Exterior Calculus Theory and Cases

Exterior Calculus:
Theory and Cases

Authored by
Carlos Polanco
Faculty of Sciences
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
México

Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases
Author: Carlos Polanco
ISBN (Online): 978-981-4998-78-9
ISBN (Print): 978-981-4998-79-6
ISBN (Paperback): 978-981-4998-80-2
©2021, Bentham Books imprint.
Published by Bentham Science Publishers Pte. Ltd. Singapore. All Rights Reserved.
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD .............................................................................................................................................. i
PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................ iii
DEDICATION............................................................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF CREDITS ................................................................................................................................... v
LIST OF SYMBOLS .................................................................................................................................. vi
PART I: HEAVISIDE-GIBBS ALGEBRA
CHAPTER 1 VECTOR ALGEBRA ON ℝ2 AND ℝ3 ............................................................................... 1
PART II: GRASSMANN ALGEBRA
CHAPTER 2 GEOMETRIC ALGEBRA ON G2 ..................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 3 GEOMETRIC ALGEBRA ON G3 .................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER 4 GEOMETRIC ALGEBRA ON Gn .................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENTIATION ......................................................................................................... 60
CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION................................................................................................................... 73
CHAPTER 7 FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS ............................................................. 82
PART III: APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER 8 APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................................. 90
CHAPTER 9 SOLUTIONS ........................................................................................................................ 97
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 118
68%-(&7,1'(; .................................................................................................................................. 120
i
FOREWORD
I congratulate Carlos Polanco for his experienced and insightful book Exterior
Calculus – Theory and Cases. This work covers profoundly advanced Calculus
for a readership that has acquired the necessary mathematical comprehension to
direct to geometric algebra. It will guide higher level students as well as their
teachers straightforwardly through this topic from Heaviside-Gibbs algebra over
Grassmann algebra to differentiation, integration and fundamental theorems of
Calculus. Despite the complexity of the subject, this book is written in a highly
didactic style, which is reflecting the expertise and the long-term teaching experi-
ence of the author at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
The presentation of many examples and case studies as well the solution guide
to the chapter exercises at the end of this book will help the readers to deepen
and to inspect their acquired knowledge and to relate the theory to practice. I wish
that Carlos Polanco’s book will become part of many bookshelves and highly
recommend it as a solid and distinctive textbook for advanced courses in Calculus.
Thomas Buhse
Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos
Cuernavaca Morelos, Mexico.
ii
PREFACE
This Exterior Calculus ebook has been designed for third-year students of Sci-
ences, as it contains the fundamentals related to Geometric algebra or Grassmann
algebra oriented to Calculus. Without any doubt, this algebra has important impli-
cations in Science and Engineering. Here, the reader will find a clear presentation
of the Geometric algebra on a plane and in space, as well as the extension of all
its operators in Rn . In order to make the comprehension of this important algebra
easier, some examples and completely solved exercises are included.
The ebook thoroughly examines the elements of Geometric algebra G over the
Real field and these operators: inner product, outer product, and geometric prod-
uct, their components, and their geometric representation, as well as their prop-
erties and the rigid transformations on the plane and in space. It also reviews the
differentiation and the integration over Geometric algebra, including the line in-
tegral and surface integral. The Green, Stokes and Gauss theorems are also studied
in detail and the Theorem of Fundamental Calculus is generalized.
The author hopes the reader interested in the study of the fundamentals of Exte-
rior calculus, finds useful the material presented here and that the students that
start studying this field find this information motivating. The author would like
to acknowledge the Faculty of Sciences at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de
México for support.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest regarding the contents of each of the
chapters of this ebook.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
Carlos Polanco
Faculty of Sciences
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
México
&
Department of Electromechanical Instrumentation
Instituto Nacional de Cardiologı́a Ignacio Chávez
México
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank all those whose recommendations made possible the publi-
cation of this ebook.
iv
DEDICATION
The beauty of mathematics only
shows itself to more patient
followers.
Maryam Mirzakhani
List of Credits v
Case Credits Page
1 Examples 8.1.1, 8.1.3, and 8.1.4 altered and reproduced with per- 3
mission from: Carlos Polanco, [Advanced Calculus: Fundamentals
of Mathematics] Department of Mathematics Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México, CDMX, México [1].
2 Case 9.3 altered and reproduced with permission from: Carlos 19

Polanco, [Advanced Calculus: Fundamentals of Mathematics] Depart-
ment of Mathematics Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
CDMX, México [1].
3 Case 9.4 altered and reproduced with permission from: Carlos 37

Polanco, [Advanced Calculus: Fundamentals of Mathematics] Depart-
ment of Mathematics Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
CDMX, México [1].
4 Figure 1 and explanation reproduced with permission from: Eric 62

Chisolm [Geometric Algebra] Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850,
U.S.A. [2].
5 Video from: Eleonora Catsigerasi, [Derivada exterior de formas difer- 67

enciales], YouTube, [3].
6 Chapter 8 from: J.E. Marsden and A. Tromba, [Vector Calculus], defi- 67

nitions altered and reproduced, [4].
vi List of Symbols
Symbol Description Page
V Vector space 3
F Field 3
a+b Vector addition 3
α Scalar multiplication 5
||x|| Norm on R3 5
a·b Inner product 5
a×b Outer (or cross) product 7
rot (F) Rotational of a vector-valued function 9
˛ (F)
div Divergence of a vector-valued function 10
F ◦ T (t) · T ′ (t) dt Line integral of Vector function 11
‹T
F ◦ T (t) · T ′ (t) dt Surface integral of vector function 11
˛ T
F ◦ c(t) · c′ (t) ds Green theorem on R2 12
¨∂ D
f dy dx Double Riemann Integral 12
˛ D
F ◦ c(t) · c′ (t) ds Stokes theorem on R3 12
‹∂ D
F ◦ T (u, v) · Tv × Tu dv du Gauss theorem on R3 13
˚∂ W
f dz dy, dx Triple Riemann Integral 13
D
G2 Geometric algebra on R2 19
G2 Grassmann algebra on R2 19
a∧b Outer product on G2 20
a·b Inner product on G2 20
ab Geometric product on G2 21
σ1 σ2 Bivector 21
a(b + c) Distributivity of geometric product G2 25
a ∧ (b + c) Distributivity of outer product G2 25
a−1 Multiplicative inverse on G2 26
a(bc) = (ab)c Associativity on G2 26
a† Reversion on G2 27
Iar Dual on G2 27
vii
<a> Blades on G2 28
||a|| Norm on G2 28
vk Parallel component of vector v on G2 29
v⊥ Perpendicular component of vector v on G2 29
I = σ1 σ2 Pseudo-vector on G2 29
Ia Clockwise rotation on G2 29
aI Counter-clockwise rotation on G2 29
(x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0 Equation of a line on G2 33
G3 Geometric algebra on R3 37
G3 Grassmann algebra on R3 37
a∧b Outer product on G3 38
a·b Inner product on G3 38
ab Geometric product on G3 39
σ1 σ2 σ3 Trivector 40
a(b + c) Distributivity of geometric product G3 43
a ∧ (b + c) Distributivity of outer product G3 43
a−1 Multiplicative inverse on G3 44
a(bc) = (ab)c Associativity on G3 44
a† Reversion on G3 45
Iar Dual on G3 45
<a> Blades on G3 46
||a|| Norm on G3 47
vk Parallel component of vector v on G3 47
v⊥ Perpendicular component of vector v on G3 47
I = σ1 σ2 σ3 Pseudo-vector on G3 48
Ia Clockwise rotation on G3 48
aI Counter-clockwise rotation on G3 48
(x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0 Equation of a line on G3 50
a∧b Outer product on Gn 56
a·b Inner product on Gn 57
ab Geometric product on Gn 57
σ1 σ2 · · · σn Multivector 58
a(b + c) Distributivity of geometric product Gn 58
a ∧ (b + c) Distributivity of outer product Gn 58
a−1 Multiplicative inverse on Gn 59
a(bc) = (ab)c Associativity on Gn 59
a† Reversion on Gn 60
Iar Dual on Gn 60
<a> Blades on Gn 61
||a|| Norm on Gn 61
vk Parallel component of vector v on Gn 62
v⊥ Perpendicular component of vector v on Gn 62
I = σ1 σ2 · · · σn Pseudo-vector on Gn 62
Ia Clockwise rotation on Gn 62
aI Counter-clockwise rotation on Gn 62
(x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0 Equation of a line on Gn 63
(x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0 Equation of a multivector on Gn 64
dw Outer derivative 67
w0 0-form 68
viii
w1 1-form 68
w2 2-form 69
w3 3-form 69
wk k-form 70
dw0 Derivative of 0−form 71
dw
ˆ k Derivative of k−form 75
w1 Integral of 1−Forms 82
˛D
Fdt Line integral on G3 82
ˆT
f (x)dx Simple Riemann integral 83
¨D
‹D
Fds Surface integral on G3 84
¨S
f (x)dxdy Double Riemann integral 85
˚D
˚D
f (x)dxdydz Triple Riemann integral 86
˚D
wk Integral of k−Forms 86
ˆ D
ˆ
··· f (x)dx · · · dk k−Riemann integral 88
ˆ D ˆ
w1 = dw1 Green theorem on G2 91
ˆ∂ D ˆD
w1 = dw1 Stokes theorem on G3 92
ˆ∂ S ˆS
w2 = dw2 Gauss theorem on G3 93
∂ω ω
Part I
Heaviside-Gibbs Algebra
The operators of the ’bf Heaviside-Gibbs algebra’ have a major role in Vector Cal-
culus. The next chapter focuses on the definition of the main operators, showing
its usefulness in solving problems in 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional space, and
it also discusses the robustness and limitations of this algebra in n-dimensional
space.
Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases, 2021, 1-13 1
CHAPTER 1
Vector Algebra on R2 and R3
Carlos Polanco
Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México
Abstract In this chapter, we introduce the main operators of Heaviside-Gibbs al-

gebra: addition, subtraction, norm of vectors, as well as inner and cross product.
From the point of view of Vector Calculus, we introduce the line and surface inte-
grals, and the Green’s, Stokes’, and Gauss’ Theorems. The last section discusses
the extension of this algebra in n-dimensional space. The examples are in plane
and space.
Keywords: cross product: v × w, divergence of vector function, Gauss’ Theo-

rem, Green’s Theorem, inner product: v · w, limitations, line integral, norm: ||v||,
normed vector space, rotational of vector function, scalar multiplication: α v,
Stokes’ Theorem, surface integral, vector addition: v + w, vector Subtraction:
v−w
1.1. Normed Vector Space: V (F)

The term normed vector space [5, 6, 7] is used to name a mathematical struc-
ture where a norm [7] is defined as the rules in a non-empty set V that meet the
addition operation, vector addition, and the multiplication operation, scalar mul-
tiplication, between the elements of the set V and the elements of a field F. This
normed vector space has two important operations inner product [8] and cross
product [8].
Definition 1.1. A normed vector space V over a field F ∈ Rn is an algebraic

structure where a set of elements called vectors v, u, w ∈ V and a set of elements
called scalars α , β ∈ F, together with two operations, vector addition and scalar
multiplication, satisfy the next eight axioms [1, 4]:
Property 1. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
Property 2. u + v = v + u
Carlos Polanco
All rights reserved-© 2021 Bentham Science Publishers
2 Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases Carlos Polancoo
Property 3. ∃ 0 ∈ V i called the zero vector, such that ∀v ∈ V, v + 0 = v
Property 4. ∀ v ∈ V , ∃ − v ∈ V , such that v + (−v) = 0
Property 5. α , β ∈ F, α (β v) = (αβ )v
Property 6. 1v = v
Property 7. α (u + v) = α u + α v
Property 8. (α + β )v = α v + β v
Remark 1.1. As it will be explained later in the chapter (Sect. 1.5), although the
representation of the vectors can be in n-dimensional space, not all the operators
act in this space [9, 10].
1.2. Basic operators
1.2.1. Vector Addition: v + w

There are two types of vectors, those that start anchored at the origin of the refer-
ence system fixed vectors, i.e. to a plane R2 or space R3 , and those whose start is
not anchored at the origin of the system non-fixed vectors.
L
Definition 1.2. The vector addition operation : V × V → V takes two vectors
v ∈ Rn and w ∈ Rn , and assigns a third vector expressed as v + w ∈ Rn .
Example 1.1. Let two vectors v and w ∈ R2 be over the field R, v = (1, 2) and
w = (3, −1). What is v + w?
Solution 1.1. If v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = (w1 , w2 ) ⇒ v + w = (v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 ), then
v + w = (4, 1).
Remark 1.2. The addition of two fixed vectors yields a fixed vector.
1.2.2. Vector Substraction: v − w

L
Definition 1.3. The vector substraction operation : V ×V → V takes two vec-
6
tors v ∈ Rn and w ∈ Rn , and assigns a third vector expressed as v − w ∈ Rn where
v − w 6= w − v.
6
Example 1.2. Let two vectors v and w ∈ R3 be over the field R, v = (1, 2, −1) and
w = (3, −1, 0). (i) What is v − w? (ii) What is w − v? (iii) Explain why v − w 6=
w − v.
Solution 1.2. (i) If v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ) ⇒ v − w = (v1 − w1 , v2 −
6 6
w2 , v3 − w3 ), then v − w = (1, 2, −1) − (3, −1, 0) = (−2, 3, −1). (ii) w − v =
(3, −1, 0) − (1, 2, −1) = (2, −3, 1). (iii) In general v − w 6= w − v since v1 − w1 6=
w1 − v1 , where v1 , w1 are elements of the field F.
Remark 1.3. Any non-fixed vector can be expressed as the subtraction of two
fixed vectors.
The addition of the vectors v + (−w) is equivalent to v − w, so this vector addi-
tion is known as vector subtraction.
Two vectors are equal if there is a translation between them. In this sense, a fixed
vector and a non-fixed vector can be the same vector.
Vector Algebra on R2 and R3 Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 3
1.2.3. Scalar Multiplication: α v

N
Definition 1.4. The scalar multiplication operation : F × V → V takes any
vector v ∈ Rn and a scalar α ∈ R, and assigns a third vector α v ∈ Rn , i.e.
α v = α (v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ) = (α v1 , α v2 , · · · , α vn ). When the scalar α multiplies vector
v, the length of vector α v will increase or decrease; however, if α = −1 the vector
α v keeps its length but not its orientation, which will be opposite.
Example 1.3. Given vector v = (−3, 4, 5) ∈ R3 and scalar α = −3 ∈ R, what is

vector α v?
Solution 1.3. α v = (−3)(−3, 4, 5) = (9, −12, −15).
This operation α v makes possible to increase the length of a vector (if α > 1),
decrease it (if 0 < α < 1), or change its orientation (if α < 0).
1.2.4. Norm: ||v||

Definition 1.5. The norm (Eq. 1.1) of a fixed vector a ∈ Rn represents the length
or distance with respect to point 0.
s
n
||a||= ∑ a2i , where a ∈ Rn . (1.1)
i=1
The norm (Eq. 1.1) of a non-fixed vector c ∈ Rn represents the length or distance
(Eq. 1.2) between the fixed vectors a, b ∈ Rn .
s
n
||c||= ||a − b||= ∑ (ai − bi )2 , where c = a − b. (1.2)
i=1
Example 1.4. There are two fixed vectors in a space v = (3, 1, −2) and w =
(1, −1, 1). (i) What is the norm (or length) of vector v? (ii) What is the distance
between the fixed vectors v and w?
p √
2 2 2 = 14. (ii) The
p of vector v is ||v||= 3 + 1 + (−2) √
Solution 1.4. (i) The norm
distance is ||v − w||= (3 − 1)2 + (1 − (−1))2 + ((−2) − 1)2 = 17
It is important to differentiate the norm of a vector ||a|| from the absolute value
of a scalar |x|. The first one is a vector, the second one is a real number.
1.2.5. Inner product: v · w

Definition 1.6. The inner product is an algebraic operator that involves two vec-
tors a, b ∈ Rn (Eq. 1.3) and the angle θ between them (Eq. 1.4).
a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn (1.3)
a · b = ||a|| ||b||cos θ (1.4)
From Def. 1.4 the inner product max{a· b} occurs when cos θ = 1, i.e. a||b, whilst
min{a · b} occurs when cos θ = 0, i.e. a⊥b, regardless of the dimensional space
in which the vectors a and b are.
The inner product holds the next five properties for any non-zero vectors v, w, u ∈
Rn and scalars α , β ∈ R:
Property 1. v · u = u · v
Proof.
v · u = v1 u1 + v2 u2 + · · · + vn un = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + · · · + un vn = u · v (1.5)
Property 2. v · (u + w) = (v · u) + (v · w)
Proof.
v · (u + w) = [v1 (u1 + w1 ) + v2 (u2 + w2 ) + · · · + vn (un + wn )]
= (v1 u1 + v2 u2 + · · · + vn un ) + (v1 w1 + v2 w2 + · · · + vn wn ) (1.6)
= (v · u) + (v · w)

Property 3. v · (α u + w) = α (v · u) + (v · w)
Proof.
v · (α u + w) = α [v1 (u1 + w1 ) + v2 (u2 + w2 ) + vn (un + wn )]
= v1 u1 + v1 w1 + v2 u2 + v2 w2 + · · · + vn un + vn wn ] (1.7)
= α (v · u) + (v · w)

Property 4. α v · β w = αβ (v · w)
Proof.
α v · β w = α v1 β w1 + α v2 β w2 + · · · + α vn β wn
= αβ (v1 w1 + v2 w2 + · · · + vn wn ) (1.8)
= αβ (v · w)

Property 5. v ⊥ u ⇔ v · u = 0
Proof.
π
From Def. 1.4, if θ = ⇒ cos θ = 0, so v · u = 0 (1.9)
2

Example 1.5. Given vectors a = (1, 0, 0) and b = (0, 0, 1) ∈ R3 . (i) What is the
inner product? (ii) what is the angle between them?
0
Solution 1.5. (i) a·b = (1, 0, 0)·(0, 0, 1) = 0. (ii) θ = cos−1 a·b
||a|| ||b|| = cos−1
π
1
⇒θ = 2 radians.
1.2.6. Outer Product: v × w

This operator is reviewed here on a plane and in space, and it will be studied in
Chap 2.
Definition 1.7. The cross product (or vector product) of vectors a and b, a × b,
is represented by the determinant (Eq. 1.10).

i j k

a × b = a1 a2 a3 (1.10)
b1 b2 b3
The cross product on a plane or space represents the normal vector η = a × b,

vector η is normal to the plane generated by the linear combination of vectors a
and b, i.e. α a + β b.
The cross product holds the next six properties for the non-zero vectors v, w, u ∈
R3 and the scalars α , β ∈ R:
Remark 1.4. The demonstrations derive from the properties of the determinants.
Property 1. v × v = 0
Proof.

i j k

v × v = v1 v2 v3 = b
0 (1.11)
v1 v2 v3
Property 2. v × u = −(u × v)
Proof.

i j k i j k

v × u = v1 v2 v3 = − u1 u2 u3 = −(u × v) (1.12)
u1 u2 u3 v1 v2 v3
Property 3. v × (u + w) = (v × u) + (v × w)
Proof.

i j k

v × (u + w) = v1 v2 v3
u1 + w1 u2 + w2 u3 + w3

i j k i j k (1.13)

= v1 v2 v3 + v1 v2 v3
u1 u2 u3 w1 w2 w3
= (v × u) + (v × w)

Property 4. v × (α u + w) = α (v × u) + (v × w)
Proof.

i j k

v × (α u + w) = v1 v2 v3

α u1 + w1 α u2 + w2 α u3 + w3

i j k i j k (1.14)

= v1 v2 v3 + v1 v2 v3
α u1 α u2 α u3 w1 w2 w3
= α (v × u) + (v × w)

