloride which having resistant to most Decrease with wavelength 1710 0.026 0.77
corroding agents of inorganic acids, alkali and salts

7
N.P. Kamaraj et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591

Fig. 4. Short-wave infrared reflectance spectra of a) dominantly exposed urban surface materials and b) other urban surface materials collected from spectror­
adiometer at controlled laboratory conditions.

Fig. 5. Emissivity of urban surface materials derived from FTIR measurements.

8
N.P. Kamaraj et al.
temperature through SWIR regions. The other dominant UBSM in the
study area are concrete and bricks which also displays a uniform
reflectance throughout SWIR (~0.2) with an intense absorption feature
at 962 nm owing to the concentration of ferric iron (Zhou et al., 2017).
The superior chemical compounds of these masonry materials include
calcium, magnesium, silicate, and iron oxide present in various pro­
portions and absorb radiation in the selected wavelengths. Since the
materials like concrete, brick, paver blocks, asbestos, red clay tiles, lime
stones, local made lime rich rooftops, and red soils are comprises of
different quantity of water, the absorption features at 1430 nm and
1934 nm are inferred as H2O absorption by gypsum particle (Kotthaus
et al., 2014).
3.2. Spectral radiance and emissivity in LWIR region
FTIR was utilized to traces the spectral radiance and emissivity of
UBSM in the long-wave IR region between 8 and 14 μm and presented in
Fig. 5 and Table 5. The study is abundant with basaltic sprawl which is
found with high spectral radiance of 0.0309 Wm− 1μm− 1sr− 1 and high
thermal emission (ε = 0.98 at 10.2 μm) that matches with principles of
Wein’s displacement law. Likewise, paver block, limestone, concrete,
asbestos and brick are exhibited emissivity of more than 0.9 and falls
under the spectral radiance range of 0.029 to 0.04 Wm− 1μm− 1sr− 1 at
10.2 μm. The materials like GI sheet and PVC are having emissivity value
around 0.7 with radiance of 0.029 to 0.026 04 Wm− 1μm− 1sr− 1 at 10.2
μm. The flooring materials such as red tiles and marbles show the lowest
range of emissivity values of 0.71 and 0.49 respectively with LWIR
radiance of 0.0246 Wm− 1μm− 1sr− 1 at 10.2 μm.
3.3. Spectral classification
The reflectance spectra obtained from the spectroradiometer for
UBSM were used as reference spectra for hyperspectral data classifica­
tion. The endmembers of the spectra were resampled to the spectral
resolution of AVIRIS-NG hyperspectral sensor and used to classify the
pre-processed image through SAM classifier. The results of the classifi­
cation show that barren rock, basaltic stone and concrete classes are
predominately occupy the surface materials of the study area. The other
predominant surface materials are asbestos, paver blocks and limestone.
Brick is also an important masonry material but it is intermixed with
various other rooftop materials. The spatial distribution of UBSM is
Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of a) urban surface materials extracted from SAM classification of AVIRIS-NG data and b) average land surface temperature extracted
from Landsat 8 data.
9
Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591
presented in Fig. 6.
To ensure the accuracy of classification, stratified random sample
points were selected in the classified image and field plots of dimension
20 m × 20 m were defined in the field. The dominant UBSM in each of
these sample field plots were recorded for selecting testing region of
interests (ROI’s) which are consequently used for post-classification
accuracy assessment. The classification gave an overall accuracy of
86% with a kappa coefficient of 0.85. The accuracy assessment shows
that basalt stones, limestone, non-rusted steel, and red soil formed better
user and producer accuracies while asbestos gave comparatively lesser
accuracy which may be due to interruptions of other masonry materials.
The detail of accuracy assessment is presented in Supplementary
Table S3.
3.4. Land surface temperature
To understand the seasonal and microclimatic variations in the study
area, land surface temperatures were retrieved from Landsat 8 TIRS
using SWA in GEE platform. The average LST of the study area between
2013 and 2020 was derived for two different seasons (winter and
summer) so as to understand the seasonal variations over a period of
time (Fig. 7). The spatial difference of summer and winter LST in the
study area during 2019 is presented in Fig. 8. The average annual
temperature of the study area is presented in Fig. 6.
Although there is a difference in range of temperatures between
winter and summer seasons of the study area, the spatial pattern of high
and low LST remains almost same between the seasons. Further, the
spatial distribution of average LST is highly correlated with spectral
classification of UBSM (Fig. 6). The dominant areas of basaltic rocks and
concrete surfaces are observed with high LST. It is noted that spectral
reflectance of these materials is low and emissivity is high which
contribute greatly to higher LST during both winter and summer
seasons.
We also attempted to compare and correlate the LST derived from
Landsat 8 image and in-situ observations. The fluke thermometer was
used to obtain LST from the field concerning the satellite overpass (field
measurements made within a week difference). The results are not very
much comparable due to wide IFOV of thermal bands of Landsat 8.
However, we made team efforts to acquire field temperature of multiple
UBSM at predefined sampled locations using a 100 m buffer approach
and averaged the individual readings for comparison with Landsat 8 LST
N.P. Kamaraj et al.
Fig. 7. Trend in average LST of summer and winter derived from Landsat − 8 during between 2013 and 2020.
