Peter Binder

MAT 450
Proof Reflection
4/10/2020

1 Quiz 1, Problem 4a
Let g be an action of group G. Then (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .

1. Let a, b be actions in group B.

2. We know that the inverse of an action reverse that action.
3. A composite action is performed from left to right.
4. In order to reverse the action ab, notated (ab)−1 , it is necessary to invert the
order of execution. From 1, 2, 3.
5. Then a−1 must be taken first, then b−1 . From 4.
6. Therefore (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 . From 3, 5.

While this proof is not particularly impressive, it demonstrates a place of ini-

tial growth. Note how the proof is primarily text based and more focused on
explanatory reason. This is to be contrasted with the later and more mature
proofs which are primary symbolic, avoiding more verbal reasoning. There is
also a greater focus in the later proofs of using past results to reach a conclusion.

2 Theorem 3.19
If G is an abelian group such that H ≤ G, then H is an abelian subgroup.

1. Let H ≤ G, H is not an abelian subgroup.

2. Then ∃j, k, ∈ H such that j ∗ k 6= k ∗ j. From 1.
3. j, k ∈ G, j ∗ k 6= k ∗ j. From 1, 2.
4. Then G is not an abelian group. From 3.
5. Hence if G is an abelian group such that H ≤ G, then H is an abelian
subgroup.  From 1, 4.

While this isn’t a very impressive proof, I remember it being the one that forced
me to remember how to do contrapositive proofs. It’s very easy to forget to other
proof methods exists, like contradiction, induction, and contrapositive proofs,
even though direct proofs can sometimes be much harder than any of those
methods. This theorem helped me to remember to think if it would be easier
to show something that is logically equivalent to the target statment.

1
3 Theorem 5.35
Supppose G is a group and let H ≤ G. Then H / G if and only if gHg −1 ⊆
H∀g ∈ G.

1. Let G be a group, H ≤ G. Let H / G.

2. Then gH = Hg∀g ∈ G. From 1, Def. 5.26.
3. Then gHg −1 = Hgg −1 . From 2.
4. Then gHg −1 = H. From 3, Def. 2.33.
5. Therefore gHg −1 ⊆ H∀g ∈ G. From 4, Theorem 3.9.

1. Let G be a group, H ⊆ G. Let gHg −1 ⊆ H∀g ∈ G.

2. Then gHg −1 g ⊆ Hg. From 1.
3. Then gH ⊆ Hg. From 2, Def. 2.33.
4. Then gH = Hg as |gH| = |Hg|. From 3, Corollary 5.13.
5. Therefore, H / G. From 4, Def. 5.21.

Hence, H / G if and only if gHg −1 ≤ H∀g ∈ G. 

While this proof does fail, I think it illustrates an interesting learning point,
especially around finite and infinite groups. The first half of the proof works
fine for both of them. However, the second half only works for finite groups
as comparing the order of two sets in step 4 does not establish equality as we
consider infinite sets. We did see a different approach to take to this in class,
which does work for infinite sets, but seeing how this proof fails demonstrates an
important lesson about being careful when dealing with both finite and infinite
sets.

4 Quiz 4, Problem 3
Let φ : G1 =⇒ G2 be a homomorphism from (G1 , ∗) to (G2 , ) Prove that the
image of H is a subgroup of G2 .

1. Let φ : G1 =⇒ G2 be a homomorphism from (G1 , ∗) to (G2 , ) and H ≤ G.

Let φ(H) ≡ {y ∈ G2 |y = φ(h) for some h ∈ H}.
2. Then ∃h ∈ H such that φ(h ∗ h) = φ(h)  φ(h). From 1, Equation 3.1.
3. Then ∃g ∈ G2 such that φ(h) = g. From 1, 2.
4. Then φ(h ∗ h) = g  g. From 2, 3.
5. Then g  g ∈ G2 . From 1, 4, Def. 2.33.
6. Then ∃h−1 ∈ H such that h ∗ h−1 = e1 , e1 ∈ G, H. From 1, 2, Def. 3.4.
7. Then φ(h ∗ h−1 ) = φ(h)  φ(h−1 ). From 1, 6.
8. Then φ(e1 ) = g  φ(h−1 ). From 3, 6, 7.
9. Then e2 = g  φ(h−1 ), e2 ∈ G2 . From 8, Problem 3 of Quiz 3.
10. Then e2 = g  g −1 , g −1 ∈ G2 . From 9, Theorem 2.41.
11. Therefore, φ(H) ≤ G2 . From 5, 10, Theorem 3.6.