Property 5. α v × β w = αβ (v × w)
Proof.

i j k

α v × β w = α v1 α v2 α v3 = αβ (v × w) (1.15)
β w1 β w2 β w3

Property 6. ||a × b||= ||a|| ||b||sin θ
Proof.
||a × b||2 = ||a||2 ||b||2 −(a · b)2

= ||a||2 ||b||2 −||a||2 ||b||2 cos2 θ (1.16)
2 2 2
= ||a|| ||b|| sin θ
||a × b||= ||a|| ||b|| |sin θ | (Rmk. 1.5)

√
Remark 1.5. α 2 = |α |.
The geometrical representation of ||a×b|| is the area of a parallelogram with sides

a and b that is the norm of vector ||η ||= ||a × b|| and its length. The expression
||a × b|| is equivalent to ||a × b||= ||a||||b||sin θ , where θ is the angle between
vectors a and b.
Example 1.6. Given unit vectors i = (1, 0, 0) and j = (0, 1, 0). (i) What is i × j?
(ii) What is ||i × i||? (iii) What is the angle between them? (iv) What is the area
generated by these vectors?
Solution 1.6. (i)

i j k
0 0 1 0 1 0

(1, 0, 0) × (0, 1, 0) = 1 0 0 = i −j
+k = (0, 0, 1)
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
√ ||a × b|| π
(ii) ||a × b||= ||(0, 0, 1)||= 12 = 1. (iii) θ = sin−1 = radians. (iv)
||a|| ||b|| 2
The area is represented by ||a × b||= ||(0, 0, 1)||= 1.
1.3. Vector-Valued Functions

Definition 1.8. A vector-valued function is a transformation [1, 11, 12] F : U ⊂
Rn → Rn that assigns to each point x ∈ U a vector F(x). In the case of the vector-
valued function F(x, y) = (F1 (x, y), F2 (x, y)) the real-valued functions F1 and F2
are the components of the function F and its graph is called vector field [13].
The procedure for plotting a vector (x0 , y0 ) in the Cartesian coordinate system
is [1, 4]:
Rule 1. Plot the point (x0 , y0 ) in the Cartesian coordinate system.
Rule 2. Evaluate the point (x0 , y0 ) in the vector-valued function F(x, y).
Rule 3. Move the Cartesian coordinate system to the point (x0 , y0 ).
Rule 4. Plot the vector F(x0 , y0 ) in the new Cartesian coordinate system.
Example 1.7. Let the function F(x, y) = (3x, 5y). What is the vector associated
with point (1, 2)?
Solution 1.7. The vector c associated with point (1, 2) is (3, 10).
1.3.1. Rotational of a Vector Function

The rotational operator of a vector-valued function F, rot F, is the measure of
the rotation of the flow, i.e. the vectors that form a vector field around a particular
point conforming a tiny paddle wheel at the point evaluated. There is a difference
in the intensity of the vector field as it is represented by vectors of different lengths
above and below the paddle wheel, thus inducing a rotational movement around
the point [1, 14].
This operator is local, this means that its measure corresponds to a point in a plane
or space and it can be featured by what happens in the neighborhood of the point.
When this operator is part of the integrand of an integral (Sect. 1.4.1, 1.4.2), the
rotation of the field in the region of the plane or space can be evaluated.
Definition 1.9. For a vector-valued function F : R3 → R, (F1 (x), F2 (x), F3 (x)),

where the real-valued functions Fi : Rn → R, i = 1, · · · , 3 are of class C1 , the rota-
tional (Eq. 1.17) of the vector-valued function F at point x0 is the vector-valued
function defined by rot F.
 
i j k
 
 
∂ ∂ ∂ 

rot F| =  

x0 ∂x ∂y ∂z
  (1.17)
F1 F2 F3
|x0
∂F ∂ F2 ∂F ∂ F1 ∂ F2 ∂ F1
3 3
= − i− − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
Example 1.8. Let the vector-valued function F : R3 → R, x3 y + x2 z2 − sin xyz. (i)

What is the rot F? (ii) What is the rot F(0, 1, 2)? (iii) Is the rot F(0, 1, 2) truly
representative of the rotational of F on the open set R3 ?
Solution 1.8. (i)
 
i j k
 
 
∂ ∂ ∂ 

rot F| =   = (−xz cos xyz−2x2 z, yz cos xyz, 2xz2 −x3 )
x0 ∂x ∂y ∂z  
 
x3 y x2 z2 − sin xyz |
x0
(ii) rot F(0, 1, 2) = (−xz cos xyz − 2x2 z, yz cos xyz, 2xz2 − x3 )| = 2. (iii) No,
(0,1,2)
it is not. The rot F operator is a local operator, so its value will depend on each
point.
1.3.2. Divergence of a Vector Function

The divergence operator of a vector-valued function F, div F, is a measure of the
expansion or contraction of the vector field per unit of volume or area around the
point x0 .
Definition 1.10. For a vector-valued function F : Rn → R, (F1 (x), F2 (x), · · · , Fn (x)),

where the real-valued functions Fi : Rn → R, i = 1, · · · , n are of class C1 , the di-
vergence (Eq. 1.18) of the vector-valued function F at point x0 is the real-valued
function defined by
∂ F1 ∂ F2 ∂ Fn
div F| = ∇ · F| = + +···+ (1.18)
x0 x0 ∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ xn
This operator is local, which means that its measure corresponds to a point in the
plane or space, therefore, it can only feature what happens in the neighborhood of
a point. When this operator is in the integrand of an integral (Sect. 1.4.1, 1.4.2),
the divergence of the field in the region of the plane or space can be evaluated.
Example 1.9. Let the vector-valued function F : R3 → R, x3 y + x2 z2 − sin xyz. (i)

What is the div F? (ii) What is the div F(0, 1, 2)? (iii) Is the div F(0, 1, 2) truly
representative of the divergence of F on the open set R3 ?
∂ F1 ∂ F2 ∂ F3
Solution 1.9. (i) The divergence of function F is div F = ∇·F = + +
∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ x3
2
= 3x y + 0 − xy cos xyz. (ii) div F(0, 1, 2) = 0. (iii) No, it is not. The div F oper-
ator is a local operator, so its value will depend on each point.
1.3.3. Line Integral

Definition 1.11. A Line Integral of a Vector Function measures the effect of a vec-
tor field F : Rn → Rn (Sect. 1.3) on an oriented trajectory T : R → Rn (Eq. 1.19).
From the physical point of view, the line integral of a vector function measures
the work done to move a particle on an oriented trajectory T with the influence
of a vector field F.
˛ ˆ t2
′
F ◦ T (t) · T (t) dt = F(T (t)) · T ′ (t) dt, where t ∈ [t1 ,t2 ] ⊂ R. (1.19)
T t1
Example 1.10. A particle moves along the oriented trajectory T (t) = (t,t 4 ), t ∈
[0, π ] and the force is represented by the vector field F(x, y) = (−yx, sin x). Com-
pute the work done by the force field on a particle that moves along curve T .
˛ ˆ π ˆ π
′ 5 3
Solution 1.10. F ◦ T (t) · T (t) dt = (−t , sint) · (1, 4t ) dt = −t 5 + 4t 3
T 0 0
π 6 − 24π 3 + 144π
sint dt = − .
6
1.3.4. Surface Integral

Definition 1.12. A Surface Integral of a Vector Function measures the effect of a
vector field F on an oriented region S given by its normal vector η (u, v) (Eq. 1.20).
From the physical point of view, the surface integral of a vector function measures
the work done over the oriented surface S due to the influence of a vector field.
u2 ˆ v2 (u)
∂T ∂T
‹ ˆ
F ◦ T (u, v) · η (u, v) dS = F(T (u, v)) · × dv du. (1.20)
S u1 v1 (u) ∂u ∂v
Example 1.11. Let the external side surface of the open cylinder with radius 1 and
height 2, and the vector field F(x, y, z2 ) = (x, y, z). Compute the surface integral of
the vector function over the vector field.
Solution 1.11. Using T (r, θ ) = (cos θ , sin θ , r) with θ ∈ [0, 2π ], r ∈ [0, 2].
θ2 ˆ r 2
∂T ∂T
‹ ˆ
F ◦ T (r, θ ) · η (r, θ ) dS = F(T (r, θ )) · × dr d θ
S θ1 r1 ∂r ∂θ
2π ˆ 2
∂T ∂T
ˆ
= F(T (r, θ )) · × dr d θ
0 0 ∂r ∂θ
ˆ 2π ˆ 2
= (cos θ , sin θ , r2 ) · (cos θ , sin θ , r)dr d θ
0 0
= 12π (Note. 1.1).
(1.21)
Note 1.1. Note that the sign of the normal vector was changed.
1.4. Vector Theorems
1.4.1. Green’s Theorem

Definition 1.13. Let D ⊂ R2 be a region and ∂ D be its closed counter-clockwise
orientation boundary. Let the vector-valued function F : R2 → R2 be on the D
region and the unit vector k [1, 4, 14, 15], then
˛ ¨
F ◦ c(t) · c′ (t) ds = (∇ × F) · k dA.
∂D D
Remark 1.6. Green’s theorem states that the effect of the vector-valued function
F over the oriented closed curve ∂ D, counter-clockwise orientation, is equivalent
to the rotational effect over the area bounded by the region D.
Example 1.12. Let the vector-valued function F(x, y) = (2x, 3y), the region D
bounded by x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, y = x2 , and y = x. Verify Green’s theorem.
˛ ˛ ˛
Solution 1.12. F · ds = F × c1 (t) · c′1 (t) dt + F × c2 (t) · c′2 (t) dt, where
∂D C1 C2
the curves c1 (t) = (t,t 2 ),t ∈ [0, 1], and c2 (t) = (t,t),t ∈ [1, 0] bound region
ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 0 ˆ 0
5
D. (2t, 3t)· (1, 1) dt = 2t + 3t dt = . (2t, 3t 2 ) · (1, 2t) dt = 2t +
0 0 2 1 1
˛ ¨ ˆ 1ˆ x
5
6t 3 dt = − , then F · ds = 0. (∇ × F) · k dA = (0, 0, 0) · (0, 0, 1) dy
2 ∂D D 0 x2
dx = 0. So, Green’s theorem is verified.
1.4.2. Stokes’ Theorem

Definition 1.14. Let D ⊂ R3 be a closed region and ∂ D be its counter-clockwise
orientation surface. Let the vector-valued function F : R3 → R3 be on the D region
and the normal vector Tv × Tu [1, 4, 14, 15] be perpendicular to the surface ∂ D.
˛ ¨
F ◦ c(t) · c′ (t) ds = (∇ × F) · Tv × Tu dv du.
∂D S
Remark 1.7. Stokes’ theorem states that the effect of the vector-valued function F
over the oriented closed curve ∂ D, counter-clockwise orientation, is equivalent to
the rotational effect over the area bounded by the region D.
Example 1.13. Let the vector-value function F(x, y) = (y, x, z), the region D bound
ed by the cylinder surface x2 + y2 = 1, and the real-valued function f (x, y) =
1 − x − y. Verify Stokes’ theorem.
˛
Solution 1.13. F(c(t) · c′ (t)dt, where the curve c(t) is c(t) = (cost, sint, 1 −
∂D ˆ 2π
cost −sint),t ∈ [0, 2π ]. (sint, cost, 1 − cost − sint) · (− sint, cost, sint − cost)
ˆ 2π 0
dt = − cos2 t sint + sin2 t cost + (1 − cost − sint)2 (sint − cost) dt = 0. On the

0 ¨
other hand ∇ × F(T (r, θ )) · Tr × Tθ d θ dr, with T (r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , 1−
Dˆ ˆ
1 2π
cos θ − sin θ ). (0, 0, 0) · (r sin θ − r cos θ , − cos θ − sin θ , sin θ + r sin θ ) d θ
0 0
dr = 0.
1.4.3. Gauss’ Theorem

Definition 1.15. Let W ⊂ R3 be a closed and solid region and ∂ W be its counter-
clockwise orientation surface. Let the vector-valued function F : R3 → R3 be on
the W region and the normal vector Tv × Tu [1, 4, 14, 15] be perpendicular to
surface W .
‹ ˚
F ◦ T (u, v) · Tv × Tu dv du = ∇ · F dz dy dx.
∂W W
Remark 1.8. Gauss’ theorem states that the effect of the vector-valued function F
over the closed and oriented surface ∂ W , counter-clockwise orientation, is equiv-
alent to the divergent effect over the volume bounded by the region W .
Example 1.14. Let the vector-value function F(x, y, z) = (x, y, z) and the region W
bounded by the solid cylinder x2 + y2 = 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 2. Verify Gauss’ theorem.
˚ ˆ ˆ √ 1 ˆ 1−x2 2
Solution 1.14. (i) ∇ · Fdz dy dx = √ 3 dz dy
∂W −1 − 1−x2 0
ˆ 1 ˆ 2π ˆ 2 ¨
dx = 3r dz dr d θ = 6π . (ii) Surface integrals: (i.a) F(T (r, θ )) · Tθ
0 0 0 ˆ 1 ˆ 2π W
×Tr d θ dr, with T (r, θ ) = (cos θ , sin θ , r) ⇒ (cos θ , sin θ , r) · (cos θ , sin θ
¨ 0 0
, 0)d θ dr = 2π . (i.b) F(T (r, θ )) · Tr × Tθ d θ dr, with T (r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ
ˆ 1 ˆ 2π W ¨
, 0) ⇒ (r cos θ , r sin θ , 0) · (0, 0, −r) d θ dr = 0. (i.c) F(T (r, θ )) · Tr ×
0 0 ˆ 1 ˆ 2π W
Tθ dr d θ , with T (r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , 2) ⇒ (r cos θ , r sin θ , 2) · (0, 0, r)

0 0
d θ dr = 2π .
1.5. Remarks
The cross product of the Heaviside-Gibbs algebra is frequently used to identify
the sides of a surface, i.e. one side of the plane will be associated to the normal
vector and the opposite side will be associated with the negative of the normal
vector (Fig. 1.1).
Generally, to calculate the area of a surface it is not important what side of the
area you use, nevertheless, there are cases where this is not so. To estimate the
effect of a vector function F over a surface, it is imperative to know what side
of the surface will be used to calculate the effect of this vector function. The
cross product is not defined in higher dimensions [8, 9, 10, 16, 17], the reason
for this is structural, the cross product is essentially a determinant. In the case
of two vectors in 4-dimensional space, the determinant is not defined and this
substantially undermines the use of this algebra restricting it only to a plane or
space.
The following chapters will be focussed on the Grassmann algebra [Die lineare
Ausdehnungslehre, ein neuer Zweig der Mathematik, Hermann Grassmann, 1842]
that acts on an n-dimensional space, as well as presenting the equivalent of the
Heaviside-Gibbs algebra.
Figure 1.1 Graphical interpretation of normal vector over a surface.
It is important that the reader reviews all the exercises in this chapter using the
Heaviside-Gibbs algebra and solves them so in the following chapters, when the
Grassmann algebra is introduced, he can have a full comprehension of both
algebras and can compare them.
Excercises Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 13
1.6. Exercises
Exercise 1.1. Consider a segment of length 4π in R. (i) Define a map from R to
2 2
R2 that transforms this line into the ellipse ax2 + by2 = 1 in the plane. (ii) Draw the
figure. (iii) Discuss the nature of the parameterization.
Exercise 1.2. Consider a segment of length 3π in R. Define a map from R to

R3 that transforms this line into a unit circle projected onto the surface f (x, y) =
1 − x − y3 .
Exercise 1.3. Consider a unit circle in R2 . Define a map from R2 to R3 that trans-
forms the unit circle into the a paraboloid with concavity down and maximum in
1.
Exercise 1.4. Consider the mapping T (t) = (cost, sint),t ∈ [0, 2π ], and the vec-
tor field F(x, y) = (−y2 , x). Compute the line integral of vector field in counter-
clockwise direction.
Exercise 1.5. Consider a unit circle in the plane f (x, y) = 2 with centre at the
origin and the vector field F(x, y, z) = (−y2 , x, 1). (i) Compute the line integral of
vector field in counter-clockwise direction.
Exercise 1.6. Consider a unit upper sphere and the vector field F(x, y, z) = (y, x, z).
(i) Compute the surface integral of vector field in counter-clockwise direction. (ii)
Compute the line integral of vector field in clockwise direction.
Exercise 1.7. Consider the map T (r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ ), where r ∈ [0, 1] and
θ ∈ [0, 2π ]. Compute the area of the parameterized surface.
Exercise 1.8. Let the vector-value function F(x, y) = (2xy − x2 , x + y2 ) [18] and
the region S (positive orientation) be bounded by y = x2 and y2 = x. Verify the
Green’ theorem.
Exercise 1.9. Let the vector-value function F(x, y, z) = (3y, −xz, y2 ) [18] and the
region S (positive orientation) be bounded by the paraboloid 2z = x2 + y2 , and by
z = 2 and C. Verify the Stokes’ theorem.
‹
Exercise 1.10. Use the Gauss’ theorem to calculate F ds, where S is the lateral
S
surface of the box B with vertices (± 1, ± 2, ± 3) and the normal vector F(x, y, z) =
(x2 z3 , 2xyz3 , xz4 ) [19] is pointing outwards.
Part II
Grassmann Algebra
Geometric algebra or Grassmann algebra is the central subject of this book.
It has nine chapters: chapters 2 and 3 define this algebra in 2 and 3 dimensions;
chapter 4 studies the extension to n dimensions; in chapters 5 and 6 we refor-
mulate the derivative and integral operators; from chapter 7 to 9 we focus on the
Geometric algebra applications to introduce the Green’s, Stokes’, and Gauss’
theorems in Differential forms; finally, in chapter 10 we see the Fundamental
Calculus Theorem in terms of Geometric algebra and Differential forms.
14 Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases, 2021, 14-30
CHAPTER 2
Geometric Algebra on G2
Carlos Polanco
Abstract This chapter is a review of Geometric algebra or Grassmann alge-

bra on G2 . This algebra is attributed to Hermann Grassmann [Die lineare Aus-
dehnungslehre, ein neuer Zweig der Mathematik 1842]. It has two main operators:
outer product and inner product. Here, we will also study dot product, and ge-
ometric product, as well as their properties. We will start with the definition of
Geometric algebra, its properties and most useful tools. With this background, we
will define the differential forms in Chap. 5.
Keywords: Associativity: a(bc) = (ab)c, bivector, blades < a >i , distributivity:

a(b + c), distributivity: a ∧ (b + c), dual Iar = bn−r , equation of a line, outer prod-
uct, geometric algebra, geometric product, inner product, lines, multiplicative in-
verse: a−1 , norm ||a||, reflections, reversion: a† , rotations
2.1. Geometric Algebra on G2

Definition 2.1. The Geometric algebra or Grassmann algebra [1, 9, 20] is a
unitary associative algebra, in symbols G2 = G2 (R2 ). It is formed by three ele-
ments: α , scalars, σ1 , σ2 vectors, and the elements σ1 ∧ σ2 named bivectors, or
equivalently σ1 σ2 , where α ∈ R. These elements will be expressed in orthonor-
mal basis for convenience and they meet Eq. 2.1 for i = j.
σi σi = 1
σi σ j = −σ j σi (2.1)
An arbitrary element will be Eq. 2.2.
Carlos Polanco
Geometric Algebra on G2 Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 15
v= v0 + v1 σ1 + v2 σ2 + v12 σ1 ∧ σ2 in G2 .
|{z} | {z } | {z } (2.2)
basis scalar basis vector basis bivector
Remark 2.1. An equivalent would be σi ∧ σ j , σi σ j , and σi j .
Example 2.1. Provide some examples of elements on G2 .