Fig. 8. Spatial difference of winter (December) and summer (May) LST in the study area during 2019.
of same locations. The correlation of Landsat 8 LST and field LST is
presented in Table 6 and Fig. 9 for summer and winter seasons. The
overall R2 is 0.59 for winter and 0.57 for summer and the total observed
bias is − 0.49 ◦ C. Among the materials, basaltic rocks/stones had the
highest observed temperature during the field-based temperature mea­
surement which matches with its spectral emissivity.
The pixel based LST extracted from ECOSTRESS datasets were
compared with Landsat 8 LST (Fig. 10). Although the spatial pattern of
LST derived from ECOSTRESS matches with Landsat 8, the pixel tem­
perature values are offset by ~6 ◦ C mainly due to the change in Sun
illumination angle. But this offset is within the diurnal range of the study
area.
Results prove that there is no drastic deviation in ground tempera­
ture where maximum temperature exists only in the outskirts of Kala­
buragi city, whereas the inner-city environment prevails nominal
(Kumari and Shekhar, 2016).
4. Discussion
Accurate mapping of the complex urban materials is necessary for
understanding the micro-climate variations in urban regions (Kotthaus
et al., 2014). Determination of ambient temperature of urban built-up
10
Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591
materials can aid decision-makers in drafting policies regarding the
use of appropriate built-up surface materials that having high spectral
reflectance and minimal thermal emittance to mitigate the effects of
high urban emissivity. In this study, we identified the urban materials
that emit higher surface temperature using lab-based spectroradiometer
and FTIR measurements in SWIR and LWIR regions. The high emissive
materials are widely distributed in the study area that leads to high
surface temperature in the study area. The distribution of such materials
is validated with field and satellite based thermal measurements.
Although many attempts have been made to generate spectra of urban
surface materials (Kotthaus et al., 2014), mapping of urban surface
materials through high spatial and spectral datasets are scarce. This
research utilized airborne hyperspectral data (AVIRIS-NG) for the first
time in the study area for mapping of diverse urban surface materials.
Instead of utilizing general spectral libraries, this study attempts to
generate unique spectra for surface materials present in the study area
both in SWIR and LWIR regions. The preplanned sample collections and
subsequent spectra generation using spectroradiometer and FTIR in­
struments from the designated labs form basis for classification of high
resolution AVIRIS-NG datasets.
There are many studies that demonstrated importance of pre­
processing of hyperspectral datasets (Vidal and Amigo, 2012) and
N.P. Kamaraj et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591

Table 6 The methodology for deriving LST has improved a lot and SWA in GEE is
Differences of LST between Landsat 8 and field measurements for winter and one such improved approach. Numerous studies compared different
summer seasons. algorithms available for the retrieval of LST and many of them revealed
Material Summer Winter that SWA based LST from Landsat 8 datasets are with minimal variance
Classes
Landsat Field ▴D (in Landsat Field ▴D (in
when compared with other algorithms.(Abdul Athick et al., 2019;
LST LST ◦
C) LST LST ◦
C) Nouban and Abazid, 2017; Priyadarshini et al., 2019b; Rongali et al.,
2018; Wang et al., 2019). In the study, thermal bands of Landsat-8 data
Basalt 38.5 39.21 − 0.71 27.34 25.89 1.45
stones is used to derived LST using SWA for multiple purposes including
Paver block 38.14 37.6 0.54 26.69 24.49 2.2 computing the trends in LST in two different seasons (summer and
Limestone 37.5 36.21 1.29 24.85 23.59 1.26 winter), verifying co-existence of high heat inducting surface materials
Concrete 36.72 35.6 1.12 25.9 27.97 − 2.07 and LST, and comparison of day specific LST with ECOSTRESS datasets
Barren land 37.09 34.9 2.19 23.16 20.89 2.27
Asbestos 37.46 35.27 2.19 23.76 22.64 1.12
and field measurements.