2
This proof was particularly difficult to write because I had to mentally separate
the concept of a homomorphism from an isomorphism. It was difficult to think
about each step and make sure that they did not rely on φ being one-to-one or
onto. Paying attention to these sorts of slight distinctions was very important
for a lot of proofs going forward in this class.

5 Quiz 4, Problem 4
Let G be a cyclic group. Show that if H ≤ G, then H is also cyclic using the
Division Algorithm.

1. Let G be a cyclic group. Let H be a group, H ≤ G.

2. Then ∃g ∈ G such that hgi = G. From 1.
3. Suppose H is not cyclic.
4. Then ∃h1 , h2 ∈ H such that h1 , h2 are generators of H, h1 is the least gener-
ator of H. From 3.
5. Then h1 = g m , m is the least positive n for g n ∈ H. From 2, 4.
6. Then h2 = g k , k ∈ Z. From 2,4.
7. Then ∃q, r ∈ Z such that g kq+r = g m , 0 ≤ r < m. From 5, 6, Theorem 4.16.
8. Then g m = g kq g r . From 7, Theorem 2.48.
9. Then g kq ∈ H. From From 4, Def. 2.33.
10. Then g −(kq) ∈ H. From 9, Def. 2.33.
11. Then g −(kq) g m = g r . From From 8.
12. Then g r ∈ H. From 11, Theorem 3.6.
13. But r < m. Contradiction. From 5, 7, 12.
14. Therefore, H is cyclic . From 3, 13.

Before doing this proof, I didn’t really understand how the division algorithm
could be effectively applied to a powerful effect. I understood the process of
division, but did not comprehend what it implied in cases like these. This proof
also was great practice with a proof by contradiction.

6 Quiz 7, Problem 1
Prove that a homomorphism of groups is one-to-one if and only if ker(φ) = {e}

1. Let G1 , G2 be groups. Let φ : G1 =⇒ G2 , φ is a homomorphism and is

one-to-one.
2. Then ∀g ∈ G1 , there exists exactly one h ∈ G2 such that φ(g) = h. From 1.
3. Then there exists exactly one g1 ∈ G1 such that φ(g1 ) = e2 , e2 ∈ G. From
1, 2.
4. Then g1 = e, e ∈ G1 . From 3, Theorem 7.5.
5. Therefore, ker(φ) = {e} From 3, 4.

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1. Let G1 , G2 be groups, φ : G1 =⇒ G2 . Let ker(φ) = {e1 }
2. Suppose that φ is not one-to-one.
3. Then ∃a, b ∈ G1 such that φ(a) = φ(b), a 6= b. From 2.
4. Then φ(ab) = φ(a)φ(b). From 1, 2.
5. Then φ(ab−1 ) = φ(a)φ(b−1 ) From 1, 3.
6. Then φ(ab−1 ) = φ(a)(φ(b))−1 . From 5, Theorem 3.52.
7. Then φ(ab−1 ) = φ(b)(φ(b))−1 . From 3, 6.
8. Then φ(ab−1 ) = e2 , e2 ∈ G2 . From 7.
9. Then ab−1 = e1 . From 1, 8.
10. Then a = b. Contradiction. From 9, Theorem 2.41.
11. Therefore φ is one-to-one. From 2, 10.

Hence, a homomorphism of groups is one-to-one if and only if ker(φ) = {e} 

7 Theorem 8.39
Let φ : R =⇒ S be a ring homomorphism. If α ∈ ker(φ) and r ∈ R, then
αr, rα ∈ ker(φ).//
1. Let φ : R =⇒ S be a ring homomorphism. If α ∈ ker(φ) and r ∈ R.
2. Then φ(αr) = φ(α)φ(r). From 1, Def. 8.34.
3. Then φ(αr) = 0φ(r). From 1, 2, Def. 8.34.
4. Then φ(αr) = 0. From 3, Theorem 8.3.
5. Then αr ∈ ker(φ). From 4.
6. Then φ(rα) = φ(r)φ(α). From 1, Def. 8.34.
7. Then φ(rα) = φ(r)0. From 1, 6, Def. 8.34.
8. Then φ(rα) = 0. From 7, Theorem 8.3.
9. Then rα ∈ ker(φ). From 8.
10. Therefore αr, rα ∈ ker(φ).  From 5, 9.