Solution 2.1. v = 4σ2 + 5σ1 ∧ σ2 , v = 4 + σ2 + −4σ12 , v = −1 + σ1 − 3σ2 + 7σ12 .
2.1.1. Outer Product: a ∧ b

Definition 2.2. For two vectors a = a0 +a1 σ1 +a2 σ2 +a3 σ12 and b = b0 +b1 σ1 +
b2 σ2 + b3 σ12 ∈ G2 [1, 4, 8], we define
1
a ∧ b = (ab − ba)
2
Example 2.2. Let two elements a = (1, −1) and b = (3, 2) ∈ G2 . (i) Obtain the
1
outer product a∧b = (ab − ba). (ii) Obtain the geometric product using Def. 2.3.
2
1
Solution 2.2. (i) From Ex. 2.8 a∧b = (ab − ba) = 5σ1 σ2 . (ii) ab = a · b + a ∧ b =
2
1 + 5σ12 . So a ∧ b = 5σ12 .
The collinearity of two vectors implies that its outer product is zero, i.e. a ∧ b =
0 ⇔ a k b.
Example 2.3. Let two collinear vectors a = σ1 + σ2 and b = 2σ1 +2σ2 . Determine
the outer product.
1
Solution 2.3. ab = 8 and ba = 8, a ∧ b = (ab − ba) = 0, so a k b.
2
Example 2.4. Let the vectors a = σ1 + σ12 and b = −2σ1 + −3σ2 . Determine the
outer product.
Solution 2.4. ab = −2 − 3σ12 + 2σ2 − 3σ1 and ba = −2 + 3σ1 − 2σ2 + 3σ12 ,
1
a ∧ b = (ab − ba) = −2σ2 + 3σ1 + 3σ12 .
2
2.1.2. Inner Product: a · b

Definition 2.3. For two elements a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ12 and b = b0 +
b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ12 ∈ G2 [1, 4, 8, 15], we define
1
a · b = (ab + ba)
2
Example 2.5. Consider elements a = σ1 + σ2 , b = σ1 − σ2 ∈ G2 [1, 4, 15]. (i)
Obtain the geometric products ab and ba. (ii) Determine a · b. (iii) Determine
a ∧ b.
Solution 2.5. (i) ab = −2, ba = 2σ12 . (ii) a · b = 0. (iii) a ∧ b = 0.
The perpendicularity of two vectors in R2 implies that the inner product is zero,
i.e. a · b = 0 ⇔ a ⊥ b.
Example 2.6. Let two perpendicular vectors [1, 21] a = σ1 + σ2 and b = σ1 −

σ2 in R2 . (i) Determine the inner product. (ii) Interpret geometrically the inner
product.
1
Solution 2.6. (i) ab = −2σ12 and ba = 2σ12 , a · b = (ab + ba) = 0, so a ⊥ b. (ii)
2
See (Fig. 2.1).
Figure 2.1 Geometrical representation of a · b
Example 2.7. Let the vectors a = σ1 + σ12 and b = −2σ1 + −3σ2 . Determine the
inner product.
Solution 2.7. ab = −2 − 3σ12 + 2σ2 − 3σ1 and ba = −2 + 3σ1 − 2σ2 + 3σ12 ,
1
a · b = (ab + ba) = −2.
2
2.1.3. Geometric Product: ab

From these two elements a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ12 and b = b0 + b1 σ1 +
b2 σ2 + b3 σ12 ∈ G2 [1, 2, 9, 10, 16, 17, 22, 23], the geometric product (Eq. 2.3)
is defined as
ab = (a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a12 σ1 σ2 )(b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b12 σ1 σ2 )

(2.3)
= a·b+a∧b
The geometric interpretation of the bivector σ1 ∧ σ2 is the oriented area with two
sides A and B spanned by the vectors σ1 and σ2 , whose value is 1 (Fig. 2.2). Sim-
ilarly, σ1 ∧ −σ2 (Fig. 2.3) represents the area of side B and −σ1 ∧ −σ2 represents
the area of side A.
Remark 2.2. Note that the vectorial expression implicitly defines the orientation
of the surface.
Figure 2.2 Side A with area 1, σ1 ∧ σ2 .
Figure 2.3 Side B with area 1, σ1 ∧ −σ2 .
Remark 2.3. When the elements on G2 are of the form a = a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 and b =

b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 , the inner product will only have the scalar part and the outer
product the vectorial part.
Example 2.8. Let two elements a = (1, −1) and b = (3, 2) ∈ G2 [1]. Express these
elements using the orthonormal basis.
Solution 2.8. a = σ1 − σ2 and b = 3σ1 + 2σ2 .
Example 2.9. Let the vectors a = σ1 + σ12 and b = −2σ1 + −3σ2 . Express the
geometric product ab using the outer product and the inner product.
Solution 2.9. ab = a · b + a ∧ b = (−2) + (−2σ2 + 3σ1 + 3σ12 ).
For two elements a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ12 and b = b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 +

b3 σ12 ∈ G2 hold:
ab = (a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ12 )(b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ12 )

= (a0 (b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ12 ))
+ (a1 σ1 (b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ12 ))
+ (a2 σ2 (b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ12 ))
+ (a3 σ12 (b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ12 ))
= (a0 b0 + a1 b1 + a2 b2 − a3 b3 )
+ (a0 b1 + a1 b0 − a2 b3 + a3 b2 )σ1
+ (a0 b2 + a1 b3 + a2 b0 − a3 b1 )σ2
+ (a0 b3 + a1 b2 − a2 b1 + a3 b0 )σ12
(2.4)
ba = (b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ12 )(a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ12 )
= (b0 (a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ12 ))
+ (b1 σ1 (a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ12 ))
+ (b2 σ2 (a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ12 ))
+ (b3 σ12 (a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ12 ))
= (a0 b0 + b1 a1 + a2 b2 − b3 a3 )
+ (b0 a1 + b1 a0 − b2 a3 + b3 a2 )σ1
+ (b0 a2 + b1 a3 + b2 a0 − b3 a1 )σ2
+ (b0 a3 + b1 a2 − b2 a1 + b3 a0 )σ12
Remark 2.4. Verify that the inner product is a · b = (a0 b0 + b1 a1 + a2 b2 − b3 a3 ) +

(b0 a1 + b1 a0 )σ1 + (a0 b2 + b2 a0 )σ2 + (a3 b0 + b3 a0 )σ12 and the outer product is
a ∧ b = (b2 a3 − b3 a2 )σ1 + (a0 b2 + a1 b3 − a3 b1 )σ2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )σ12 . Observe
that ab = a · b + a ∧ b.
From Eq. 2.4 the geometric product ab on G2 has an element of the general form
α ∈ R (Eq. 2.5)
α0 + α1 σ1 + α2 σ2 + α12 σ12 (2.5)

For two elements a = a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 and b = b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 ∈ G2 hold:
ab = (a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 )(b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 )
= (a1 σ1 (b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 ))
+ (a2 σ2 (b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 ))
= (a1 b1 + a2 b2 )
+ (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )σ12
(2.6)
ba = (b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 )(a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 )
= (b1 σ1 (a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 ))
+ (b2 σ2 (a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 ))
= (a1 b1 + a2 b2 )
+ (b1 a2 − b2 a1 )σ12
Remark 2.5. Verify that the inner product is a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 and the outer
product is a ∧ B = (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )σ12 . Note that ab = a · b + a ∧ b.
From Eq. 2.6, the geometric product ab on G2 gives an element with the general
form α ∈ R (Eq. 2.7).
α0 + α12 σ12 (2.7)
For two elements a = a3 σ12 and b = b3 σ12 ∈ G2 hold:
ab = (a3 σ12 )(b3 σ12 )

= −(a3 b3 )
(2.8)
ba = (b3 σ12 )(a3 σ12 )
= −(b3 a3 )
Remark 2.6. Verify that the inner product is a · b = −(a3 b3 ) and the outer product
is a ∧ B = 0.
From Eq. 2.8, the geometric product ab on G2 gives an element with the general
form α ∈ R (Eq. 2.9).
α0 (2.9)
2.2. Properties on G2
The following fundamental properties of geometric algebra [20, 23] will be ex-
emplified, so it is advisable to check all the examples.
2.2.1. Distributivity: a(b + c)

Definition 2.4. For three elements a, b, and c ∈ G2 [23, 24], then
a(b + c) = ab + ac
Proof.
ab + ac = a · b + a ∧ b + a · c + a ∧ c
= a·b+a·c+a∧b+a∧c
(2.10)
= a · (b + c) + a ∧ (b + c)
= a(b + c)
Example 2.10. Let three elements a = σ2 , b = σ1 − σ2 , and c = σ1 + σ2 . (i) Deter-

mine a(b + c). (ii) Determine ab + ac. (iii) Is the distributivity fulfilled?
Solution 2.10. (i) a(b+c) = σ2 (σ1 − σ2 + σ1 + σ2 ) = −2σ12 . (ii) ab = −σ1 σ2 −1
and ac = −σ1 σ2 + 1, then ab + ac = −2σ1 σ2 . (iii) From (i) and (ii) yes, it is.
2.2.2. Distributivity: a ∧ (b + c)
Definition 2.5. For three elements a, b and c ∈ G2 [1], hold:
a ∧ (b + c) = a ∧ b + a ∧ c
Proof.
a ∧ (b + c) = −ab − ac + a · (b + c)
= −ab − ac + a · b + a · c
(2.11)
= (−ab + a · b) + (−ac + a · c)
= a∧b+a∧c
Example 2.11. Let three elements a = σ2 , b = σ1 − σ2 , and c = σ1 + σ2 . (i) De-

termine a ∧ (b + c). (ii) Determine a ∧ b and a ∧ c. (iii) Is the distributivity over
the outer product fulfilled?
Solution 2.11. (i) a ∧ (b + c) = −2σ12 . (ii) a ∧ b = −σ12 and a ∧ c = −σ12 , then
a ∧ b + a ∧ c = −2σ12 . (iii) Yes, it is.
Example 2.12. Let three elements a = σ1 σ2 , b = 2 + σ1 + σ2 , and c = −σ1 σ2 [1].

(i) Determine a ∧ (b + c). (ii) Determine a ∧ b and a ∧ c. (iii) Is the distributivity
over the outer product fulfilled?
Solution 2.12. (i) a ∧ (b + c) = σ1 − σ2 . (ii) a ∧ b = −σ1 + σ2 and a ∧ c = 0, then
a ∧ b + a ∧ c = σ1 − σ2 . (iii) Yes, it is.
2
2.2.3. Multiplicative Inverse: a−1

a
Definition 2.6. For an element a ∈ G2 [1], we define a−1 =
a·a
then
aa−1 = 1
Proof.
a
aa−1 = a
a·a
aa
=
a·a
a·a+a∧a (2.12)
=
a·a
a·a a∧a
= +
a·a a·a
= 1+0
=1

Example 2.13. Let element a = 2σ1 + σ2 ∈ G2 . (i) Obtain the element aa−1 .
(ii)
Determine the geometric product aa−1 , the outer product a ∧ a−1 , and the inner
product a · a−1 .
a 2 1 2 1
Solution 2.13. (i) a−1 = = ( , ) ⇒ a−1 = σ1 + σ2 . (ii) aa−1 = (2σ1 +
5 5 5 5 5
σ2 )( 25 σ1 + 15 σ2 ) = 1. (iii) a · a−1 = 1 and a ∧ a−1 = 0.
Example 2.14. Let element a = 1 − σ1 + 2σ1 σ2 ∈ G2 . Obtain the elements a−1
and aa−1 [1].
a 1 − σ1 + 2σ1 σ2 (1 − σ1 + 2σ1 σ2 )2
Solution 2.14. a−1 = = ⇒ aa−1 =
a · a −2 − 2σ1 + 4σ1 σ2 −2 − 2σ1 + 4σ1 σ2
= 1.
2.2.4. Associativity: a(bc) = (ab)c

Definition 2.7. For three elements a, b, and c ∈ G2 [1], then
(ab)c = a(bc)
Proof.
(ab)c = (a · b + a ∧ b)c
= (a · b)c + (a ∧ b)c
= a · b · c + (a · b) ∧ c + (a ∧ b) · c + a ∧ b ∧ c
(2.13)
a(bc) = a(b · c + b ∧ c)
= a(b · c) + a(b ∧ c)
= a · b · c + a ∧ (b · c) + a · (b ∧ c) + a ∧ b ∧ c
Note 2.1. (a · b) ∧ c + (a ∧ b) · c = abc − cba and a ∧ (b · c) + a · (b ∧ c) = abc − cba.
Example 2.15. Consider three elements i, j, and α j, where α ∈ R [1]. (i) Deter-
mine i( jα j). (ii) Determine (i j)α j. (iii) Is the associativity fulfilled?
Solution 2.15. (i) i( jα j) = σ1 (σ2 ασ2 ) = ασ1 . (ii) (i j)α j = (σ1 σ2 )ασ2 = ασ1 .
(iii) From the results (i) and (ii) yes, it is.
2.2.5. Reversion: a†
Definition 2.8. For an element a ∈ G2 [1], we define the reversion of the element
a as a† , where
a† = (a1 a2 · · · ar )† = ar · · · a2 a1
Example 2.16. Let element a = 1 − 3σ1 − σ1 σ2 , ∈ G2 . Obtain the reverse of ele-

ment a.
Solution 2.16. From the definition, the reversion of a is a† = 1 − 3σ1 − σ21 .
2.2.6. Dual: Iar

Definition 2.9. Let two elements a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ12 and b = b0 +
b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ12 both on G2 , then
Iar = bn−r
with n = 2
scalar r = 0, n − r = 2 bivector
vector r = 1, n − r = 1 vector (2.14)
bivector r = 2, n−r = 0 scalar
From Eq. 2.14

scalar ⇄ bivector
Example 2.17. Explain the possibilities of the dual terms on G2 [17, 20, 23].
Solution 2.17. We have three alternatives: (i) If r = 0 and n = 2, then Ia0 = b2 .
(ii) If r = 1 and n = 2, then Ia1 = b1 . (iii) If r = 2 and n = 2, then Ia2 = b0 . From
these three alternatives the only duality is the scalar ⇄ bivector.
Example 2.18. Let two elements a = σ1 + σ2 and b = 2σ1 + σ2 ∈ G2 . Obtain the

dual of the bivector a ∧ b.
Solution 2.18. a ∧ b = −σ12 , then I(a ∧ b) = σ12 (−σ12 ) = −σ12 σ12 = 1.
2.2.7. Blades < a >

Definition 2.10. For an element a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ12 on G2 , a vector
space structure is Eq. 2.15 [17, 20, 23].
a= a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a σ
|{z} | {z } | 3{z12} (2.15)
grade−0 blade grade−1 blades grade−2 blade
where the element a can be expressed as

2
a= ∑ < a >i = < a >0 + < a >1 + < a >2
r=1
Corollary 2.1. Any element a can be separated into the sum of even and odd
blades.
< a > =< a >+ + < a >−
(2.16)
< a >+ =< a >0 + < a >2 + · · · +
< a >− =< a >1 + < a >3 + · · · +
Example 2.19. Let an element a = 1+2σ1 −3σ2 −3σ2 σ1 , ∈ G2 . Obtain the blades
of element a.
Solution 2.19. From the definition, < a >0 = 1, < a >1 = 2σ1 − 3σ2 and < a >2 =
−3σ2 σ1 .
2.2.8. Norm: ||a||

Definition 2.11. Let the element a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ12 on G2 , then its
norm is the scalar part of Eq. 2.17 [17, 20, 23].
√
||a||= aa† (2.17)
Example 2.20. Let an element a = −1 + 2σ1 − 3σ2 − 3σ2 σ1 ∈ G2 . Obtain the

norm of element a.
Solution 2.20. From the definition, the norm of a is Eq. 2.18
√
||a|| =aa†
p
= (−1 + 2σ1 − 3σ2 − 3σ21 )(−1 + 2σ1 − 3σ2 + 3σ21 )
q (2.18)
❤❤❤ ✭✭✭✭
= 23 + ✭ σ1✭
14✭ +✭❤
18❤σ2❤
−❤ σ❤
12
√
= 23.
2.2.9. Vector Components: vk v⊥
The components of a vector with the form a = a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 , v = v1 σ1 + v2 σ2

on G2 are the orthonormal projection of the vector v onto vector a vk and the
orthonormal projection of vector v onto vector a v⊥ (Fig. 2.4), such that vector
v = vk + v⊥ [25].
v·a
vk = a (2.19)
||a||2
v⊥ = v − vk (2.20)
Figure 2.4 Components of vector v.
Example 2.21. Let vectors a = 2σ2 and v = σ1 + 2σ2 on G2 . Determine vk and

v⊥ .
v·a 2
Solution 2.21. v·a = 2, then vk = a = 2σ2 = 2σ2 . v⊥ = v − vk = σ1 + 2σ2
||a||2 2
−2σ2 = σ1 .
2.3. Reflections and Rotations on a Plane

Given a vector a = a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 ∈ G2 , we define a reflection of vector a as Ia or
IIa, where I = σ1 ∧ σ2 [1, 2, 9, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26]. A rotation is defined here as
two successive reflections.
Example 2.22. Let an element a = σ1 + σ2 ∈ G2 [1]. (i) Determine Ia. (ii) Deter-
mine aI. (iii) Explain (i) and (ii).
Solution 2.22. (i) Ia = σ1 σ2 a = −σ2 + σ1 = σ1 − σ2 . (ii) aI = aσ1 σ2 = σ2 − σ1 .
(iii) From these results, (i) is the rotation of π2 in the clockwise direction and (ii)
is the rotation of π2 in the counter-clockwise direction.
Example 2.23. Let an element a = σ1 + σ2 ∈ G2 [1]. (i) Determine IIa. (ii) Deter-
mine aII. (iii) Explain (i) and (ii).
Solution 2.23. (i) IIa = σ1 σ2 σ1 σ2 a = −σ1 − σ2 . (ii) aII = aσ1 σ2 σ1 σ2 = −σ1 −

σ2 . (iii) From these results, (i) is the reflection of π in the clockwise direction and
(ii) is the reflection of π in the counter-clockwise direction.
Other method is the following: ( Case taken with the permission of the author [2]).
u
To find the vector y = −uxu, where u = is the reflected vector and x is the
||u||
transformed vector., rotate through angle θ in the plane and perform two reflec-
tions in succession along any of the two axes in the plane, as long as (a) the angle
θ
between the axes is and (b) the rotation from the first axis to the second is in
2
the same direction as the rotation to be performed (Figs. 2.5-2.7).
So if we want to rotate vector v, then I = σ12 . Let m and n be vectors along the
axes satisfying the conditions, then the result of the rotation is
v′ = −m(−nvn−1 )m−1
= (mn)v(mn)−1 (2.21)
−1
= uvu
where u = mn
The angle between vectors v and v′′ is θ , twice the angle between n and m regard-
less of the value of ϕ (Figs. 2.5, 2.6, and 2.5).
Figure 2.5 First, the vector v makes an angle ϕ with axis n.