Brick 36.24 35.8 0.44 22.5 24.06 − 1.56 The study shows that the spatial distribution of average LST is highly
Non-rusted 36.2 37.6 − 1.4 22.09 20.36 1.73 correlated with high emissivity emissive basaltic rocks and concrete
steel surfaces in the study area (Fig. 6) irrespective of seasons. The outcome of
GI sheet 35.47 34.67 0.8 21.41 22.59 − 1.18
a comparison between satellite-based surface temperature and field-
Rooftop 34.84 36.14 − 1.3 21.9 20.19 1.71
Red soil 32.69 32.86 − 0.17 20.53 22.95 − 2.42 based surface temperature during summer and winter seasons indi­
PVC 35.24 33.81 1.43 20.29 21.43 − 1.14 cated the underestimation of satellite-based surface temperature. This
Red tile 33.25 35.7 − 2.45 19.5 18.13 1.37 outcome was in line with the results of (Yu et al., 2014), in which the
Iron rod 32.61 36.28 − 3.67 19.43 21.61 − 2.18 underestimation of satellite-based LST and overestimation of ground-
Rusted steel 29.1 32.94 − 3.84 19.11 19.56 − 0.45
Marble 28.6 31.5 − 2.9 18.9 21.06 − 2.16
based LST are observed. The variance in the surface temperature can
RMSE 1.2491301 1.53134 be caused owing to the ε approximation errors as we utilized only soil
MAE 1.6525 1.6418 and vegetation for measuring the ε, which was applied for the inversion
R-Squared 0.565817 0.59683 of LST (Hale et al., 2011). It should also be taken into consideration that
the point level field estimation is mostly incompetent to the larger IFOV
of satellite-based thermal sensors. Hence, the study used a buffered
methods of preprocessing (Priyadarshini et al., 2019b; Frassy et al.,
average approach of 100 m from the locations of sampled surfaces. The
2013). In this study, the preprocessing of AVIRIS-NG data through MNF
field observations proved from all means that materials such as basalt
techniques had reduced dimensionality of the data and helps to select
stones, dyed paver block, and chief components of concrete contribute
appropriate bands for classifying urban materials. We have picked only
to very high temperature and few pictures from field are shown in Fig.S2
nine bands in the entire dataset (263 bands) that offers maximum in­
in supplementary file. Moreover, silicate rich materials like asbestos,
formation for the spectral classification. The spectra derived from the
galvanized iron sheets, steel sheets rusted which are used as roof covers
field-lab measurements were used to find out endmembers of different
and sunshades, bare soil area have significant importance in the increase
UBSM using SAM technique. Although there are many classification
of temperature. Other such materials such as PVC, iron rods, marble, red
techniques available for hyperspectral data classification, the studies
tiles, etc. are merely distributed inside the study extent and thus are not
demonstrated that SAM offers reasonable accuracy for spectra based
emphasized much.
hyperspectral data classification (Adep et al., 2016; Elatawneh et al.,
In addition to the field comparisons, LST of Landsat 8 is compared
2014).
with a new generation ECOSTRESS datasets. The benchmark sample
Notwithstanding in-situ or lab-based measurements provide infor­
sites of Kalaburagi are highly heterogeneous with materials having
mation about high heat emitting materials, comparing the distribution
varied emissivity where temperature differences are observed due to
of materials with surface temperature is essential. In-situ temperature
variation in surface cover that are directly proportional to the influence
measurements provide knowledge about the surface temperature but
of LST. Therefore, LST was extracted from ECOSTRESS datasets was
associate such measurements with the spatial datasets is a challenging
used for pixel wise comparison with Landsat 8 LST, as both the IFOV is
task. On the other hand, thermal bands of satellite images provide sys­
nearly identical unlike averaged field estimates from heterogeneous
tematic ways to derive LST. The Landsat datasets are widely used for
materials. The datasets of ECOSTRESS are available for varying local
such LST measurements over the multiple decades (Li and Jiang, 2018).

Fig. 9. Comparison of LST from Landsat 8 and field-based temperature measurements for summer and winter seasons during 2019.

11
N.P. Kamaraj et al.
Fig. 10. Spatial distribution of LST extracted from a) Landsat 8 mission and b) Ecostress mission on 07th May 2019 (Note that a diagonal line from top left to bottom
right in Ecostress data is scan line error).
times while Landsat 8 scans the study area every 14 days at a standard
local time i.e. 10:00 a.m. (+/− 15 min). Only a few datasets of are
ECOSTRESS comparable with Landsat 8. Hence, the spatial pattern of
LST derived from ECOSTRESS offset by ~6 ◦ C with Landsat 8, due to
change in local timings of remotely scanned datasets. Although both the
datasets are difference by one day, the ECOSTRESS captured LST of
study area just before the noon while Landsat 8 scanned the scene 2 h
before. However, the offset is well within the average diurnal range
(12 ◦ C) of the study area during the month of May. It is also noted that
unlike fixed local timing Landsat 8 data, ECOSTRESS LST is available
with variable timings and this could offers diurnal comparisons (Sil­
vestri et al., 2020).
Considering the growing urban built-up space in the study area and
increasing use of high emissive surface materials such as concrete and
asbestos, it is recommended to have alternate solutions to reduce the
urban heat and increase the human comfort. For example, low embodied
energy and less carbon emission bio-based materials such as hempcrete,
an alternative source to the concrete, use admixture as hemp bind with
lime can replace conventional concrete materials (Peñaloza, 2017; Jami
et al., 2018). This hempcrete has another advantage as it is thrice the
time resistant to earthquakes than the conventional ones. Using grass­
crete as flooring for parking lots and the sidewalk is an alternative to the
paver blocks, as paver blocks used in the study area is observed with
very high emissivity (0.97) next to basaltic stones. It also reduces
flooding, erosion, stormwater runoff, and has a self-draining capacity.
Rammed earth walls can be replaced concrete walls, which have tightly
tamped dirt in wooden forms. This method of construction can be used
for domestic purpose buildings. Ferrock uses a key ingredient as steel
dust that produces four times flexural strength than normal cement can
be used as an alternative to concrete. Straw bales, a naturally occurring
admixture, can also be a replacement for concrete, having high-level
insulating capacity from a hot or cold climate. Recently, admixtures
like jaggery and egg whites are used for buildings as it acts as the best
bonding element were egg whites mixed with plaster makes the walls
look polished. In brick, a mixture of lime mortar, sand, jaggery, and
crushed kadukkai (also known as yellow myrobalan) and water helps to
ensure the breathability of the building with high oxygen circulation
(Shanmugasundaram et al., 2019) and thus reduces the urban heat.
Solar tile roof as a tempered glass roofing material is three times
stronger than the normal red tile, which can withstand the cyclonic wind
and helps to produce its electricity. The replacement of high emissive
12
Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591
surface materials in the study area with suggested alternate materials
could reduce the LST to a considerable extent and increases the human
comfort.
4.1. Limitations
The limitation of this study includes 1) predesigned air-borne
hyperspectral data collection that restricts the extent of the study area
choice and selection of adequate samples, 2) the lack of multiple
reflectance spectra for the same surface materials due to operational
difficulties, 3) lack of reflectance spectra that can be used for the cross-
validation of materials present in Indian terrain, 4) cloud covers in the
most of Landsat-8 datasets that limits us to use limited number of
datasets every year, and 5) unavailability of ECOSTRESS datasets at the
time of Landsat-8 pass over the study area.
5. Conclusion
The impervious urban materials play a major role in microclimatic
variations in an urban area. In this context, this study analyzed sixteen
dominant diverse UBSM present in part of Kalaburagi and determined
the materials that emit more heat, using in-situ-lab-satellite based
datasets. The measurements of spectral reflectance and emissivity for
collected samples in SWIR and LWIR regions provide multiple lines of
evidences to understand the heat emitting surface materials in the study
area. The classification of high- resolution air borne hyperspectal dataset
through endmembers of diverse UBSM provides spatial understanding of
urban surfaces and associated thermal behavior. The choice of AVIRIS-
NG hyper spectral data, MNF based preprocessing, SAM based classifi­
cation and reasonable post-classification accuracy (kappa coefficient is
0.85) leads to improved mapping of UBSM. The comparison of Landsat-8
derived LST through SWA in GEE with the spatial distribution of surface
materials provides deeper insights about the thermal behavior of the
study area. The correlation of Fluke infrared thermometer based in-situ
temperature measurements and spatial co-existence of ECOSTRESS LST
data affirms the proper derivation of LST from Landsat 8. Hence, the
comparison of LST with the spatial pattern of spectral reflectance and
emissivity sounds valid.
The spectral characteristics and estimated surface temperature
revealed that basaltic stones/rocks are associated with the higher ther­
mal conditions. The calibrated FTIR measurements displayed that basalt
N.P. Kamaraj et al.
stones have higher spectral radiance and emissivity followed by paver
block, limestone, concrete and asbestos. In contrast, the widely
distributed local made roof materials, red china clay tiles and marbles
observed with lower spectral radiance. Thus, the urban planners should
prioritize the use of low emissive surface materials in the study area
instead high emissive materials such as basalt stones, concrete and
asbestos. Although the study is limited by predesigned AVIRIS-NG data
acquisition and restricted comparable datasets of thermal datasets, the
methodology proposed in the study can be adopted to study the
microclimatic variations in different urban environments. This kind of
study has the higher potential in the Indian context as cities are growing
in manifold size in the country.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Department of Science and
Technology, Government of India and Network programme on Imaging
spectroscopy applications (NISA) for providing the financial support
(vide F. No: BDID/01/23/2014-HSRS) to carry out the research. The
authors are thankful to Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology
(IIST), Trivandrum and Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay for
extending their laboratory facilities.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rse.2021.112591.
References
Abdul Athick, A.S.M., Shankar, K., Naqvi, H.R., 2019. Data on time series analysis of land
surface temperature variation in response to vegetation indices in twelve Wereda of
Ethiopia using mono window, split window algorithm and spectral radiance model.
Data in Brief 27, 104773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2019.104773.
Adep, R.N., Vijayan, A.P., Shetty, A., Ramesh, H., 2016. Performance evaluation of
hyperspectral classification algorithms on AVIRIS mineral data. Perspectives in
Science 8, 722–726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pisc.2016.06.070.
Akbari, H., Menon, S., Rosenfeld, A., 2009. Global cooling: increasing world-wide urban
albedos to offset CO 2. Clim. Chang. 94 (3–4), 275–286. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10584-008-9515-9.
Anbazhagan, S., Arivazhagan, S., 2009. Reflectance spectra of analog basalts;
implications for remote sensing of lunar geology. Planetary and Space Science 57
(12), 1346–1358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2009.06.020.
Anderson, M.C., Norman, J.M., Kustas, W.P., Houborg, R., Starks, P.J., Agam, N., 2008.
A thermal-based remote sensing technique for routine mapping of land-surface
carbon, water and energy fluxes from field to regional scales. Remote Sens. Environ.
112 (12), 4227–4241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2008.07.009.
Benediktsson, J.A., Palmason, J.A., Sveinsson, J.R., 2005. Classification of hyperspectral
data from urban areas based on extended morphological profiles. IEEE Trans. Geosci.
Remote Sens. 43 (3), 480–491. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2004.842478.
Boardman, J.W., 1993. Automating Spectral Unmixing Of Aviris Data Using Convex
Geometry Concepts. In: Proceedings of 4th Annual JPL Airborne Geoscience
Workshop, 1, pp. 11–14.