Figure 2.6 Second, the vector v is then reflected along n producing vector v′ .
Figure 2.7 Finally, then along axis m producing vector v′′ .
Example 2.24. Find the vector y for the vector x = σ1 + 3σ2 over the vector u =
σ1 + σ2 .
u u 3 1
Solution 2.24. u = = , then y = −uxu = − σ1 − σ2 .
||u|| 2 2 2
2.4. Geometric Representation of a Line on R2

Definition 2.12. Given a vector v and a point x0 in space R2 , what is the equation
of the line passing through point x0 in the direction of vector v (Fig. 2.8)? [2, 9,
20, 22, 24] (Example adapted with permission of the author [22] and reproduced
here from [1]).
The line Lx0 (v) is given by
Lx0 (v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0} (2.22)
Remark 2.7. Take note that the oriented line is defined by v.
Figure 2.8 The line Lx0 through the point x0 is in the direction of v. (Figure taken with the
permission of the author [1]
Example 2.25. Given a vector v and a point x0 in space R2 , what is the equation
of the line passing through point x0 = (1, 2) in the direction of vector v = (1, 1)?
Solution 2.25. The line Lx0 (v) is given by
Lx0 =(1,2) (v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0} (2.23)
[(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 ) − (σ1 + 2σ2 )] ∧ (σ1 + σ2 ) = 0

(2.24)
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 ] ∧ (σ1 + σ2 ) = 0
The outer product (x − x0 ) ∧ v = 12 [(x − x0 )v − v(x − x0 )],
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 ](σ1 + σ2 ) = (x1 + x2 − 3) + (x1 − x2 + 1)σ1 σ2

(2.25)
(σ1 + σ2 )[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 ] = (x1 + x2 − 3) + (x2 − x1 − 1)σ1 σ2
From Eqs. 2.25, (x − x0 ) ∧ v = x1 − x2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ x1 = x2 − 1, the points (x2 −

1, x2 ) are the solution. Note that the point (1, 2) meets the line Lx0 (v).
2.5. Geometric Representation of a Plane on R2

Definition 2.13. Let two vectors v and u, and a point x0 on R2 . What is the equa-
tion of the plane passing through point x0 over the plane generated by the vectors
v and u? (Fig. 2.9) (Case adapted with permission of the author [1, 22]).
The plane Px0 (u ∧ v) is given by
Px0 (u ∧ v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ (u ∧ v) = 0} (2.26)
Remark 2.8. Note that the oriented area in the plane is defined by u ∧ v.
Figure 2.9 The plane Px0 passing through point x0 in the direction of the bivector u ∧ v.
Example 2.26. Let two vectors v and u, and a point x0 in space R2 . What is the
equation of the plane passing through point x0 = (1, 2) in the plane generated by
the vectors v = (1, 0) and u = (0, 1)?
Solution 2.26. The plane Px0 (u, v) is given by
Px0 =(1,2) (u ∧ v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ (u ∧ v) = 0} (2.27)
[(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 ) − (σ1 + 2σ2 )] ∧ (σ1 σ2 ) = 0

(2.28)
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 ] ∧ (σ1 σ2 ) = 0
From Eq. 4.13, [(x1 −1)σ1 +(x2 −2)σ2 ][σ1 σ2 ]−[σ1 σ2 ][(x1 −1)σ1 +(x2 −2)σ2 ] =
0. So, the points (x2 − 2, x1 − 1) are the solution. Note that the point (1, 2) meets
the plane Px0 =(1,2) (u ∧ v).
2.6. Remarks
Note that the outer product a ∧ b is neither scalar nor vector, in fact, it is a plane
spanned by the vectors in the plane R2 . a and b represent planes with an area
and an orientation, if you interchange a and b you will change the sign of a ∧
b) [2, 9, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26]. This operator makes unnecessary the cross product
used in Heaviside-Gibbs algebra to identify the sides of an area in the plane R2 ,
that is the reason why in the first chapter we will only use the cross product.
In this chapter we introduced the equivalent of the two algebras in the plane R2 .
In the next chapter, we will introduce the Geometric algebra or Grassmann
algebra in the space R3 .
As you will see in the next chapters, Geometric algebra acts in a space of n
dimensions, which makes possible to extend the orientation of objects to these
dimensions.
We strongly advise the reader to review and solve all the exercises in this chapter,
to get familiar with this algebra.
2.7. Exercises
Exercise 2.1. Provide some exercises of elements on G2 .
Exercise 2.2. Let two elements a = (−1, 1) and b = (2, 3) ∈ G2 [1]. Express these
elements using the orthonormal basis.
Exercise 2.3. Let two elements a = σ12 and b = σ1 + σ2 ∈ G2 . Obtain the exterior
product a ∧ b.
Exercise 2.4. Let the vectors a = −σ1 + 2σ2 and b = σ1 + σ2 ∈ G2 . Determine

the exterior product.
Exercise 2.5. Let elements a = σ1 , b = −σ21 ∈ G2 . (i) Obtain the geometric prod-
ucts ab and ba. (ii) Determine a · b. (iii) Determine a ∧ b.
Exercise 2.6. Let three elements a = σ1 , b = σ1 − σ2 , and c = σ1 + σ2 ∈ G2 [1].

(i) Determine a(b + c). (ii) Determine ab + ac. (iii) Is the distributivity fulfilled?
Exercise 2.7. Let three elements a = σ12 , b = 3 + σ1 − σ2 , and c = −σ12 ∈ G2 .

(i) Determine a(b + c) and (b + c)a. (ii) Determine a ∧ (b + c). (iii) Determine
a ∧ b and a ∧ c. (iv) Is the distributivity over the exterior product fulfilled?
Exercise 2.8. Let an element a = 2 − σ1 + 2σ1 σ2 ∈ G2 . Obtain the element a−1 .
Exercise 2.9. Let an element a = σ1 σ2 ∈ G2 . Obtain the reverse of element a.
Exercise 2.10. Let an element a = 1 + 2σ1 σ2 ∈ G2 . Obtain the blades.
Exercise 2.11. Let two elements a = σ1 σ2 and b = 2σ1 + σ2 ∈ G2 . Obtain the

dual of a ∧ b.
Exercise 2.12. Let an element a = 1 + σ1 + σ2 + σ2 σ1 ∈ G2 . Obtain the norm of

element a.
Exercise 2.13. Let three elements a = σ1 , b = σ2 , and c = ασ1 − σ2 ∈ G2 where

α ∈ R. (i) Determine a(bc). (ii) Determine (ab)c. (iii) Is the associativity fulfilled?
Exercise 2.14. Let an element a = σ1 + σ2 ∈ G2 [1]. (i) Determine Ia. (ii) Deter-
Exercise 2.15. Let an element a = 2σ1 + 3σ2 ∈ G2 [1]. (i) Determine IIa. (ii)
Determine aII. (iii) Explain (i) and (ii).
Exercise 2.16. Find vector y for the vector x = 2σ1 + σ2 onto vector u = σ1 − 2σ2 .
Exercise 2.17. Let vector v and a point x0 in the line R2 . What is the equation
of the line passing through the point x0 = (1, 1) in the direction of the vector
v = (1, 0)?
Exercise 2.18. Let two vectors v and u, and a point x0 in the R2 space. What is
the equation of the plane passing through point x0 = (2, 1) in the plane generated
by the vectors v = (0, 1) and u = (1, 1)?
CHAPTER 3
Geometric Algebra on G3
Carlos Polanco
Abstract This chapter reviews and elaborates on the operators from Geometric
algebra on G2 to G3 . This algebra is attributed to Hermann Grassmann [Die lin-
eare Ausdehnungslehre, ein neuer Zweig der Mathematik 1842]. It is formed by
two main operators, the outer product and the inner product, it also includes the
element called bivector. Here, we review their properties and their application in
space.
Keywords: Associativity: a(bc) = (ab)c, bivector: a ∧ b, blades < a >, compo-

nent: vk , component: v⊥ , distributivity: a(b + c), distributivity: a ∧ (b + c), dual
Iar = bn−r , equation of a line, outer product, geometric algebra, geometric prod-
uct, inner product, lines, multiplicative inverse: a−1 , norm ||a||, reflections, rever-
sion: a† , rotations
3.1. Geometric Algebra on G3

Definition 3.1. The Geometric algebra or Grassmann algebra [1, 9] is a unitary
associative algebra, in symbols G3 = G3 (R3 ). It is formed by eight 23 elements:
α , scalars, σ1 , σ2 , σ3 vectors, σ1 ∧ σ2 , σ1 ∧ σ3 , σ2 ∧ σ3 bivectors, and σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧
σ3 trivectors (or equivalently σ1 σ2 σ3 ), where α ∈ R. For convenience these
elements are expressed in orthonormal basis and they meet Eqs. 3.1 for i = j.
σi σi = 1
(3.1)
σi σ j = −σ j σi
An arbitrary element is Eq. 3.2.
Carlos Polanco
v= v0
|{z}
basis scalars
+ v1 σ1 + v2 σ2
| {z }
basis vectors
(3.2)
+ v12 σ1 ∧ σ2 + v23 σ2 ∧ σ3 + v31 σ3 ∧ σ1
| {z }
basis bivectors
+ v123 σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧ σ3 in G3 .
| {z }
basistrivector
Remark 3.1. The equivalent would be σi ∧ σ j , σi σ j , and σi j .
Example 3.1. Provide some examples of elements on G2 .

Solution 3.1. v = 4σ2 + 5σ1 ∧ σ2 , v = 4 + σ2 + −4σ12 , v = −1 + σ1 − 3σ2 + 7σ12 .

Definition 3.2. For two elements a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a12 σ1 ∧ σ2 + a13 σ1 ∧
σ3 + a23 σ2 ∧ σ3 + σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧ σ3 and b = b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b12 σ1 ∧ σ2 + b13 σ1 ∧
σ3 + b23 σ2 ∧ σ3 + b123 σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧ σ3 ∈ G3 [1], we define
1
a ∧ b = (ab − ba)
2
Remark 3.2. If a ∧ b = 0 ⇒ a k b.
Example 3.2. Consider two elements a = σ21 + σ123 and b = 2+ σ12 ∈ G3 . Obtain
the outer product a ∧ b.
Solution 3.2. Since ab = −1− σ3 −2σ12 +2σ123 and ba = 1− σ3 −2σ 12+2σ123 ,
a ∧ b = 0.
Example 3.3. Are vectores a = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 and b = 2σ1 + 2σ2 + 2σ3 colinear?.

(i) Determine the outer product. (ii) What about Eq. 3.2.
1
Solution 3.3. (i) ab = 6 and ba = 6, a ∧ b = (ab − ba) = 0, so a k b. (ii) Yes,
2
both elements are parallel.

Definition 3.3. For two elements a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a12 σ1 ∧ σ2 + a13 σ1 ∧
σ3 + a23 σ2 ∧ σ3 + σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧ σ3 and b = b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b12 σ1 ∧ σ2 + b13 σ1 ∧
σ3 + b23 σ2 ∧ σ3 + b123 σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧ σ3 ∈ G3 [1], we define
1
a · b = (ab + ba).
2
Remark 3.3. If a · b = 0 ⇔ a ⊥ b.
Example 3.4. Let two elements a = σ1 σ2 σ3 , b = σ1 − σ2 σ1 σ3 ∈ G3 . (i) Obtain the

geometric products ab and ba. (ii) Determine a · b. (iii) Determine a ∧ b.
Solution 3.4. (i) ab = (σ1 σ2 σ3 )(σ1 − σ2 σ1 σ3 ) = σ2 σ3 − 1, ba = σ2 σ3 − 1. (ii)
a · b = σ2 σ3 − 1. (iii) a ∧ b = 0.
Example 3.5. Let two elements a = σ1 σ2 and b = σ3 ∈ G3 . (i) Obtain the geo-
metric products ab and ba. (ii) From Def. 3.3 determine a · b. (iii) From Def. 3.2
determine a ∧ b.
Solution 3.5. (i) ab = σ1 σ2 σ3 . ba = σ1 σ2 σ3 . (ii) a · b = σ1 σ2 σ3 . (iii) a ∧ b = 0.
Example 3.6. Let two elements a = 1 + σ1 + σ2 − σ2 σ3 and b = σ1 σ2 ∈ G3 . (i)

Obtain the geometric products ab and ba. (ii) From Def. 3.3 determine a · b. (iii)
From Def. 3.2 determine a ∧ b.
Solution 3.6. (i) ab = (1+ σ1 + σ2 − σ2 σ3 )(σ1 σ2 ) = σ1 − σ2 + σ1 σ2 − σ1 σ3 . ba =
(σ1 σ2 )(1 + σ1 + σ2 − σ2 σ3 ) = −σ1 + σ2 + σ1 σ2 − σ1 σ3 . (ii) a · b = σ1 σ2 − σ1 σ3 .
(iii) a ∧ b = σ1 − σ2 .
Example 3.7. Let two elements a and b on G3 [1] a = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 and b =

σ1 + σ2 − 2σ3 in R3 . (i) Determine the inner product. (ii) Give a geometrical
interpretation of the inner product.
1
Solution 3.7. (i) ab = 3σ13 +3σ23 and ba = −3σ13 −3σ23 , a · b = (ab + ba) = 0,
2
so a ⊥ b. (ii) See Fig. 3.1.
Figure 3.1 Geometrical representation of a · b.

For two elements a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a12 σ1 ∧ σ2 + a13 σ1 ∧ σ3 + a23 σ2 ∧ σ3 +
σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧ σ3 and b = b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b12 σ1 ∧ σ2 + b13 σ1 ∧ σ3 + b23 σ2 ∧ σ3 +
b123 σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧ σ3 ∈ G3 [1], the geometric product (Eq. 3.3) is defined as
ab = (a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a12 σ1 σ2 + a13 σ1 σ3 + a23 σ2 σ3 + a123 σ1 σ2 σ3 )

(b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b12 σ1 σ2 + b13 σ1 σ3 + b23 σ2 σ3 + b123 σ1 σ2 σ3 ) (3.3)
= a·b+a∧b
Where the term a · b is called inner product (Def. 3.1.2) and the term a ∧ b is
called outer product (Def. 3.1.1) [1].
Remark 3.4. When the elements on G3 are of the form a = a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3

and b = b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + a3 σ3 , the inner product only has the scalar part and the
outer product the vectorial part.
Note 3.1. The geometrical description of the trivector σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧ σ3 is the oriented

volume spanned by the vectors σ1 , σ2 and σ3 (Fig. 3.2).
Figure 3.2 The oriented volume formed by the vectors σ1 , σ2 and σ3 . (Figure taken from [1])
Example 3.8. Let two elements a = σ1 − 2σ2 + 3σ3 − σ1 σ2 and b = 2σ1 + 3σ2 +
σ3 ∈ G3 [1]. (i) Obtain the geometric product ab and ba. (ii) Obtain a ∧ b =
1 1
(ab − ba). (iii) Obtain a · b = (ab + ba). (iv) Explain the results obtained in
2 2
(iii).
Solution 3.8. (i) ab = (σ1 − 2σ2 + 3σ3 − σ1 σ2 )(2σ1 + 3σ2 + σ3 ) = −1 − 3σ1 +
2σ2 + 7σ1 σ2 − 5σ1 σ3 − 11σ2 σ3 − σ1 σ2 σ3 ba = (2σ1 + 3σ2 + σ3 )(σ1 − 2σ2 +
3σ3 − σ1 σ2 ) = −1 + 3σ1 − 2σ2 − 7σ1 σ2 + 5σ1 σ3 + 11σ2 σ3 − σ1 σ2 σ3 . (ii) a ∧ b =
−6σ1 + 4σ2 + 14σ1 σ2 − 10σ1 σ3 − 22σ2 σ3 . (iii) a · b = −1 − σ1 σ2 σ3 . (iv) The
geometric product is the addition of the inner product and the outer product,
but the inner product is not the real part of the geometric product.
For two elements a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 + a4 σ12 + a5 σ23 + a6 σ31 + a7 σ123

and b = b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ3 + b4 σ12 + b5 σ23 + b6 σ31 + b7 σ123 ∈ G3 , we
observe
ab = (a0 (b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ3 + b4 σ12 + b5 σ23 + b6 σ31 + b7 σ123 ))

+ (a1 σ1 (b0 + b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ3 + b4 σ12 + b5 σ23 + b6 σ31 + b7 σ123 ))
= (a0 b0 + a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 − a4 b4 − a5 b5 − a6 b6 − a7 b7 )
+ (a0 b1 + a1 b0 − a2 b4 − a3 b6 + a4 b2 − a5 b7 + a6 b3 − a7 b5 )σ1
+ (a0 b2 + a1 b4 + a2 b0 − a3 b5 − a4 b1 + a6 b7 + a7 b3 + a7 b6 )σ2
+ (a0 b3 + a1 b6 + a2 b5 + a3 b0 − a4 b2 − a5 b2 − a6 b1 − a7 b4 )σ3
+ (a0 b4 + a1 b2 − a2 b1 + a3 b7 + a4 b0 + a5 b6 − a6 b5 + a7 b3 )σ12
+ (a0 b6 + a1 b3 − a2 b7 − a3 b1 + a4 b5 − a5 b4 + a6 b0 − a7 b2 )σ13
+ (a0 b5 + a1 b7 + a2 b3 − a3 b2 − a4 b6 + a5 b0 + a6 b4 + a7 b1 )σ23
+ (a0 b7 + a1 b5 − a2 b6 + a3 b4 + a4 b3 + a5 b1 − a6 b2 + a7 b0 )σ123
ba = (b0 (a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 + a4 σ12 + a5 σ23 + a6 σ31 + a7 σ123 ))

+ (b1 σ1 (a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 + a4 σ12 + a5 σ23 + a6 σ31 + a7 σ123 ))
= (a0 b0 + a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 − a4 b4 − a5 b5 − a6 b6 − a7 b7 )
+ (b0 a1 + b1 a0 − b2 a4 − b3 a6 + b4 a2 − b5 a7 + b6 a3 − b7 a5 )σ1
+ (b0 a2 + b1 a4 + b2 a0 − b3 a5 − b4 a1 + b5 a3 + b6 a7 + b7 a6 )σ2
+ (b0 a3 + b1 a6 + b2 a5 + b3 a0 − b4 a7 − b5 a2 − b6 a1 − b7 a4 )σ3
+ (b0 a4 + b1 a2 − b2 a1 + b3 a7 + b4 a0 + b5 a6 − b6 a5 + b7 a3 )σ12
+ (b0 a6 + b1 a3 − b2 a7 − a1 b3 + b4 a5 − b5 a4 + b6 a0 − b7 a2 )σ13
+ (b0 a5 + b1 a7 + b2 a3 − b3 a2 − b4 a6 + b5 a0 − b6 a4 + b7 a1 )σ23
+ (b0 a7 + b1 a5 − b2 a6 + b3 a4 + b4 a3 + b5 a1 − b6 a2 + b7 a0 )σ123
(3.4)
Remark 3.5. Verify that the inner product is a · b = (a0 b0 + b1 a1 + a2 b2 − b3 a3 −

a4 b4 − a5 b5 − a6 b6 − a7 b7 ) + (a0 b1 + a1 b0 − a5 b7 − a7 b5 )σ1 + (a0 b2 + a2 b0 +
a6 b7 −a4 b1 )σ2 +(a0 b3 +a3 b0 −a4 b7 −a7 b4 )σ3 +(a0 b4 +a3 b7 +a4 b7 +a7 b3 )σ12 +
(a0 b6 −a2 b7 +a6 b0 −a7 b2 )σ13 +(a0 b5 +a1 b7 +a5 b0 +a7 b1 )σ23 +(a0 b7 −a2 b6 +
a4 b3 +a7 b0 )σ123 and the outer product is a∧b = (−a2 b4 −a3 b6 +a4 b2 +a6 b3 )σ1 +
(a1 b4 − b2 a3 − a3 b5 − a4 b1 )σ2 + (a1 b6 + a2 b5 − a5 b2 − a6 b1 )σ3 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 +
a4 b0 + a5 b6 − a6 b5 )σ12 + (a1 b3 − a2 b7 − a3 b1 + a4 b5 − a5 b4 − a7 b2 )σ13 + (a1 b7 +
a2 b3 − a3 b2 − a4 b6 + a6 b4 )σ23 + (a1 b5 + a3 b4 + a5 b1 − a6 b2 )
σ123 . Note that ab = a · b + a ∧ b.
From Eq. 3.4, the Geometric product ab on G3 produces an element with the
general form of Eq. 3.5 α ∈ R.
α0 + α1 σ1 + α2 σ2 + α12 σ12 + α23 σ23 + α13 σ13 + α123 σ123 (3.5)

For two elements a = a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 and b = b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ3 ∈ G3 , we
observe
ab = (a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 )(b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ3 )
= (a1 σ1 (b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ3 ))
+ (a2 σ2 (b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ3 ))
+ (a3 σ3 (b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ3 ))
= (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )
+ (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )σ12
+ (a1 b3 − a3 b1 )σ13
+ (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )σ32
(3.6)
ba = (b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + b3 σ3 )(a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 )
= (b1 σ1 (a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 ))
+ (b2 σ2 (a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 ))
+ (b3 σ3 (a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 ))
= (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )
+ (b1 a2 − b2 a1 )σ12
+ (b1 a3 − b3 a1 )σ13
+ (b2 a3 − b3 a2 )σ32
Remark 3.6. Verify that the inner product is a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 and the

outer product is a ∧ B = (b1 a2 − a2 b1 )σ12 + (a1 b3 − a3 b1 )σ13 + (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )σ32 .
Notice that ab = a · b + a ∧ b.
From Eq. 3.6 the Geometric product ab on G3 produces an element with the gen-
eral form of Eq. 3.7, α ∈ R.
α0 + α12 σ12 + α23 σ23 + α13 σ13 (3.7)
For two elements a = a3 σ123 and b = b3 σ123 ∈ G3 we observe

ab = (a3 σ123 )(b3 σ123 )

= −(a3 b3 )
(3.8)
ba = (b3 σ123 )(a3 σ123 )
= −(b3 a3 )
Remark 3.7. Verify that the inner product is a · b = −(b3 a3 ) and the outer product
is a ∧ B = 0.
From Eq. 3.8, the Geometric product ab on G3 produces an element with the
general form of Eq. 3.9 α ∈ R.
α0 (3.9)
3.2. Properties on G3
The following fundamental properties of Geometric algebra [20, 23] are exempli-
fied, therefore, it is advisable to review these examples.