Brunsell, N.A., Gillies, R.R., 2003. Length scale Analysis of surface energy fluxes derived
from remote sensing. J. Hydrometeorol. 4 (6), 1212–1219. https://doi.org/10.1175/
1525-7541(2003)004<1212:LSAOSE>2.0.CO;2.
Carnielo, E., Zinzi, M., 2013. Optical and thermal characterisation of cool asphalts to
mitigate urban temperatures and building cooling demand. Build. Environ. 60,
56–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.11.004.
Chen, L., Xu, N., Li, Y., Wu, R., Hu, X., Zhang, P., 2014. FY-3C/MERSI pre-launch
calibration for reflective solar bands. Earth Observing Missions and Sensors:
Development, Implementation, and Characterization III, 9264, p. 92640Z. https://
doi.org/10.1117/12.2070397.
Chen, Y., Yu, S., 2017. Impacts of urban landscape patterns on urban thermal variations
in Guangzhou, China. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 54, 65–71. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jag.2016.09.007.
Chippy, J., Jacob, N.V., Renu, R.K., Sowmya, V., Soman, K.P., 2017. Least Square
Denoising in spectral domain for Hyperspectral images. Procedia Computer Science
115, 399–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2017.09.098.
13
Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591
Christensen, P.R., Bandfield, J.L., Hamilton, V.E., Howard, D.A., Lane, M.D., Piatek, J.L.,
Stefanov, W.L., 2000. A thermal emission spectral library of rock-forming minerals.
Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 105 (E4), 9735–9739. https://doi.org/
10.1029/1998JE000624.
Damtoft, J.S., Lukasik, J., Herfort, D., Sorrentino, D., Gartner, E.M., 2008. Sustainable
development and climate change initiatives. Cem. Concr. Res. 38 (2), 115–127.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.09.008.
Deng, C., Wu, C., 2013. Examining the impacts of urban biophysical compositions on
surface urban heat island: a spectral unmixing and thermal mixing approach.
Remote Sens. Environ. 131, 262–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2012.12.020.
Du, C., Ren, H., Qin, Q., Meng, J., Zhao, S., 2015. A practical Split-window algorithm for
estimating land surface temperature from Landsat 8 data. Remote Sens. 7 (1),
647–665. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70100647.
Elatawneh, A., Kalaitzidis, C., Petropoulos, G.P., Schneider, T., 2014. Evaluation of
diverse classification approaches for land use/cover mapping in a Mediterranean
region utilizing Hyperion data. Int. J. Digit. Earth. https://doi.org/10.1080/
17538947.2012.671378.
Frassy, F., Dalla Via, G., Maianti, P., Marchesi, A., Nodari, F.R., Gianinetto, M., 2013.
Minimum noise fraction transform for improving the classification of airborne
hyperspectral data: two case studies, in: workshop on Hyperspectral image and
signal processing. Evolution in Remote Sensing. https://doi.org/10.1109/
WHISPERS.2013.8080626.
Gorelick, N., Hancher, M., Dixon, M., Ilyushchenko, S., Thau, D., Moore, R., 2017.
Google earth engine: planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone. Remote Sens.
Environ. 202, 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.06.031.
Hale, R.C., Gallo, K.P., Tarpley, D., Yu, Y., 2011. Characterization of variability at in situ
locations for calibration/validation of satellite-derived land surface temperature
data. Remote Sensing Letters 2 (1), 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/
01431161.2010.490569.
Hegde, G., Ahamed, J.M., Hebbar, R., Raj, U., 2014. Urban land cover classification using
hyperspectral data. In: International archives of the photogrammetry, remote
sensing and spatial information sciences - ISPRS archives, XL–8(1), pp. 751–754.
https://doi.org/10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-8-751-2014.
Heiden, U., Segl, K., Roessner, S., Kaufmann, H., 2007. Determination of robust spectral
features for identification of urban surface materials in hyperspectral remote sensing
data. Remote Sens. Environ. 111 (4), 537–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rse.2007.04.008.
Hook, S.J., Kahle, A.B., 1995. The Micro Fourier Transform Interferometer (muFTIR) - A
New Field Spectrometer for Acquisition of Infrared Data of Natural Surfaces.
Hulley, G., Shivers, S., Wetherley, E., Cudd, R., 2019. New ECOSTRESS and MODIS land
surface temperature data reveal fine-scale heat vulnerability in cities: A case study
for Los Angeles County, California. Remote Sens. 11 (18), 2136. https://doi.org/
10.3390/rs11182136.
Jami, Tarun, Karade, Sukhdeo, Singh, L.P., 2018. Hemp Concrete – A Traditional and
Novel Green Building Material.
Joseph, G., 2005. Fundamentals of remote sensing, 2nd edition. Universities press (India)
Pvt ltd., Hyderbad, India.
Karnieli, A., Agam, N., Pinker, R.T., Anderson, M., Imhoff, M.L., Gutman, G.G.,
Panov, N., Goldberg, A., 2010. Use of NDVI and land surface temperature for
drought assessment: merits and limitations. J. Clim. 23 (3), 618–633. https://doi.
org/10.1175/2009JCLI2900.1.
Korb, A.R., Dybwad, P., Wadsworth, W., Salisbury, J.W., 1996. Portable Fourier
transform infrared spectroradiometer for field measurements of radiance and
emissivity. Appl. Opt. 35 (10), 1679. https://doi.org/10.1364/ao.35.001679.
Kotthaus, S., Smith, T.E.L., Wooster, M.J., Grimmond, C.S.B., 2014. Derivation of an
urban materials spectral library through emittance and reflectance spectroscopy.
ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 94, 194–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
isprsjprs.2014.05.005.
Kuang, W., Liu, Y., Dou, Y., Chi, W., Chen, G., Gao, C., Yang, T., Liu, J., Zhang, R., 2014.
What are hot and what are not in an urban landscape: quantifying and explaining the
land surface temperature pattern in Beijing, China. Landsc. Ecol. 30, 357–373.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-014-0128-6.
Kumar, D., Shekhar, S., 2015. Statistical analysis of land surface temperature-vegetation
indexes relationship through thermal remote sensing. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 121,
39–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.07.004.
Kumari, A., Shekhar, S., 2016. Quantifying Spatio-temporal changes in urban area of
Gulbarga City using remote sensing and spatial Metrics.IOSR. Journal of
Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology 10 (5), 44–49. https://doi.
org/10.9790/2402-1005014449.
Kustas, W., Anderson, M., 2009. Advances in thermal infrared remote sensing for land
surface modeling. Agric. For. Meteorol. 149 (12), 2071–2081. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.agrformet.2009.05.016.
Le Bris, A., Chehata, N., Briottet, X., Paparoditis, N., 2016. Spectral band selection for
urban material classification using Hyperspectral libraries. ISPRS annals of
photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial. Information Sciences III–7, 33–40.
https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-III-7-33-2016.
Li, S., Jiang, G.M., 2018. Land surface temperature retrieval from Landsat-8 data with the
generalized Split-window algorithm. IEEE Access. https://doi.org/10.1109/
ACCESS.2018.2818741.
Li, Z.L., Tang, B.H., Wu, H., Ren, H., Yan, G., Wan, Z., Trigo, I.F., Sobrino, J.A., 2013,
April 5. Satellite-derived land surface temperature: current status and perspectives.
Remote Sens. Environ. 131, 14–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2012.12.008.
Li, Z.-L., Wu, H., Wang, N., Qiu, S., Sobrino, J.A., Wan, Z., Tang, B., Yan, G., 2013b. Land
surface emissivity retrieval from satellite data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 34 (9–10),
3084–3127. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2012.716540.
N.P. Kamaraj et al.
Lindermeir, E., Haschberger, P., Tank, V., Dietl, H., 1992. Calibration of a Fourier
transform spectrometer using three blackbody sources. Appl. Opt. 31 (22), 4527.
https://doi.org/10.1364/ao.31.004527.
Mao, K., Qin, Z., Shi, J., Gong, P., 2005. A practical split-window algorithm for retrieving
land-surface temperature from MODIS data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 26 (15),
3181–3204. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160500044713.
Momeni, M., Saradjian, M.R., 2007. Evaluating NDVI-based emissivities of MODIS bands
31 and 32 using emissivities derived by day/night LST algorithm. Remote Sens.
Environ. 106 (2), 190–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2006.08.005.
Murphy, R.J., Monteiro, S.T., Schneider, S., 2012. Evaluating classification techniques
for mapping vertical geology using field-based hyperspectral sensors. IEEE Trans.
Geosci. Remote Sens. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2011.2178419.
Nallusamy, B., Jeelani, S.H., Rejisrinivas Babu, D.S., Pasha, M.A., 2018. Tholeiitic basalt
geochemistry and detailed petrography with emphasis on weathering pattern
occurring around Kadaganchi, Aland Taluk. Environmental Geochemistry 21 (July),
1–11.
Nasarudin, N.E.M., Shafri, H.Z.M., 2011. Development and utilization of urban spectral
library for remote sensing of urban environment. J. Urban Environ. Eng. 5 (1),
44–56. https://doi.org/10.4090/juee.2011.v5n1.044056.
Nidamanuri, R.R., Ramiya, A.M., 2014. Spectral identification of materials by reflectance
spectral library search. Geocarto International 29 (6), 609–624. https://doi.org/
10.1080/10106049.2013.821175.
Nouban, F., Abazid, M., 2017. Plastic degrading fungi Trichodermaviride and
Aspergillusnomius isolated from Nouban, F. and Abazid, M. (2017) ‘plastic
degrading fungi Trichodermaviride and Aspergillusnomius isolated from local
landfill soil in Medan’.
Ottle, C., Stoll, M., 1993. Effect of atmospheric absorption and surface emissivity on the
determination of land surface temperature from infrared satellite data. Int. J. Remote
Sens. 14 (10), 2025–2037. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431169308954018.
Peñaloza, Diego, 2017. The Role of Bio Based Building Materials in the Climate Impacts
of Construction.
Planck, M., 1901. Ueber das Gesetz der EnergieverteilungimNormalspectrum. Ann. Phys.
309 (3), 553–563. https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.19013090310.
Prasad, K.A., Gnanappazham, L., Selvam, V., Ramasubramanian, R., Kar, C.S., 2015.
Developing a spectral library of mangrove species of Indian east coast using field
spectroscopy. Geocarto International 30 (5), 580–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10106049.2014.985743.