Definition 3.4. For three elements a, b, and c ∈ G3 [23, 24], then
a(b + c) = ab + ac
Proof.
ab + ac = a · b + a ∧ b + a · c + a ∧ c
(3.10)
= a · (b + c) + a ∧ (b + c)
= a(b + c)

Example 3.9. Let three elements a = σ3 , b = σ1 − σ2 , and c = σ1 + σ2 . (i) Deter-
mine a(b + c). (ii) Determine ab + ac. (iii) Is the distributivity fulfilled?
Solution 3.9. (i) a(b + c) = σ2 (σ1 − σ2 + σ1 + σ2 ) = −2σ13 . (ii) ab = −σ1 σ3 +
σ2 σ3 and ac = −σ1 σ3 − σ2 σ3 , then ab + ac = −2σ1 σ3 . (iii) From the results of
(i) and (ii) yes, it is.
a ∧ (b + c) = a ∧ b + a ∧ c
Proof.
a ∧ (b + c) = −ab − ac + a · (b + c)
= −ab − ac + a · b + a · c
(3.11)
= (−ab + a · b) + (−ac + a · c)
= a∧b+a∧c
Example 3.10. Let three elements a = 1 + σ1 , b = σ1 σ3 , and c = σ1 + σ2 . (i) De-

termine a ∧ (b + c). (ii) Determine a ∧ b + a ∧ c. (iii) Is the distributivity fulfilled?
Solution 3.10. (i) a ∧ (b + c) = σ3 + σ12 . (ii) a ∧ b + a ∧ c = σ3 + σ12 . (iii) From
the results of (i) and (ii) yes, it is.

a
Definition 3.6. For an element a ∈ G3 [1], we define a−1 = ,
a·a
then
aa−1 = 1
Proof.
a
aa−1 = a
a·a
aa
=
a·a
a·a+a∧a (3.12)
=
a·a
a·a a∧a
= +
a·a a·a
= 1+0
=1
Example 3.11. Let an element a = 1 − σ1 + 2σ1 σ3 ∈ G3 . Obtain the elements a−1

and aa−1 [1].
a 1 − σ1 + 2σ1 σ3 (1 − σ1 + 2σ1 σ3 )2
Solution 3.11. a−1 = = ⇒ aa−1 =
a · a −2 − 2σ1 + 4σ1 σ3 −2 − 2σ1 + 4σ1 σ2
= 1.

(ab)c = a(bc)
Proof.
(ab)c = (a · b + a ∧ b)c
= (a · b)c + (a ∧ b)c
= a · b · c + (a · b) ∧ c + (a ∧ b) · c + a ∧ b ∧ c
(3.13)
a(bc) = a(b · c + b ∧ c)
= a(b · c) + a(b ∧ c)
= a · b · c + a ∧ (b · c) + a · (b ∧ c) + a ∧ b ∧ c

Note 3.2. (a · b) ∧ c + (a ∧ b) · c = abc − cba and a ∧ (b · c) + a · (b ∧ c) = abc − cba.
Example 3.12. Let three elements i, j, and α k, where i, j, k ∈ G3 and α ∈ R [1].

(i) Determine i( jα k). (ii) Determine (i j)α k. (iii) Is the associativity fulfilled?
Solution 3.12. (i) i( jα k) = σ1 (σ2 ασ3 ) = ασ123 . (ii) (i j)α k = (σ1 σ2 )ασ3 =
ασ123 . (iii) From the results of (i) and (ii) yes, it is.
Definition 3.8. For an element a ∈ G3 [1], we define the reversion of the element
a as
a†
where a† = (a1 a2 a3 · · · ar )† = ar · · · a3 a2 a1 .
Example 3.13. Let an element a = 1 + 2σ2 − 3σ12 + σ3 σ2 σ1 , ∈ G3 . Obtain the

reverse of element a.
Solution 3.13. From the definition, the reversion of a is a† = 1 + 2σ2 − 3σ21 +
σ1 σ2 σ3 .
3.2.6. Dual: Iar

Definition 3.9. Let two elements a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 + a4 σ12 + a5 σ23 +
a6 σ13 +a7 σ123 and b = b0 +b1 σ1 +b2 σ2 +b3 σ3 +a4 σ12 +a5 σ23 +a6 σ13 +a7 σ123
on G3 , then
Iar = bn−r
with n = 3
scalar r = 0, n − r = 3 trivector
vector r = 1, n − r = 2 bivector
(3.14)
bivector r = 2, n − r = 1 vector
trivector r = 3, n−r = 0 scalar
From Eq. 3.14

scalar ⇄ trivector
vector ⇄ bivector
Example 3.14. Explain the possibilities of the duals on G3 [17, 20, 23].
Solution 3.14. We have four possibilities: (i) If r = 0 and n = 3, then Ia0 = b3 .
(ii) If r = 1 and n = 3, then Ia1 = b2 . (iii) If r = 2 and n = 3, then Ia2 = b1 . And
(iv) If r = 3 and n = 3, then Ia3 = b0 . From these possibilities, the only duals are
scalar ⇄ trivector and vector ⇄ bivector.
Example 3.15. Let two elements a = σ1 + σ2 and b = 2σ1 + σ2 ∈ G3 . Obtain the

dual of the bivector a ∧ b.
Solution 3.15. a ∧ b = −σ12 , then I(a ∧ b) = σ123 (−σ12 ) = −σ23 σ2 = σ3 .
3.2.7. Blades: < a >

Definition 3.10. For an element a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 + a4 σ12 + a5 σ23 +
a6 σ13 + a7 σ123 on G3 , a vector space structure is determined using Def. 3.15
[17, 20, 23].
a= a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 + a4 σ12 + a5 σ23 + a6 σ13 + a7 σ123

|{z} | {z } | {z } | {z }
grade−0 blade grade−1 blades grade−2 blades grade−3 blade
(3.15)
where element a can be expressed as

3
a= ∑ < a >i = < a >0 + < a >1 + < a >2 + < a >3
r=1
Corollary 3.1. Any element a can be separated into the sum of even and odd
blades.
< a > =< a >+ + < a >−
(3.16)
< a >+ =< a >0 + < a >2 + · · · +
< a >− =< a >1 + < a >3 + · · · +
Example 3.16. Let an element a = 1+2σ1 −3σ2 −3σ2 σ1 , ∈ G3 . Obtain the blades
of element a.
Solution 3.16. From the definition, < a >0 = 1, < a >1 = 2σ1 −3σ2 , and < a >2 =
−3σ2 σ1 .
3.2.8. Norm: ||a||
Definition 3.11. Let the element a = a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 + a4 σ12 + a5 σ23 +
a6 σ13 +a7 σ123 on G3 . Its norm is the scalar part, in symbols ⌊x⌋), of Eq. 3.17 [17,
20, 23].
q
||a||= ⌊aa† ⌋ (3.17)
Example 3.17. Let an element a = −1 + 2σ1 + 3σ123 ∈ G3 . Obtain the norm of

element a.
q
||a|| = ⌊aa† ⌋
p
= ⌊(−1 + 2σ1 + 3σ123 )(−1 + 2σ1 − 3σ123 )⌋
p (3.18)
4σ✟
= ⌊14 + ❍
✟ ❍1⌋
√
= 14.
The components of a vector with the form a = a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 on G3 , v =

v1 σ1 + v2 σ2 + v3 σ3 on G3 , are the orthonormal projection of vector v onto vector
a vk and the orthonormal projection of vector v onto vector a v⊥ (Fig. 3.3), such
that vector v = vk + v⊥ [25].
v·a
vk = a (3.19)
||a||2
v⊥ = v − vk (3.20)
Figure 3.3 Components of vector b.

Example 3.18. Let the vectors a = 2σ2 and v = σ1 + 4σ3 on G2 . Determine vk and
v⊥ .
v·a 2
Solution 3.18. v · a = 2σ12 − 8σ23 , then vk = a = (σ12 − 4σ23 ) = σ12 −
||a||2 2
4σ23 . v⊥ = v − vk = σ1 + 4σ3 −σ12 + 4σ23 .
3.3. Reflections and Rotations in Space

Given a vector a = a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 ∈ G3 , we define a reflection of vector a
as Ia or IIa, where I = σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧ σ3 [1, 2, 9, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26]. Here, a rotation
is defined as two successive reflections.
Example 3.19. Let an element a = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ∈ G3 [1]. (i) Determine Ia. (ii)

Determine aI. (iii) Explain (i) and (ii).
Solution 3.19. (i) Ia = σ1 σ2 σ3 a = σ23 − σ13 + σ12 . (ii) aI = aσ1 σ2 σ3 = σ23 −
σ13 + σ1 2. (iii) From these results, (i) is a rotation of π2 in the clockwise direction
and (ii) is a rotation of π2 in the counter-clockwise direction.
Example 3.20. Let an element a = σ1 + σ2 ∈ G3 [1]. (i) Determine IIa. (ii) Deter-
Solution 3.20. (i) IIa = σ1 σ2 σ1 σ2 a = −σ1 − σ2 . (ii) aII = aσ1 σ2 σ1 σ2 = −σ1 −
σ2 . (iii) From these results, (i) is a reflection of π in the clockwise direction and
(ii) is a reflection of π in the counter-clockwise direction.
u
An alternative procedure is to find vector y = −uxu, where u = is a reflection
||u||
vector and vector x is the vector to be transformed.
To rotate an angle θ in a plane, perform two successive reflections along the two
axes in the plane that satisfy these conditions: (a) that the angle between the two
θ
axes is and (b) that the rotation from the first axis to the second is in the same
2
direction as the rotation to be performed (Figs. 2.5-2.7).
Thus, to rotate vector v let I = σ12 and let m and n be vectors along the axes
satisfying the conditions, so the result of the rotation is
v′ = −m(−nvn−1 )m−1
= (mn)v(mn)−1 (3.21)
= uvu−1
where u = mn
Example 3.21. Find the vector y for vector x = σ1 + σ2 + 3σ3 to u = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 .

u u 3 1
Solution 3.21. u = = , then y = −uxu = − σ1 − σ2 .
||u|| 2 2 2
3.4. Geometric Representation of a Line on R3

Definition 3.12. Given vector v and a point x0 on R3 , what is the equation of the
line passing through the point x0 in the direction of vector v (Fig. 3.4)? [2, 9, 20,
22, 24] (Example adapted with permission of the author [22], and reproduced here
from [1]).
Lx0 (v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0} (3.22)
Remark 3.8. Note that the oriented line is defined by v.
Figure 3.4 Line Lx0 through the point x0 in the direction of v. (Figure taken with the permission
of the author) [1])
Example 3.22. Given vector v and a point x0 in the space R3 , what is the equation
of the line passing through the point x0 = (1, 2, 3) in the direction of the vector
v = (1, 1, 1)?
Lx0 =(1,2,3) (v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0} (3.23)
[(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 + x3 σ3 ) − (σ1 + 2σ2 + 3σ3 )] ∧ (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) = 0

(3.24)
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 + (x3 − 3)σ3 ] ∧ (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) = 0

[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 + (x3 − 3)σ3 ](σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) = (x1 + x2 + x3 − 6)

+ (x1 − x2 + 1)σ12
+ (x1 − x3 + 2)σ13
+ (x2 − x3 + 1)σ23
(σ1 + σ2 + σ3 )[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 + (x3 − 3)σ3 ] = (x1 + x2 + x3 − 6)

+ (x2 − x1 − 1)σ12
+ (x3 − x1 − 2)σ13
+ (x3 − x2 − 1)σ23
(3.25)
x1 − x2 + 1 = 0 (3.26)
x1 − x3 + 2 = 0
x2 − x3 + 1 = 0
From Eqs. 4.18, the system has multiple solutions x1 − x3 = −2 and x2 − x3 =

−1; so, the points with the form (x1 , x3 − 1, x1 + 2) are the solution. Note that the
point (1, 2, 3) meets the line Lx0 (v).
3.5. Geometric Representation of a Plane on R3

Definition 3.13. Given two vectors v, u, and a point x0 in R3 , what is the equation
of the plane passing through the point x0 over the plane generated by the vectors
v and u? (Fig. 3.5) (Case adapted with permission of the author [1, 22]).
Px0 (u ∧ v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ (u ∧ v) = 0} (3.27)
Remark 3.9. Note that the oriented plane is defined by u ∧ v.

Figure 3.5 The plane Px0 through the point x0 in the direction of the bivector u ∧ v.
Example 3.23. Given two vectors v, u, and a point x0 in the space R3 , what is the
equation of the plane passing through the point x0 = (1, 2, 3) in the plane generated
by the vectors v = (1, 0, 0) and u = (0, 1, 0)?
Px0 =(1,2,3) (u ∧ v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ (u ∧ v) = 0} (3.28)
[(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 + x3 σ3 ) − (σ1 + 2σ2 + 3σ3 )] ∧ (σ1 σ2 ) = 0

(3.29)
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 + (x3 − 3)σ3 ] ∧ (σ1 σ2 ) = 0
From Eq. 3.29, [(x1 −1)σ1 +(x2 −2)σ2 +(x3 −3)σ3 ][σ1 σ2 ]−[σ1 σ2 ][(x1 −1)σ1 +
(x2 − 2)σ2 + (x3 − 3)σ3 ] = 0; so, the points with the form (2 − x2 , 1 − x1 , 3) are
the solution. Note that the point (1, 2, 3) meets the plane Px0 =(1,2,3) (u ∧ v).
3.6. Remarks
Note that the outer product a ∧ b ∧ c is neither a scalar nor a vector. In fact, it is a
region in the space R3 , spanned by the vectors a, b, and c that represent a region
with a volume and an orientation; (interchange a, b, and c and you will change
the sign of a ∧ b ∧ c) [2, 9, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26]. This operator makes unnecessary
the cross product that is usually used in the Heaviside-Gibbs algebra to identify
the areas of a region in the space R3 , for this reason, in Chap. 1 we only used the
cross product. In this chapter, we showed the concordance between both algebras
in the space R3 . In the next chapter we will elaborate on Geometric algebra or
Grassmann algebra in the space Rn .
The Geometric algebra or Grassmann algebra acts in an n dimensional space,
which enables the extension of all operators to that dimension.
It is important that the reader reviews all the exercises in this chapter and solves
them, to get familiar with this algebra.
Excercises Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 47
3.7. Exercises
Exercise 3.1. Provide some exercises of elements on G3 .
Exercise 3.2. Let two elements a = (−1, 1, 1) and b = (2, 3, −3) ∈ G3 [1]. Ex-
press these elements using the orthonormal basis.
Exercise 3.3. Consider two elements a = σ123 and b = σ1 + σ2 ∈ G3 . Obtain the

outer product a ∧ b.
Exercise 3.4. Let the vectors a = −σ1 + 2σ3 and b = σ1 + σ2 ∈ G3 . Determine

the outer product.
Exercise 3.5. Consider elements a = σ3 , b = −σ213 ∈ G3 . (i) Obtain the geomet-

ric products ab and ba. (ii) Determine a · b. (iii) Determine a ∧ b.
Exercise 3.6. Let three elements a = σ3 , b = σ1 − σ2 , and c = σ1 + σ123 ∈ G3 [1].

(i) Determine a(b + c). (ii) Determine ab + ac. (iii) Is the distributivity fulfilled?
Exercise 3.7. Let three elements a = σ123 , b = 3 + σ1 − σ2 , and c = −σ12 ∈ G3 .

(i) Determine a(b + c) and (b + c)a. (ii) Determine a ∧ (b + c). (iii) Determine
a ∧ b and a ∧ c. (iv) Is the distributivity over the outer product fulfilled?
Exercise 3.8. Let an element a = 1 − σ1 + 2σ1 σ3 ∈ G3 . Obtain the element a−1 .
Exercise 3.9. Let an element a = σ1 σ3 ∈ G3 . Obtain the reverse of element a.
Exercise 3.10. Let an element a = 1 + 2σ1 σ2 − σ123 ∈ G3 . Obtain the blades.
Exercise 3.11. Let two elements a = σ1 σ3 and b = 2σ1 + σ2 ∈ G3 . Obtain the

dual of a ∧ b.
Exercise 3.12. Let an element a = 1 + σ1 + σ2 + σ2 σ1 ∈ G3 . Obtain the norm of

element a.
Exercise 3.13. Consider three elements a = σ3 , b = σ12 , and c = ασ1 − σ2 ∈ G3 ,

where α ∈ R. (i) Determine a(bc). (ii) Determine (ab)c. (iii) Is the associativity
fulfilled?
Exercise 3.14. Let an element a = σ1 + σ3 ∈ G3 [1]. (i) Determine Ia. (ii) Deter-
Exercise 3.15. Let an element a = σ2 + σ3 ∈ G3 [1]. (i) Determine IIa. (ii) De-
termine aII. (iii) Explain (i) and (ii).
Exercise 3.16. Find vector y for the vector x = 2σ1 + σ3 onto vector u = σ1 − 2σ2 .
Exercise 3.17. Given a vector v and a point x0 on the plane R3 . What is the equa-
tion of the line passing through the point x0 = (0, 1, 0) in the direction of the
vector v = (1, 1, 1)?
Exercise 3.18. Given two vectors v and u, and a point x0 in the space R2 . What is
the equation of the plane passing through point x0 = (2, 1, 1) in the plane gener-
ated by the vectors v = (0, 1, 1) and u = (1, 1, 1)?
CHAPTER 4
Geometric Algebra on Gn
Carlos Polanco
Abstract This chapter reviews and elaborates on the operators of Geometric alge-
bra from G3 to Gn . This algebra is attributed to Hermann Grassmann [Die lineare
Ausdehnungslehre, ein neuer Zweig der Mathematik 1842]. It is formed by two
main operators, the outer product and inner product. Here, a new element is
introduced the multivector, we review these operators, their properties, and their
application in the representation of curves, planes, and objects on space Gn .
Keywords: Associativity: a(bc) = (ab)c, bivector: a ∧ b, blades < a >, compo-

nent: vk , component: v⊥ , distributivity: a(b + c), distributivity: a ∧ (b + c), dual
Iar = bn−r , equation of a line, outer product, geometric algebra, geometric prod-
uct, inner product, lines, multiplicative inverse: a−1 , multivector a ∧ b ∧ c ∧ · · · ∧ z,
norm ||a||, reflections, reversion: a† , rotations, trivector: a ∧ b ∧ c
4.1. Preliminaries
This chapter explores the main operators in space Gn , since this space corresponds
to Gn = Gn (Rn ), we will not provide illustrative graphs, but we will focus on the
analytical solutions oriented to the elements in that space using the outer product
a ∧ b.
Note 4.1. It is important to note that although the elements Gn have σ1···n (Def. 4.1),
to simplify, we have replaced them with examples on G4 .
4.2. Geometric Algebra on Gn

Definition 4.1. The Geometric algebra or Grassmann algebra [1, 9] is a uni-
tary associative algebra, in symbols Gn = Gn (Rn ). It is formed by 2n elements:
Carlos Polanco
Geometric Algebra on Gn Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 49
6
scalars αi , vectors αi σi , bivectors αi j σi j , trivectors αi jk σi jk , and multivec-
tors αi···n σi···n . For convenience, these elements are expressed in orthonormal
basis that meet Eqs. 4.1 for i = 6 j.
σi σi = 1
(4.1)
σi σ j = −σ j σi
An arbitrary element is (Eq. 4.2).
n n n
v= ∑ vi + ∑ vi σi + ∑ vi j σi j
i=1 i=1 i, j=1
|{z} | {z } | {z }
basis scalars basis vectors basis bivectors
n n (4.2)
+ ∑ vi jk σi jk + ∑ vi···z σi···z in Gn .
i, j,k=1 i,···, z=1
| {z } | {z }
basis trivectors basis multivector
Remark 4.1. The equivalent is σi ∧ σ j , σi σ j and σi j .
Example 4.1. Provide some examples of elements on Gn .