Prata, A.J., Casellescoll, V., Sobrino, J.A., Ottle, C., 1995. Thermal remote sensing of land
surface temperature from satellites: current status and future prospects. Remote
Sens. Rev. 12 (3–4), 175–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/02757259509532285.
Priyadarshini, K.N., Sivashankari, V., Shekhar, S., Balasubramani, K., 2019a. Assessment
on the potential of multispectral and Hyperspectral datasets for land use/land cover
classification. Proceedings 24 (1), 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/iecg2019-06211.
Priyadarshini, K.N., Sivashankari, V., Shekhar, S., Balasubramani, K., 2019b. Comparison
and evaluation of dimensionality reduction techniques for Hyperspectral data
Analysis. Proceedings 24 (1), 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/iecg2019-06209.
Qiao, X., Yuan, D., Li, H., 2017. Urban shadow detection and classification using
Hyperspectral image. J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12524-
016-0649-3.
Revercomb, H.E., Buijs, H., Howell, H.B., LaPorte, D.D., Smith, W.L., Sromovsky, L.A.,
1988. Radiometric calibration of IR Fourier transform spectrometers: solution to a
problem with the high-resolution interferometer sounder. Appl. Opt. 27 (15), 3210.
https://doi.org/10.1364/ao.27.003210.
Romaniello, V., Spinetti, C., Silvestri, M., Buongiorno, M.F., 2020. A sensitivity study of
the 4.8 μm carbon dioxide absorption band in the MWIR spectral range. Remote
Sensing 12 (1), 172. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12010172.
Rongali, G., Keshari, A.K., Gosain, A.K., Khosa, R., 2018. Split-window algorithm for
retrieval of land surface temperature using Landsat 8 thermal infrared data. Journal
of Geovisualization and Spatial Analysis 2 (2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s41651-018-0021-y.
Ruff, S.W., Christensen, P.R., Barbera, P.W., Anderson, D.L., 1997. Quantitative thermal
emission spectroscopy of minerals: A laboratory technique for measurement and
calibration. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 102 (B7), 14899–14913.
https://doi.org/10.1029/97jb00593.
Salisbury, J.W., D’Aria, D.M., 1992. Emissivity of terrestrial materials in the 8-14 μm
atmospheric window. Remote Sens. Environ. 42 (2), 83–106. https://doi.org/
10.1016/0034-4257(92)90092-X.
Santillán-Soto, N., García-Cueto, R., Haro-Rincón, Z., Ojeda-Benítez, S., Quintero-
Núñez, M., Velázquez-Limón, N., 2015. Radiation balance of urban materials and
their thermal impact in Semi-Desert region: Mexicali, México study case.
Atmosphere 6 (10), 1578–1589. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos6101578.
Shanmugasundaram, V., Prakasam, Gokul, Prashanth, Mouli, 2019. Investigation on
ferrock based mortar an environment friendly concrete.
Shekhar, S., 2020. Effective management of slums- Case study of Kalaburagi city,
Karnataka, India. Journal of Urban Management 9 (1), 35–53.
Siddiqui, A., Chauhan, P., Kumar, V., Jain, G., Kumar, P., 2020. Characterization of
urban materials in AVIRIS- NG data using a mixture tuned matched filtering (MTMF)
approach characterization of urban materials in AVIRIS-NG. Geocarto International
0 (0), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2020.1720312.
Silvestri, M., Romaniello, V., Hook, S., Musacchio, M., Teggi, S., Buongiorno, M.F., 2020.
First comparisons of surface temperature estimations between ECOSTRESS, ASTER
and landsat 8 over Italian volcanic and geothermal areas. Remote Sens. 12 (1), 184.
https://doi.org/10.3390/RS12010184.
Sobrino, J.A., Raissouni, N., 2000. Toward remote sensing methods for land cover
dynamic monitoring: application to Morocco. Int. J. Remote Sens. 21 (2), 353–366.
https://doi.org/10.1080/014311600210876.
14
Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591
Sobrino, José A., Jiménez-Muñoz, J.C., Sòria, G., Romaguera, M., Guanter, L.,
Moreno, J., Martínez, P., 2008. Land surface emissivity retrieval from different VNIR
and TIR sensors. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 46 (2), 316–327. https://doi.org/
10.1109/TGRS.2007.904834.
Sobrino, J.A., Oltra-Carrió, R., Jiménez-Muñoz, J.C., Julien, Y., Sòria, G., Franch, B.,
Mattar, C., 2012. Emissivity mapping over urban areas using a classification-based
approach: application to the dual-use European security IR experiment (DESIREX).
Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 18 (1), 141–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jag.2012.01.022.
Song, J., Du, S., Feng, X., Guo, L., 2014. The relationships between landscape
compositions and land surface temperature: quantifying their resolution sensitivity
with spatial regression models. Landsc. Urban Plan. 123, 145–157. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.11.014.
Stephanie, C., Vermillion, Sader, Steven A., 1999. Use of the Minimum Noise Fraction
(MNF) Transform to analyze Airborne Visible/ Infrared Imaging Spectrometer
(AVIRIS) data of northern forest types. AVIRIS Proceedings (JPL Publication 99–17).
Strackerjan, K.-E., 2008. Spectral reflectance and emissivity of man-made surfaces
contaminated with environmental effects. Opt. Eng. 47 (10), 106201. https://doi.
org/10.1117/1.3000433.
Sun, L., 2016. Distribution of the temperature field in a pavement structure. In:
Structural Behavior of Asphalt Pavements, pp. 61–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/
b978-0-12-849908-5.00002-x.
Tang, B.-H., Wu, H., Li, C., Li, Z.-L., 2011. Estimation of broadband surface emissivity
from narrowband emissivities. Opt. Express 19 (1), 185. https://doi.org/10.1364/
oe.19.000185.
Thenkabail, P., 2014. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation and Agricultural
Crops. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing (PE&RS), 80.
Thenkabail, P.S., Mariotto, I., Gumma, M.K., Middleton, E.M., Landis, D.R.,
Huemmrich, K.F., 2013. Selection of Hyperspectral Narrow Bands (HNBA) and
composition of Hyperspectral two band Vegetation Sndices (HVIS) for biophysical
characterization and discrimination of crop types using field reflectance and
Hyperion/EO-1 data. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations
and Remote Sensing 6 (2), 427–439. https://doi.org/10.1109/
JSTARS.2013.2252601Toparlar (Y., Blocken, B., Maiheu, B., & van Heijst, G. J. F.
(2018). Impact of urban microclimate on summertime building cooling demand: A
parametric analysis for Antwerp, Belgium. Applied Energy, 228, 852–872. doi:
10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.06.110).
Toparlar, Y., Blocken, B., Maiheu, B., van Heijst, G.J.F., 2018. Impact of urban
microclimate on summertime building cooling demand: a parametric analysis for
Antwerp, Belgium. Appl. Energy 228, 852–872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2018.06.110.
Tripathi, M.K., Govil, H., 2019. Evaluation of AVIRIS-NG hyperspectral images for
mineral identification and mapping. Heliyon. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
heliyon.2019.e02931.
Van De Griend, A.A., Owe, M., 1993. On the relationship between thermal emissivity and
the normalized difference vegetation index for natural surfaces. Int. J. Remote Sens.
14 (6), 1119–1131. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431169308904400.
Vidal, M., Amigo, J.M., 2012. Pre-processing of hyperspectral images. Essential steps
before image analysis. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
chemolab.2012.05.009.
Waigl, C.F., Prakash, A., Stuefer, M., Verbyla, D., Dennison, P., 2019. Fire detection and
temperature retrieval using EO-1 Hyperion data over selected Alaskan boreal forest
fires. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 81, 72–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jag.2019.03.004.
Wang, L., Koike, T., Yang, K., Yeh, P.J.F., 2009. Assessment of a distributed biosphere
hydrological model against streamflow and MODIS land surface temperature in the
upper Tone River basin. J. Hydrol. 377 (1–2), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jhydrol.2009.08.005.
Wang, L., Lu, Y., Yao, Y., 2019. Comparison of three algorithms for the retrieval of land
surface temperature from Landsat 8 images. Sensors 19 (22), 5049. https://doi.org/
10.3390/s19225049.
Weng, Q., 2009, July. Thermal infrared remote sensing for urban climate and
environmental studies: methods, applications, and trends. ISPRS Journal of
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 64, 335–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
isprsjprs.2009.03.007.
Weng, Q., Lu, D., Schubring, J., 2004. Estimation of land surface temperature–vegetation
abundance relationship for urban heat island studies. Remote Sens. Environ. 89 (4),
467–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSE.2003.11.005.
World Urbanization Prospects, 2019. Retrieved from. https://population.un.org/wup/Pu
blications/Files/WUP2018-KeyFacts.pdf.
Yang, X., 2011. Urban Remote Sensing: Monitoring, Synthesis and Modeling in the Urban
Environment. John Wiley & Sons.
Yu, X., Guo, X., Wu, Z., 2014. Land surface temperature retrieval from Landsat 8
TIRS—comparison between Radiative transfer equation-based method, Split window
algorithm and Single Channel method. Remote Sens. 6 (10), 9829–9852. https://doi.
org/10.3390/rs6109829.
Zhang, R., Tian, J., Su, H., Sun, X., Chen, S., Xia, J., 2008. Two improvements of an
operational two-layer model for terrestrial surface heat flux retrieval. Sensors 8 (10),
6165–6187. https://doi.org/10.3390/s8106165.
N.P. Kamaraj et al.
Zhang, X., Zhong, T., Feng, X., Wang, K., 2009. Estimation of the relationship between
vegetation patches and urban land surface temperature with remote sensing. Int. J.
Remote Sens. 30 (8), 2105–2118. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160802549252.
Zhang, D., Tang, R., Zhao, W., Tang, B., Wu, H., Shao, K., Li, Z.-L., 2014. Surface soil
water content estimation from thermal remote sensing based on the temporal
15
Remote Sensing of Environment 264 (2021) 112591
variation of land surface temperature. Remote Sens. 6 (4), 3170–3187. https://doi.
org/10.3390/rs6043170.
Zhou, B., Rybski, D., Kropp, J.P., 2017. The role of city size and urban form in the surface
urban heat island. Sci. Rep. 7, 4791. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04242-2.