Solution 4.1. v = 5σ1···n ,

Definition 4.2. For two elements a and b ∈ Gn [1], we define
1
a ∧ b = (ab − ba)
2
Remark 4.2. If a ∧ b = 0 ⇒ a k b.
Example 4.2. Consider two elements a = σ1234 and b = 2 + σ12 ∈ Gn . Obtain the
Solution 4.2. ab = 2σ1234 + σ123412 = 2σ1234 − σ34 and ba = 2σ1234 − σ34 , so
a ∧ b = 2σ34 .
Example 4.3. Let two elements a and b on Gn a = σ5 + σ1 , where b = ασ5 +

β σ1 . Determine what values comply with the scalars α and β so both vectors are
collinear.
1
Solution 4.3. If a ∧ b = (ab − ba) = 0, then a k b. Since ab = 2α , ba = 2β
2
1
a ∧ b = (ab − ba) = 0 ⇔ 2α − 2β = 0 ⇔ α = β .
2

Definition 4.3. For two elements a and b ∈ Gn [1], we define
1
a · b = (ab + ba).
2
Remark 4.3. If a · b = 0 ⇔ a ⊥ b.
Example 4.4. Let two elements a = σ567 , b = σ12345 ∈ Gn . (i) Obtain the geomet-
ric products ab and ba. (ii) Determine a · b. (iii) Determine a ∧ b.
Solution 4.4. (i) ab = −σ123467 , ba = σ123467 . (ii) a · b = 0. (iii) a ∧ b = −σ123467 .
Example 4.5. Let two elements a = σ1 σ2 and b = σ3 ∈ Gn . (i) Obtain the geo-
metric products ab and ba. (ii) From Def. 4.3, determine a · b. (iii) From Def. 4.2,
determine a ∧ b.
Solution 4.5. (i) ab = σ1 σ2 σ3 . ba = σ1 σ2 σ3 . (ii) a · b = σ1 σ2 σ3 . (iii) a ∧ b = 0.
Example 4.6. Let two elements a = 1 + σ1 + σ2 − σ24 and b = σ1234 ∈ Gn . (i)

Obtain the geometric products ab and ba. (ii) From Def. 4.3, determine a · b. (iii)
From Def. 4.2, determine a ∧ b.
Solution 4.6. (i) ab = (σ1234 )(σ1 + σ2 − σ24 ) = σ234 − σ134 − σ13 . ba = −σ234 +
σ134 − σ13 (ii) a · b = −σ13 . (iii) a ∧ b = σ234 − σ134 .
Example 4.7. Let two elements a and b on Gn [1] a = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 + σ4 and

b = σ1 + σ2 − 2σ3 + σ4 on Gn . (i) Determine the inner product. (ii) Geometrically
interpret the inner product.
Solution 4.7. (i) ab = 1 − 2σ13 + σ23 + 3σ34 and ba = 1 + 3σ13 + 2σ23 − 3σ34 ,
1
a · b = (ab + ba) = 1. (ii) It is a point in the G4 space.
2

From two elements a and b ∈ Gn , the geometric product (Eq. 4.3) is defined
as [1]
ab = a · b + a ∧ b (4.3)
where the term a · b is the inner product (Def. 4.2.2) and the term a ∧ b is the
outer product (Def. 4.2.1) [1].
Remark 4.4. If the elements on Gn are of the form a = a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + · · · + an σ3

and b = b1 σ1 + b2 σ2 + · · · + bn σn , then the inner product will only have the
scalar part and the outer product the vectorial part.
Note 4.2. The geometrical description of the multivector σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧ σ3 ∧ · · · ∧ σn
is the oriented multi-volume spanned by n-vectors in space Gn .
Example 4.8. Let two elements a and b ∈ Gn [1]. Discuss the results obtained in
Eqs. 2.4-2.8 and Eqs. 3.4-3.8 in space G2 .
Solution 4.8. The geometric product ab is the addition of the inner product a · b
and the outer product a ∧ b. But if the elements a and b are only formed by basis
vectors, then the inner product is the real part of the geometric product ab and
the vector part corresponds to the outer product.
4.3. Properties on Gn
The following fundamental properties of Geometric algebra [20, 23] are exempli-
fied, so it is recommended to review the examples provided.

Definition 4.4. For three elements a, b, and c ∈ Gn [23, 24], then
a(b + c) = ab + ac
Proof.
ab + ac = a · b + a ∧ b + a · c + a ∧ c
(4.4)
= a · (b + c) + a ∧ (b + c)
= a(b + c)
Example 4.9. Let three elements a = σ2345 , b = σ1 − σ2 , and c = σ1 + σ2 . (i) De-

termine a(b + c). (ii) Determine ab + ac. (iii) Is the distributivity fulfilled? (iv)
Explain the final product.
Solution 4.9. (i) a(b+c) = σ2345 (σ1 − σ2 + σ1 + σ2 ) = 2σ12345 . (ii) ab = σ12345 +
σ345 and ac = σ12345 − σ345 , then ab + ac = 2σ12345 . (iii) From (i) and (ii) yes, it
is. (iv) The product a(b + c) = 2σ12345 is an object in space G5 (R5 ).
Definition 4.5. For three elements a, b, and c ∈ Gn [1], then
a ∧ (b + c) = a ∧ b + a ∧ c
Proof.
a ∧ (b + c) = −ab − ac + a · (b + c)
= −ab − ac + a · b + a · c
(4.5)
= (−ab + a · b) + (−ac + a · c)
= a∧b+a∧c
Example 4.10. Let three elements a = 1 + σ1234 , b = σ1 σ3 , and c = σ5 . (i) Deter-

mine a ∧ (b + c). (ii) Determine a ∧ b + a ∧ c. (iii) Is the distributivity fulfilled?
Solution 4.10. (i) a ∧ (b + c) = (1 + σ1234 ) ∧ (σ1 + σ13 ) = 0. (ii) a ∧ b + a ∧ c =
0 + 0 = 0. (iii) From (i) and (ii) yes, it is.

a
Definition 4.6. For an element a ∈ Gn [1], we define a−1 =
a·a
then
aa−1 = 1
Proof.
a
aa−1 = a
a·a
aa
=
a·a
a·a+a∧a (4.6)
=
a·a
a·a a∧a
= +
a·a a·a
= 1+0
=1
Example 4.11. Let an element a = 1 + 2σ14567 ∈ Gn . Obtain the elements a−1 and
aa−1 [1].
a 1 + 2σ14567 (1 + 2σ14567 )2
Solution 4.11. a−1 = = ⇒ aa−1 =
a · a 5 + 4σ14567 5 + 4σ14567
= 1.

Definition 4.7. For three elements a, b, and c ∈ Gn [1], then
(ab)c = a(bc)
Proof.
(ab)c = (a · b + a ∧ b)c
= (a · b)c + (a ∧ b)c
= a · b · c + (a · b) ∧ c + (a ∧ b) · c + a ∧ b ∧ c
(4.7)
a(bc) = a(b · c + b ∧ c)
= a(b · c) + a(b ∧ c)
= a · b · c + a ∧ (b · c) + a · (b ∧ c) + a ∧ b ∧ c

Note 4.3. (a · b) ∧ c + (a ∧ b) · c = abc − cba and a ∧ (b · c) + a · (b ∧ c) = abc − cba
Example 4.12. Let three elements i, j, and α j, where i, j ∈ Gn and α ∈ R [1]. (i)
Determine i( jα j). (ii) Determine (i j)α j. (iii) Is the associativity fulfilled?
Solution 4.12. (i) i( jα j) = σ1 (σ2 ασ2 ) = ασ1 . (ii) (i j)α j = (σ1 σ2 )ασ2 = ασ1 .
(iii) From the results of (i) and (ii) yes, it is.
Definition 4.8. For an element a ∈ G2 [1], we define the reversion of element a
as a† , where
a† = (a1 · · · ar )† = ar · · · a1
Example 4.13. Let an element a = 1 + 2σ2 − 3σ12 + σ1 σ2 σ3 σ4 σ5 , ∈ Gn . Obtain

the reverse of element a.
Solution 4.13. From the definition, the reverse of a is a† = 1 + 2σ2 − 3σ21 +
σ5 σ4 σ3 σ2 σ1 .
4.3.6. Dual: Iar

Definition 4.9. Let two elements a and b on Gn , then (Eq. 4.8).
Iar = bn−r (4.8)
Example 4.14. Let two elements a = σ12345 and b = σ1 ∈ Gn . Obtain the dual of
the two elements.
Solution 4.14. The dual of a is scalar ⇄ vector . The dual of b are: scalar ⇄
5-vector, vector ⇄ 4-vector, and bivector ⇄ trivector.
4.3.7. Blades: < a >

Definition 4.10. For an element a and b on Gn , a graded vector space structure is
established using Def. 4.9 [17, 20, 23]
a= a0 + a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 + a4 σ12 + a5 σ23 + a6 σ13 + · · · + an σ1···n

|{z} | {z } | {z } | {z }
grade−0 blade grade−1 blades grade−2 blades grade−n blade
(4.9)
where the element or multivector a can be expressed as

n
a= ∑ < a >i = < a >0 + < a >1 + < a >2 + · · · + < a >n
r=1
Corollary 4.1. Any element or multivector a can be separated into the sum of
even (2n) and odd (2n − 1) blades, where n ∈ Z+ .
< a > =< a >+ + < a >−
(4.10)
< a >+ =< a >0 + < a >2 + · · · + < a >2n
< a >− =< a >1 + < a >3 + · · · + < a >2n−1
Example 4.15. Let an element a = 1 + 2σ1 − 3σ2 − 3σ2 σ1 σ4 σ5 , ∈ Gn . Obtain the

blades of element a.
Solution 4.15. From the definition, < a >0 = 1, < a >1 = 2σ1 −3σ2 , and < a >4 =
−3σ2 σ1 σ4 σ5 .
4.3.8. Norm: ||a||

Definition 4.11. Let the element a on Gn , its norm is the scalar part, in symbols
⌊x⌋, of Eq. 4.11 [17, 20, 23].
q
||a||= ⌊aa† ⌋ (4.11)
Example 4.16. Let an element a = 1 + 2σ1 + 3σ12345 ∈ G5 . Obtain the norm of

element a.
q
||a|| = ⌊aa† ⌋
p
= ⌊(1 + 2σ1 + 3σ12345 )(1 + 2σ1 − 3σ12345 )⌋
p (4.12)
= 4σ✟
⌊18 + ❍
✟ 1⌋
❍
√
= 18.
The components of a vector of the form a = a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 + · · · + an σn ,

v = v1 σ1 + v2 σ2 + v3 σ3 + · · · + vn σn on Gn , are the orthonormal projection of
vector v onto vector a vk and the orthonormal projection of vector v onto vector a
v⊥ , such that vector v = vk + v⊥ [25].
v·a
vk = a (4.13)
||a||2
v⊥ = v − vk (4.14)
Example 4.17. Let the vectors v = σ1 + 2σ2 + σ3 − σ4 and a = σ1 + 4σ2 − σ3 +

2σ4 on G4 . Determine vk and v⊥ .
v·a 3
Solution 4.17. v · a = 6 then vk = a = (σ1 + 4σ2 − σ3 + 2σ4 ). v⊥ = v − vk
||a||2 7
4 2 4 1
= σ1 + σ2 + σ3 − σ4 .
7 7 7 7
4.4. Reflections and Rotations on Gn

Given a vector a ∈ Gn , we define a reflection of vector a as Ia or IIa, where
I = σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧ σ3 ∧ · · · ∧ σn [1, 2, 9, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26]. A rotation is here defined,
as two successive reflections.
Example 4.18. Let an element a = σ1 + 2σ2 + 3σ3 + 4σ4 + 5σ5 ∈ Gn [1]. (i) De-
termine Ia. (ii) Determine aI. (iii) Explain (i) and (ii).
Solution 4.18. (i) Ia = σ2345 −2σ1345 +3σ1245 −4σ1235 +5σ1234 . (ii) aI = σ2345 −
2σ1345 + 3σ1245 − 4σ1235 + 5σ1234 . (iii) From these results, (i) is the rotation of π2
in the clockwise direction and (ii) is the rotation of π2 in the counter-clockwise
direction.
Example 4.19. Let an element a = σ1 + 2σ2 + 3σ3 + 4σ4 + 5σ5 ∈ Gn [1]. (i) De-
termine IIa. (ii) Determine aII. (iii) Explain (i) and (ii).
Solution 4.19. (i) IIa = a. (ii) aII = a. (iii) From these results, (i) is the reflection
of 2π in the clockwise direction and (ii) is the reflection of 2π in the counter-
u
An alternative procedure is to find vector y = −uxu, where u = is the re-
||u||
flection vector and vector x is the vector to be transformed. (Case taken with the
permission of the author [2])
To rotate an angle θ in a plane, perform two reflections in succession along any
of the two axes in the plane that meet these conditions: (a) that the angle between
θ
the axes is and (b) the rotation from the first axis to the second is in the same
2
direction as the rotation to be performed (Figs. 2.5-2.7).
To rotate vector v, I = σ12 , let m and n be vectors along the axes satisfying the
conditions, so the result of the rotation is
v′ = −m(−nvn−1 )m−1
= (mn)v(mn)−1 (4.15)
−1
= uvu
where u = mn
Example 4.20. Find vector y for the vector x = σ1 + 2σ2 + 3σ3 + 4σ4 + 5σ5 onto
vector u = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 + σ4 + σ5 .
u u 1
Solution 4.20. u = = , so y = −uxu = (25σ1 + 17σ2 − 2σ3 + 9σ4 + 6
||u|| 5 5
σ5 + 2σ123 + 2σ124 − 4σ125 − σ234 + σ235 + 2σ245 + 5σ134 + 6σ135 + 3σ345 + 2σ
124 − 7σ145 ).
4.5. Analytical Representation of a Line in Rn

Definition 4.12. Given a vector v and a point x0 in the Rn space, what is the
equation of the line passing through the point x0 in the direction of vector v? [2, 9,
20, 22, 24] (Example adapted with permission of the author [22], and reproduced
here from [1]).
Lx0 (v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0} (4.16)
Remark 4.5. Note that the line is defined by v.
Example 4.21. Given a vector v and a point x0 in space Rn , what is the equation
of the line passing through the point x0 = (1, 2, 3, 4) in the direction of the vector
v = (1, 1, 1, 1)?
Lx0 =(1,2,3,4) (v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0} (4.17)
[(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 + x3 σ3 + x4 σ4 ) − (σ1 + 2σ2 + 3σ3 + 4σ4 )]

∧ (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 + σ4 ) = 0
and
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 + (x3 − 3)σ3 + (x4 − 4)σ4 ] ∧ (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 + σ4 ) = 0

1
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 + (x3 − 3)σ3 + (x4 − 4)σ4 ](σ1 + σ2 + σ3 + σ4 ) =

(σ1 + σ2 + σ3 + σ4 − 10) + (x1 − x2 + 1)σ12 + (x1 − x3 + 2)σ13 + (x1 − x4 + 3)
σ14 + (x2 − x3 + 1)σ23 + (x2 − x4 + 2)σ24 + (x3 − x4 + 1)σ34
and
(σ1 + σ2 + σ3 + σ4 )[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 + (x3 − 3)σ3 + (x4 − 4)σ4 ] =

(σ1 + σ2 + σ3 + σ4 − 10) − [(x1 − x2 + 1)σ12 + (x1 − x3 + 2)σ13 + (x1 − x4 + 3)
σ14 + (x2 − x3 + 1)σ23 + (x2 − x4 + 2)σ24 + (x3 − x4 + 1)σ34 ]
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 − 10 = 0
From Eq. 4.18, the system has multiple solutions x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 10, so the
points (x1 , 10 − x1 − x3 − x4 , 10 − x2 − x4 , 10 − x1 − x2 − x3 ) are the solution. Note
that the points (1, 2, 3, 4) meet the line Lx0 (v).
4.6. Analytical Representation of a Plane in Rn

Definition 4.13. Given two vectors v and u, and a point x0 in space Rn , what is
the equation of the plane passing through the point x0 over the plane generated by
the vectors v and u? (Case adapted with permission of the author [1, 22]).
Px0 (u ∧ v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ (u ∧ v) = 0} (4.18)
Remark 4.6. Note that the oriented plane is defined by u ∧ v.
Example 4.22. Given two vectors v and u, and a point x0 in space Rn , what is
the equation of the plane passing through the point x0 = (1, 2, 3, 4) in the plane
generated by the vectors v = (1, 0, 0, 0) and u = (0, 1, 0, 0)?
Px0 =(1,2,3,4) (u ∧ v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ (u ∧ v) = 0} (4.19)
[(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 + x3 σ3 + x4 σ4 ) − (σ1 + 2σ2 + 3σ3 + 4σ4 )] ∧ (σ12 ) = 0

(4.20)
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 + (x3 − 3)σ3 + (x4 − 4)σ4 ] ∧ (σ12 ) = 0
From Eq. 4.20, [(x1 −1)σ1 +(x2 −2)σ2 +(x3 −3)σ3 +(x4 −4)σ4 ][σ12 ]−[σ12 ][(x1 −
1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 + (x3 − 3)σ3 ] = 0, so the points (2 − x2 , 1 − x1 , 3) are the solu-
tion. Note that the points (1, 2, 3) meet the plane Px0 =(1,2,3) (u ∧ v).
4.7. Remarks
Note that the outer product a ∧ b ∧ c is neither a scalar nor a vector. In fact, it is
the region in space Rn spanned by the vectors a, b, and c that represent a region
with a volume and an orientation; interchange a, b, and c and you will change the
sign of a ∧ b ∧ c [2, 9, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26]. With this chapter, we have finished the
study of this algebra in the Rn space.
In the following chapters (Chaps. 5-7), we will show how the Geometric algebra
or Grassmann algebra is used in the generalization of the n dimensional space
and the introduction of the operatives related with differentiation and integration.
Exercises Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 59
4.8. Exercises
Exercise 4.1. Provide some exercises of elements of Gn .
Exercise 4.2. Let two elements a = (−1, 1, 1, −1, 2) and b = (2, 3, −3, 1, −1, 3) ∈
Gn [1]. (i) Express these elements using the orthonormal basis. (ii) Provide exam-
ples of a plane and a line.
Exercise 4.3. Consider two elements a = σ12345 and b = σ1 ∈ Gn . Obtain the
Exercise 4.4. Let the vectors a = −σ12345 , and b = σ1 ∈ Gn . Determine its inner
product.
Exercise 4.5. Consider elements a = σ1234 , b = −σ5678 ∈ Gn . (i) Obtain the geo-
metric products ab and ba. (ii) Determine a · b. (iii) Determine a ∧ b.
Exercise 4.6. Let three elements a = σ1234 , b = σ1 − σ2 , and c = σ1 + σ123 ∈
Gn [1]. (i) Determine a(b + c). (ii) Determine ab + ac. (iii) Is the distributivity
fulfilled?
Exercise 4.7. Let three elements a = σ1234 , b = σ1 , and c = −σ12 ∈ Gn . (i) De-
termine a(b + c) and (b + c)a. (ii) Determine a ∧ (b + c). (iii) Determine a ∧ b and
a ∧ c. (iv) Is the distributivity over the outer product fulfilled?
Exercise 4.8. Let an element a = 1 + σ1 + σ1 + · · · + σn ∈ Gn . Obtain the element
a−1 .
Exercise 4.9. Let an element a = σ123456 ∈ Gn . Obtain the reverse of element a.
Exercise 4.10. Let an element a = 1 + 2σ1 σ2 − σ123456 ∈ Gn . Obtain its blades.
Exercise 4.11. Let two elements a = σ1 + σ2 + · · · + σn , and b = σ1 ∈ Gn . Obtain
the dual of a ∧ b.
Exercise 4.12. Let an element a = σ1 + σ2 + · · · + σn ∈ Gn . Obtain the norm of
element a.
Exercise 4.13. Consider three elements a = σ1234 , b = σ12345 and c = σ123456 ∈
Gn where α ∈ R. (i) Determine a(bc). (ii) Determine (ab)c. (iii) Is the associativ-
ity fulfilled?
Exercise 4.14. Let an element a = σ1234 ∈ Gn [1]. (i) Determine Ia. (ii) Determine
aI. (iii) Explain (i) and (ii).
Exercise 4.15. Let an element a = σ1234 ∈ Gn [1]. (i) Determine IIa. (ii) Deter-
Exercise 4.16. Hallar el vector y para el vector x = σ1 + 2σ2 + · · · + nσn . Sobre el
vector u = σ1 + σ2 + · · · + σn .
Exercise 4.17. Given a vector v and a point x0 in the plane R5 . What is the equa-
tion of the line passing through the point x0 = (1, 1, 1, 1) in the direction of the
vector v = (1, 0, 0, 1)?
Exercise 4.18. Given two vectors v and u, and a point x0 in the space R5 . What
is the equation of the plane passing through point x0 = (2, 1, 1, 1, 1) in the plane
generated by the vectors v = (0, 1, 0, 1, 0) and u = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1)?
60 4Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases, 2021, 60-72
CHAPTER 5
Differentiation
Carlos Polanco
Keywords: 0−Forms, 1−Forms, 2−Forms, 3.Forms, k−Forms, d η , d f , dxi ,

dxi ∧ dx j , dxi ∧ dx j ∧ dxk , dxi ∧ dx j ∧ dxk ∧ dxl , dxi ∧ dx j ∧ · · · ∧ dxn , dw, d η ,
d(w ∧ η ), derivative of 0−form, derivative of 1−form, derivative of 2−form,
derivative of 3−form, derivative of k−form, differential forms, divergence, ex-
terior derivative, function w, function η , geometric product, geometric product,
gradient, inner product, outer product, rotational, tangent line, tangent plane
5.1. Differential of a Function

Informally, an approximation to the definition of a differential of the function
f : R → R is dy = f ′ (x)dx. If dy < 0, then (dy)2 is negligible, i.e. (dy)2 ≈ 0 [11].
This assumption is useful to obtain the derivative, or exterior derivative, of an
outer product.
If we substitute the elements σi in orthonormal basis of the geometric product
by the differentials dxi and consider (dy)2 ≈ 0 (Prop. 5.1), then we can define the
families (of both real-valued functions and vector-valued functions), whose basis
are formed by dxi that act on a tangent plane.
This type of function families are known as Differential forms.
Remark 5.1. The equivalent is dxi ∧ dx j , dxi dx j , and dxi j .
Carlos Polanco
Differentiation Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 61
5.2. Differential Forms
5.2.1. 0−Forms
A 0−form is any differentiable real-valued function f (x) defined to assign a
unique real number to a point, i.e. a 0-form is the measure of a flux over a point
in an infinitesimal 0−region [27].
Definition 5.1. A 0-form in Rn is a differentiable real-valued function w0

(Eq. 5.1) [4].
w0 = f : Rn → R (5.1)
Example 5.1. Determine the product and sum of the functions w01 (x, y) = ex + 3y
and w02 (x, y) = x − y.
Solution 5.1. (i) w0 (x, y) = w01 (x, y) + w02 (x, y) = ex + 3y + x − y = ex + 2y + x.
(ii) w0 (x, y) = w01 (x, y)w02 (x, y) = (ex + 3y)(x − y) = xex − yex + 3yx − 3y2 .
Example 5.2. Determine the product and sum of the functions w01 (x) = sin x and
w02 (x) = cos x.
Solution 5.2. (i) w0 (x) = w01 (x)+w02 (x) = sin x+cos x. (ii) w0 (x) = w01 w02 (x) =
sin x cos x.
5.2.2. 1−Forms
A 1−form is any differentiable vector-valued function f (x) defined to assign a
unique real number to an oriented curve, i.e. a 1-form is the measure of a flux
over an oriented curve in an infinitesimal 1−region [27].
Definition 5.2. A 1−Form in Rn is a vector-valued function formed by a linear

combination of the real-valued functions fi : Rn → R over an orthonormal basis,
formed by the differentials dxi (Eq. 5.2) [4].
w1 = f1 (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx1 + · · · + fn (x1 , · · · , xn ) dxn (5.2)
Example 5.3. Determine the product and the sum of the functions w11 (x, y) =
ex dx + 3y dy, w12 (x, y) = x dx − y dy, and w0 (x, y) = xy.
Solution 5.3. (i) w11 (x, y) + w12 (x, y) = (ex + x) dx + (3y − y) dy. (ii) w0 (x, y) w11
(x, y) = (xy)ex dx +(xy)3y dy = xyex dx + 3xy2 dy.
Example 5.4. Determine the product and the sum of the functions w11 (x) =
sin x dx and w12 (x) = cos x dx.
Solution 5.4. (i) w1 (x) = w11 (x) + w12 (x) = (sin x + cos x) dx. (ii) If w0 (x) = tan x
then w0 (x)w11 (x) = tan x sin x dx.
Example 5.5. Determine the product and the sum of the functions w11 (x) =
sin x dx and w12 (x) = cos x dy.
Solution 5.5. (i) w1 (x) = w11 (x) + w12 (x) = (sin x dx + cos x) dy. (ii) If w0 (x) =
tan x then w0 (x)w11 (x) = tan x sin x dx.
5.2.3. 2−Forms
A 2−form is any differentiable vector-valued function f (x) defined to assign a
unique real number to an oriented surface, i.e. a 2-form is the measure of a flux
in an infinitesimal 2−region [27].
Definition 5.3. A 2−Form in Rn , is a vector-valued function formed by a linear

combination of the real-valued functions fi : Rn → R over an orthonormal basis
of the differentials dxi ∧ dx j (Eq. 5.3) [4].
w2 = f1 (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx1 ∧ dx2 + · · · + fn (x1 , · · · , xn ) dxi ∧ dx j (5.3)
Example 5.6. Determine the product and the sum of the functions w21 (x, y, z) =
ex dx ∧ dy + 3zy dx ∧ dz + cos x dy ∧ dz, w22 (x, y, z) = xz dx ∧ dy − y dx ∧ dz, and
w0 (x, y, z) = xy.
Solution 5.6. (i) w21 (x, y, z) + w22 (x, y, z) = (ex + xz) dx ∧ dy + (3yz − y) dx ∧ dz +
cos x dy∧dz. (ii) w0 (x, y, z)w21 (x, y, z) = (xy)ex dx∧dy+3xy2 z dx ∧dz+xy cos x dy
∧dz.
Example 5.7. Determine the product and the sum of the functions w21 (x, y) =
sin x dx ∧ dy and w22 (x, y) = cos x dx ∧ dy.
Solution 5.7. (i) w1 (x, y) = w21 (x, y) + w22 (x, y) = (sin x + cos x) dx ∧ dy. (ii) If
w0 (x, y) = tan x then w0 (x, y)w21 (x, y) = tan x sin x dx ∧ dy.
5.2.4. 3−Forms
A 3−form is any differentiable vector-valued function f (x) defined to assigne
a unique real number to an oriented volume, i.e. a 3-form is the measure of a
flux over an oriented volume in an infinitesimal 3−region, it is the measure of a
fluid [27].
Definition 5.4. A 3−Form in Rn is a vector-valued function formed by a linear

of the differentials dxi ∧ dx j ∧ dxk (Eq. 5.4).
w3 = f1 (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ dx3 + · · · + fn (x1 , · · · , xn ) dxi ∧ dx j ∧ dxk (5.4)
ex dx ∧ dy ∧ dz + 3zy dx ∧ dz ∧ dy + cos x dy ∧ dz ∧ dx, w32 (x, y, z) = xz dx ∧ dy ∧
dz − y dx ∧ dz ∧ dy, and w0 (x, y, z) = xy.
Solution 5.8. (i) w31 (x, y, z) + w32 (x, y, z) = (ex + xz) dx ∧ dy ∧ dz + (3yz − y) dx ∧
dz ∧ dy + cos x dy ∧ dz ∧ dx. (ii) w0 (x, y, z)w31 (x, y, z) = (xy)ex dx ∧ dy ∧ dz + 3xy2 z
dx ∧ dz ∧ dy + xy cos x dy ∧ dz ∧ dx.
sin x dx ∧ dy ∧ dz and w32 (x, y, z) = cos x dx ∧ dy ∧ dz.
Solution 5.9. (i) w1 (x, y, z) = w31 +w32 = (sin x+cos x) dx∧dy∧dz. (ii) If w0 (x, y,
z) = tan x, then w0 (x, y, z)w31 (x, y, z) = tan x sin x dx ∧ dy ∧ dz.
5.2.5. k−Forms
A k−form is any differentiable vector-valued function f (x) defined to assign a
unique real number to an oriented k−volume, i.e. a k-form is the measure of a
flux over a k−volume in an infinitesimal k−region [27].
Definition 5.5. A k−Form in Rn is a vector-valued function formed by a linear

of the differentials dxi ∧ dx j ∧ · · · ∧ dxn (Eq. 5.5).
wn = f1 (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ dx3 + · · · + fn (x1 , · · · , xn ) dxi ∧ dx j ∧ dxk (5.5)
Example 5.10. Determine the product and the sum of the functions w41 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )
= ex dx1 ∧ dx2 + 3zy dx1 ∧ dx3 + cos x dx2 ∧ dx3 , w42 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = xz dx1 ∧ dx2 −
y dx1 ∧ dx3 , and w0 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = xy.
Solution 5.10. (i) w41 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) + w42 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (ex + xz) dx1 ∧ dx2 +
(3yz−y) dx1 ∧dx3 +cos x dx2 ∧dx3 . (ii) w0 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )w41 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (xy)ex
dx1 ∧ dx2 + 3xy2 z dx1 ∧ dx3 + xy cos x dx2 ∧ dx3 .
Example 5.11. Determine the product and the sum of the functions w41 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )
= sin xdx1 and w42 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = cos xdx1 .
Solution 5.11. (i) w1 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = w41 (x, x2 , x3 , x4 )+w42 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (sin x+
cos x)dx1 . (ii) If w0 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = tan x then w0 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )w41 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) =
tan x sin xdx1 .
5.3. Differentiation of Forms

Definition 5.6. The derivative, or exterior derivative, of a k−form function is a
(k + 1)−form function (Eq. 5.6).
∂f ∂f ∂f
dw = dx1 + dx2 + · · · dxn (5.6)
∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ xn
5.3.1. Derivative of 0−Forms

A dx0 is the measurement of a net flux through the boundary of an infinitesimal
1−region [27] at a point.
Definition 5.7. The derivative [3] of a 0−form function w0 (Eq. 5.7) is a 1−form
function of C1 class w1 = dw0 (Eq. 5.8).
w0 = f (x1 , · · · , xn ) (5.7)
n
∂ f (x1 , · · · , xn )
dw0 = ∑ dxi
i=1 ∂ xi
(5.8)
∂ f (x1 , · · · , xn ) ∂ f (x1 , · · · , xn )
= dx1 + · · · + dxn
∂ x1 ∂ xn
The field associated to w1 = dw0 is the gradient of the 0−form w0 (Sect. 5.3.6).
Example 5.12. Let w0 = P(x, y, z) in R3 be a 0-form. Determine the derivative

dw0 .
Solution 5.12.
∂P ∂P ∂P
dw0 = dx + dy + dz (5.9)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Example 5.13. Let w0 = xy. Determine its derivative dw0 .
Solution 5.13.
∂ xy ∂ xy
dw0 = dx + dy
∂x ∂y (5.10)
= ydx + xdy

A dx1 is the measure of the net flux through the boundary of an infinitesimal
2−region [27] in an oriented curve.
w1 = f1 (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx (5.11)
n
∂ f1 (x1 , · · · , xn )
dw1 = ∑ ∂ xi
dxi ∧ dx (5.12)
i=1
The field associated to w2 = dw1 is the rotational of the 1−form w1 (Sect. 5.3.7).
Example 5.14. Let w1 = P(x, y, z) dx + Q(x, y, z) dy in R3 be a 1-form. Determine

its derivative dw1 .
Solution 5.14.
dw1 = d(P ∧ dx) + d(Q ∧ dy)

∂P ∂P ∂P ∂Q ∂Q ∂Q
= dx + dy + dz ∧ dx + dx + dy + dz ∧ dy
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

∂P ∂P ∂P
= dx ∧ dx + dy ∧ dx + dz ∧ dx
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂Q ∂Q ∂Q
+ dx ∧ dy + dy ∧ dy + dz ∧ dy
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂Q ∂P ∂P ∂Q
= − dxdy + dzdx − dydz
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z
(5.13)
Example 5.15. Let w1 = xy dx + ez dy + x dz [28]. Determine its dw1 .

Solution 5.15.
dw1 = d(xy ∧ dx) + d(ez ∧ dy) + d(x ∧ dz)

∂ xy ∂ xy ∂ xy
= dx + dy + dz ∧ dx
∂x ∂y ∂z
z z

∂e ∂e ∂ ez
+ dx + dy + dz ∧ dy
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂x ∂x ∂x
+ dx + dy + dz ∧ dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
(5.14)

∂x ∂y ∂z
z z z
∂e ∂e ∂e
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂x ∂x ∂x
= dx ∧ dz + dy ∧ dz + dz ∧ dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −xdxdy + dzdx + ez dzdy


A dx2 is the measure of the net flux through the boundary of an infinitesimal
3−region [27] in an oriented surface.
w2 = f (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx j ∧ dxk (5.15)
n
∂ f (x1 , · · · , xn )
dw2 = ∑ ∂ xi
dxi ∧ dx j ∧ dxk (5.16)
i=1
The field associated to w3 = dw2 is the divergence of the 2−form w2 (Sect 5.3.8).
Example 5.16. Let w2 = P(x, y, z)dydz + Q(x, y, z)dzdx + R(x, y, z)dxdy in R3 be a

2-form [29]. Determine its derivative dw2 .
Solution 5.16.
dw2 = d(Pdydz) + d(Qdzdx) + d(Rdxdy)
∂P ∂P ∂P
=( dx + dy + dz) ∧ (dy ∧ dz)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Q ∂Q ∂Q
+( dx + dy + dz) ∧ (dz ∧ dx)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂R ∂R ∂R
+ ( dx + dy + dz) ∧ (dx ∧ dy)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂P ∂P ∂P
= dx(dy ∧ dz) + dy ∧ (dy ∧ dz) + dz(dy ∧ dz)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Q ∂Q ∂Q
+ dx(dz ∧ dx) + dy(dz ∧ dx) + dz(dz ∧ dx)
∂x ∂y ∂z (5.17)
∂R ∂R ∂R
+ dx(dx ∧ dy) + dy ∧ (dx ∧ dy) + dz(dx ∧ dy)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂P ∂P ∂P
= dxdydz + dydydz + dzdydz
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Q ∂Q ∂Q
+ dxdzdx + dydzdx + dzdzdx
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂R ∂R ∂R
+ dxdxdy + dydxdy + dzdxdy
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂P ∂Q ∂R
= + + dxdydz
∂z ∂y ∂x
Example 5.17. Let w11 (x, y, z) = xdx + 3ydy and w12 (x, y, z) = 2ydx + 2xzdy +
xydz [29]. (i) Determine w = w11 ∧ w12 . (ii) Obtain its dw.
Solution 5.17. (i)
w = w11 ∧ w12
1
= (w11 w12 − w12 w11 ) (5.18)
2
= (3zy2 − 2x2 z)dxdy − x2 ydxdz − 3xy2 dydz
(ii)
dw = d((3zy2 − 2x2 z)dxdy) − d(x2 ydxdz) − d(3xy2 dydz)

∂ 3zy2 − 2x2 z ∂ 3zy2 − 2x2 z ∂ 3zy2 − 2x2 z
= dx + dy + dz dx ∧ dy
∂x ∂y ∂z
2
∂x y ∂ x2 y ∂ x2 y
− dx + dy + dz dx ∧ dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2

∂ 3xy ∂ 3xy ∂ 3xy2
− dx + dy + dz dy ∧ dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ 3zy2 − 2x2 z ∂ x2 y ∂ 3xy2

= dx ∧ dy ∧ dz + dx ∧ dy ∧ dz − dx ∧ dy ∧ dz
∂z ∂y ∂x
= (3y2 − 2x2 − x2 − 3y2 ) dx ∧ dy ∧ dz
= −3x2 dx ∧ dy ∧ dz
(5.19)

A dx3 − is a measure of the net flux through the boundary of an infinitesimal
4−region [27] in an oriented volume.
Definition 5.10. The derivative [3] of a 3−form function w3 (Eq. 5.20) is a

4−form function of C1 class w4 = dw3 (Eq. 5.21).
w3 = f (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ dx3 (5.20)
n
∂ f (x1 , · · · , xn )
dw3 = ∑ ∂ xi
dxi ∧ dx j ∧ dxk ∧ dxl (5.21)
i=1
Example 5.18. Let w3 = P(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )dx2 dx3 dx4 in R4 be a 3-form [29]. Deter-
mine its derivative dw3 .
Solution 5.18.
dw3 = d(Pdx4 dx2 dx3 dx)

∂P ∂P ∂P ∂P
= dx1 + dx2 + dx3 + dx4 ∧ (dx2 ∧ dx3 ∧ dx4 )
∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ x3 ∂ x4
∂P ∂P
= dx1 ∧ (dx2 ∧ dx3 ∧ dx4 ) + dx2 ∧ (dx2 ∧ dx3 ∧ dx4 )
∂ x1 ∂ x2
∂P ∂P
+ dx3 ∧ (dx2 ∧ dx3 ∧ dx4 ) + dx4 ∧ (dx2 ∧ dx3 ∧ dx4 )
∂ x3 ∂ x4
(5.22)
∂P ∂P
= dx1 dx2 dx3 dx4 + dx2 dx2 dx3 dx4
∂ x1 ∂ x2
∂P ∂P
+ dx3 dx2 dx3 dx4 + dx4 dx2 dx3 dx4
∂ x3 ∂ x4
∂P
= dxdydzdl
∂l
5.3.5. Derivative of k−Forms

A dxk is a measure of the net flux through the boundary of an infinitesimal (k +
1)−region [27] enclosed in an oriented k−volume.
Definition 5.11. The derivative of a k−form function wk (Eq. 5.20) is a (k +

1)−form function of C1 class wx+1 = dwk (Eq. 5.24).
wk = f (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx j ∧ · · · ∧ dxk (5.23)
n
∂ f (x1 , · · · , xn )
dwk = ∑ ∂ xi
dxi ∧ dx j ∧ · · · ∧ dxk (5.24)
i=1
Example 5.19. Let wk = P(x, · · · , k)dy · · · dk in R(k+1) be a k-form [29]. Deter-

mine its derivative dwk .
Solution 5.19.
dwk = d(Pdk · · · dx)

∂P ∂P
= dx + · · · + dk ∧ (dy ∧ · · · dk)
∂x ∂k
∂P ∂P
= dx(dy ∧ · · · ∧ dk) + · · · + dk(dy ∧ · · · ∧ dk) (5.25)
∂x ∂k
∂P ∂P ∂P ∂P
= dx · · · dk + dy · · · dk + dz · · · dk + · · · + dk · · · dk
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂k
∂P
= dx · · · dk
∂k
5.3.6. Gradient Operator Associated to dw0

Definition 5.12. The gradient operator is associated to the derivative of an n de-
gree 0−form dw0 (Eq. 5.26).

∂f ∂f
grad(dw0 ) = ,···, (5.26)
∂ x1 ∂ xn
Example 5.20. Let w0 = P(x, y, z). (i) Determine its dw0 . (ii) Determine the asso-
ciated gradient to dx0 .
Solution 5.20. (i)
∂P ∂P ∂P
dw0 = dx + dy + dz (5.27)
∂x ∂y ∂z
(ii) The associated gradient is

∂P ∂P ∂P
grad( f ) = , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
.
5.3.7. Rotational Operator Associated to dw1

Definition 5.13. The rotational operator is associated to the derivative of an n
degree 1−form dw1 (Eq. 5.28).
∂ f1 ∂ fn
rot(dw1 ) = c1 dxi ∧ dx j + · · · + cn dx j ∧ dxk (5.28)
∂ x1 ∂ xn
Example 5.21. Let w1 = P(x, y, z) dx + Q(x, y, z) dy + R(x, y, z) dz. (i) Determine its
dw1 . (ii) Determine the associated rotational to dx1 .
Solution 5.21. (i)
dw1 = d(P ∧ dx) + d(Q ∧ dy) + d(R ∧ dz)

∂P ∂P ∂P
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂Q ∂Q ∂Q
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂R ∂R ∂R
∂x ∂y ∂z
(5.29)
∂P ∂P ∂P
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂Q ∂Q ∂Q
+ dx ∧ dx + dy ∧ dx + dz ∧ dx
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂R ∂R ∂R
+ dx ∧ dx + dy ∧ dx + dz ∧ dx
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂R ∂Q ∂P ∂R ∂Q ∂P
= − dydz + − dzdx + − dxdy
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
(ii) The associated rotational is

∂R ∂Q ∂P ∂R ∂Q ∂P
rot(dw1 ) = − dydz + − dzdx + − dxdy
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
5.3.8. Divergence Operator Associated to dw2

Definition 5.14. The divergence operator is associated to the derivative of an n
degree 2−form dw2 (Eq. 5.30).
∂f
div(dw2 ) = c1 dxi ∧ dx j ∧ dxk (5.30)
∂x
Example 5.22. Let w2 = P(x, y, z) dydz+Q(x, y, z) dzdx +R(x, y, z) dxdy. (i) Deter-
mine its dw2 . (ii) Determine the associated divergence to dx2 .
Solution 5.22. (i) From (Ex. 5.16)
dw2 = d(Pdydz) + d(Qdzdx) + d(Rdxdy)
(5.31)
∂P ∂Q ∂R
= + + dxdydz
∂z ∂y ∂x
(ii) The associated divergence is

∂P ∂Q ∂R
div(dw2 ) = + + dxdydz
∂z ∂y ∂x
5.4. Remarks
The introduction to differential forms in this chapter uses the review of geomet-
ric algebra in 2D (Chap. 2), in 3D (Chap. 3), and in nD (Chap. 5).
In (Chap. 6) we use the concept of differentation of differential forms to intro-
duce the integral operator over two types of integral line integral and surface
integral.
It is important that the reader reviews and solves all exercises in this chapter, to
get familiar with the differentiation operator studied here.
5.5. Exercises
Exercise 5.1. Give examples of the differential forms w0 , w1 , w2 , w3 , and w4 .
Explain the type of each example.
2 yz
Exercise 5.2. Let w0 (x, y, z) = ex . Determine dw0 .
2 yz
Exercise 5.3. Let w0 (x, y, z) = ex dx + sin xyzdy. Determine dw1 .
Exercise 5.4. Find the dw0 of w0 (x, y) = x2 y + y3 .
Exercise 5.5. Find the dw2 of w2 (x, y, z) = (x3 y + y3 )dydz.

−x
Exercise 5.6. Find the d(dw2 ) of w2 (x, y, z) = dxdy.
x2 y + y2
Exercise 5.7. Let w11 (x, y, z) = xdx + yzdy + x3 ydz and w12 (x, y, z) = xydz. (i)
Compute d(w11 ). (ii) Compute d(w12 ). (iii) Compute w11 ∧ w12 . (iv) Compute
d(w11 ∧ w12 ). (v) Explain (iv).
Exercise 5.8. Compute the outer product of w11 (x, y) = 3dx + dy, and w12 (x, y) =
ex dx + 2dy.
Exercise 5.9. Compute (−r sin θ d θ + cos θ dr) ∧ (r cos θ d θ + sin θ dr)[1, 17].
Exercise 5.10. Let w4 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = x1 + x3 . (i) Compute w4 ∧ w4 . (ii) Compute

d(w4 ∧ w4 ).
CHAPTER 6
Integration
Carlos Polanco
Abstract This chapter intends to be a survey on the integration of differential

forms. Here, the 0−Form, 1−Form, 2−Form, 3−Form and k−Form integrals are
defined. These forms are reviewed using mapping, in particular, the cases that give
rise to Simple Riemann integral, Double Riemann integral, Triple Riemann Inte-
gral, and the Line and Surface integrals. The latter two are defined in (Chap. 1),
using Heaviside-Gibbs algebra.
Keywords: Double Riemann integral case, integral of 2−Form, integral of 3−Form,

integration of 0−Form, integration of 1−Form, integration of k−Form, line inte-
gral, mapping a 1−Form case, mapping a 2−Form case, mapping a 3−Form case,
simple Riemann integral case, surface integral, triple Riemann integral case
6.1. Preliminaries
It is important to review all the examples for line integral and surface integral
in this chapter, they are the same in Chap. 1 but with the method studied here, so
the reader can compare both methods.
Remark 6.1. Note that from now on an equivalent notation will be σi ∧ σ j and
σi σ j .
6.2. Integration of 0−Forms

The integral of a 0−form is a real number that represents the effect or the total
flux that a real-valued function f (x) has over all the points on an interval of the
domain of the function [4].
Carlos Polanco
Definition 6.1. The integral of a differential form w0 (x) in Rn over an interval

D ∈ Rn is represented by (Eq. 6.1).
ˆ
w0 = f (an ) − f (a1 ) (6.1)
D
Example 6.1. Let w0 = x3 + 2x be a 0-form. Determine the integral on the interval

[1, 2].
ˆ ˆ 2
Solution 6.1. w0 = x3 + 2x = (23 + 4) − (13 + 2) = 12 − 3 = 9.
D 1
Example 6.2. Let w0 = x3 + 2xy − z be a 0-form in R3 . Determine the integral on

the interval [1, 2] × [3, 4] × [5, 6].
ˆ ˆ 2ˆ 4ˆ 6
Solution 6.2. w0 = x3 + 2xy − z = (23 + 16 − 6) − (13 + 6 − 5) =
D 1 3 5
18 − 2 = 16.

The integral of a 1−form is a real number that represents the effect or the total
flux, that a vector-valued function f (x) has over the oriented curve on an interval
of the domain of that function [4].
Definition 6.2. The integral of a differential form w1 in Rn over an interval D ∈ Rn

is represented by Eq. 6.2.
ˆ ˆ an
w1 = f1 (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx1 + · · · + fn (x1 , · · · , xn ) dxn dD (6.2)
D a1
Here, we show the general method to solve this integral (Def. 6.3.1) and a partic-
ular case (Def. 6.4) that is used in Heaviside-Gibbs algebra.
6.3.1. Mapping a 1−Form Case

Definition 6.3. The integral of a differential form w1 on Rn over the curve c(t) :
[t1 ,tn ] ⊂ R → Rn is represented by Eq. 6.3.
ˆ ˆ tn
dx1 dxn
w1 = f1 (c(t)) + · · · + fn (c(t)) dt (6.3)
D t1 dt dt
Example 6.3. Let w1 = x3 dx + 2xydy − zdz be a 1-form in R3 . Determine the in-

tegral over the curve c(t) = (t,t 2 ,t 3 ) on the interval [0, 1].
ˆ ˆ 1 ˆ 1
′ ′ ′
Solution 6.3. w1 = x3 dx + 2xydy − zdz = t 3 (t)t + 2t 3 (t 2 )t − t(t 3 )t dt =
ˆ 1 D 0 0
3 4 3
−2t + 4t dt = .
0 10
Integration Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 75
This integral (Eq. 6.3) is known as Line integral in Heaviside-Gibbs algebra
(Def. 1.3.3). Below, we will see the same example but solved with Heaviside-
Gibbs algebra and Grassmann algebra.
Example 6.4. A particle moves along the oriented trajectory T (t) = (t,t 4 ), t ∈
[0, π ] and the force is represented by the vector field F(x, y) = (−yx, sin x). Com-
pute the work done by the force field on a particle that moves along curve T .
˛ ˆ π ˆ π
′ 5 3
Solution 6.4. F ◦ T (t) · T (t) dt = (−t , sint) · (1, 4t ) dt = −t 5 + 4t 3
T 0 0
π 6 − 24π 3 + 144π
sint dt = − .
6
Example 6.5. Let w1 = −yxdx + sin xdy be a 1-form in R2 . Determine the integral
over the curve c(t) = (t,t 4 ) on the interval [0, π ].
ˆ ˆ π ˆ π ˆ π
′ ′
Solution 6.5. w1 = −yxdx + sin xdy = −t 5 (t)t + sint(t 4 )t dt = −t 5
D 0 0 0
3 π 6 − 24π 3 + 144π
+4t sint dt = − .
6
6.3.2. Simple Riemann Integral Case

Definition 6.4. An integral of a differential form w1 in R is equivalent to a Simple
Riemann Integral (Eq. 6.4).
ˆ ˆ an
w1 = f (x1 ) dx1 (6.4)
D a1
Example 6.6. Let w1 = x3 + 2x dx

be a 1-form. Determine the integral on the in-
terval [1, 2].
ˆ ˆ 2 4 2
x 27
Solution 6.6. w1 = x3 + 2x dx = + x2 = .
D 1 4 1 4

The integral of a 2−form is a real number that represents the total effect or flux
that a vector-valued function f (x) has over an oriented surface on an interval of
the domain of the function [4].
Definition 6.5. The integral of a differential form w2 in Rn over a region D ∈ Rn ,
ˆ ˆ ak ˆ an
w2 = f1 (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx1 dx2 + · · · +
D a1 ak+1
fn (x1 , · · · , xn ) dxn dx1 dD (6.5)
Below, we show the general method to solve this integral (Def. 6.4.1) and a par-
ticular case of it (Def. 6.7), using the Heaviside-Gibbs algebra.

Definition 6.6. The integral of a differential form w2 in Rn over the surface
c(u, v) : [u1 , un ] × [v1 , vn ] ⊂ R2 → Rn is represented by Eq. 6.6.
u1n ˆ u2n
∂ (x1 , x2 ) ∂ (xn−1 , xn )
ˆ ˆ
w2 = f1 (c(u1 , u2 )) + · · · + fn (c(u1 , u2 )) du1 du2
D u11 u21 ∂ (u1 , u2 ) ∂ (u1 , u2 )
(6.6)
where

∂ x1
∂ x1 ∂ xn−1 ∂ xn−1

∂ (x1 , x2 ) ∂ u1
∂ u2 ∂ (xn−1 , xn ) ∂ u1 ∂ u2
= ··· = (6.7)
∂ (u1 , u2 ) ∂ x
∂ x2 ∂ (u1 , u2 ) ∂x ∂ xn
2 n

∂ u2 ∂ u1 ∂ u1 ∂ u2

∂T ∂T ∂ (y, z) ∂ (z, x) ∂ (x, y)
Remark 6.2. Note that × = , , (Def. 5.3.2).
∂r ∂θ ∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ )
Example 6.7. Let w2 = −ydxdy+ xdydz be a 2-form in R3 . Determine the integral

over the surface c(r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , θ ) on the interval [0, 1] × [0, 2π ].
ˆ 1 ˆ 2π ˆ 1 ˆ 2π
∂ (x, y)
ˆ
Solution 6.7. w2 = [ − ydxdy + xdydz] d θ dr = − r sin θ
D 0ˆ 0ˆ 0 0 ∂ (r, θ )
1 2π
∂ (y, z) 2
+r cos θ d θ dr = −r sin θ + r cos θ sin θ d θ dr = 0.
∂ (r, θ ) 0 0
∂ (x, y) ∂ (y, z)
Note 6.1. = r, and = sin θ .
∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ )
This integral (Eq. 6.6) is known as Surface integral in Heaviside-Gibbs alge-

bra (Def. 1.3.4). Below, we show the same example solved in Heaviside-Gibbs
algebra and Grassmann algebra.
Example 6.8. Let the external side surface of a solid circle with radius 1, height 1,
and the vector field F(x, y, z) = (x, y, z). Compute the surface integral of the vector
function over the vector field.
Solution 6.8. Using T (r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , 1) with θ ∈ [0, 2π ], r ∈ [0, 1].
θ2 ˆ r 2
∂T ∂T
‹ ˆ
S θ1 r1 ∂r ∂θ
2π ˆ 1
∂T ∂T
ˆ
= F(T (r, θ )) · × dr d θ
0 0 ∂r ∂θ (6.8)
ˆ 2π ˆ 1
= (r cos θ , r sin θ , 1) · (0, 0, r)dr d θ
0 0
= π.
Example 6.9. Let w2 = xdxdy + ydydz + zdzdx be a 2-form in R3 . Determine the

integral over the curve c(r, θ ) = (cos θ , sin θ , 1) with θ ∈ [0, 2π ], r ∈ [0, 1].
ˆ 1ˆ 2π ˆ 1ˆ 2π
∂ (x, y)
ˆ
Solution 6.9. w2 = [zdxdy + xdydz + ydzdx] d θ dr = 1
D 0 0 0 0 ∂ (r, θ )
ˆ 1 ˆ 2π
∂ (y, z) ∂ (z, x)
+r cos x + r sin x d θ dr = r d θ dr = π .
∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ ) 0 0
∂ (x, y) ∂ (y, z) ∂ (z, x)

Note 6.2. = r, = 0, and = 0.
∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ )
6.4.2. Double Riemann Integral Case

Definition 6.7. An integral of a differential form w2 in R2 is equivalent to a Dou-
ble Riemann Integral (Eq. 6.9).
¨ ˆ ak ˆ an
w2 = f (x1 , x2 ) d1 dx2 (6.9)
D a1 ak+1
Example 6.10. Let w2 = x3 + 2xy dx dy be a 2-form. Determine the integral on the

interval [1, 2] × [3, 4].
¨ ˆ 2ˆ 4
57
Solution 6.10. w2 = x3 + 2xy dx dy = .
D 1 3 4

The integral of a 3−form is a real number that represents the total effect or flux
that a vector-valued function f (x) has over the oriented volume, on an interval of
the domain of that function [4].
Definition 6.8. The integral of a differential form w3 in Rn over a region D ∈ Rn ,

ˆ ˆ ak ˆ am ˆ an
w3 = f1 (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx1 dx2 dx3 + · · · +
D a1 ak+1 am+1
fn (x1 , · · · , xn ) dxn dx2 dx1 dD (6.10)
Here, we show the general method to solve this integral (Def. 6.5.1) and a partic-
ular case (Def. 6.10) using Heaviside-Gibbs algebra.

Definition 6.9. The integral of a differential form w3 in Rn over the volume
c(u1 , u2 , u3 ) : [u11 , u1n ]×[u21 , u2n ]×[u31 , u3n ] ⊂ R3 → Rn , is represented by Eq. 6.11.
Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases Carlos Polancoo
u3n ˆ u2n ˆ u1n

∂ (x1 , x2 , x3 )
ˆ ˆ
w3 = f1 (c(u1 , u2 , u3 )) +···+
D u31 u21 u11 ∂ (u1 , u2 , u3 )
∂ (xn−2 , xn−1 , xn )
fn (c(u1 , u2 , u3 )) du1 du2 du3 (6.11)
∂ (u1 , u2 , u3 )
where

∂ x1 ∂ x1 ∂ x1 ∂ xn−2 ∂ xn−2 ∂ xn−2

∂ u1 ∂ u2 ∂ u3 ∂ u1 ∂ u2 ∂ u3

∂ (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∂ x2 ∂ x2 ∂ x2

∂ (xn−2 , xn−1 , xn ) ∂ xn−1 ∂ xn−1 ∂ xn−1
= ,···, =
∂ (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ∂ u1 ∂ u2 ∂ u3 ∂ (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ∂ u1 ∂ u2 ∂ u3

∂x ∂ x3 ∂ x3 ∂ xn
3 ∂ xn ∂ xn

∂ u1 ∂ u2 ∂ u3 ∂ u1 ∂ u2 ∂ u3
(6.12)
Example 6.11. Let w3 = xyzdzdydx be a 3-form in R3 . Determine the integral over
the volume c(r, θ , φ ) = (r, θ , φ ) on the interval [0, 2] × [0, 2π ] × [0, π ].
Solution 6.11.
ˆ ˆ 2ˆ 2π ˆ π
w3 = [xyzdzdydx] drd θ d φ =
D 0 0 0
ˆ 2ˆ 2π ˆ π
∂ (z, y, x)
rθ φ = 2π 4 . (6.13)
0 0 0 ∂ (r, θ , φ )
∂ (z, y, x)
Note 6.3. = 1.
∂ (r, θ , φ )
6.5.2. Triple Riemann Integral Case

Definition 6.10. An integral of a differential form w3 in R3 is equivalent to a
Triple Riemann Integral (Eq. 6.14).
˚ ˆ ak ˆ am ˆ an
w3 = f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) dx1 dx2 dx3 (6.14)
D a1 ak+1 am+1
Example 6.12. Let w3 = x3 z + 2xy dz dy dx be a 3-form. Determine the integral on

the interval [1, 2] × [3, 4] × [5, 6].
˚ ˆ 2ˆ 4ˆ 6
249
Solution 6.12. w3 = x3 z + 2xy dx dy = .
D 1 3 5 8
6.6. Integration of k−Forms

The integral of a k−form is a real number that represents the total effect or flux
that a vector-valued function f (x) has over the oriented k−volume, on an interval
of the domain of the function [4].
Definition 6.11. The integral of a differential form wk in Rn over a region D ∈ Rn ,

ˆ ˆ ak ˆ an
wk = ··· f1 (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx1 · · · dx2 + · · · +
D a1 ak+m
fn (x1 , · · · , xn ) dxn · · · dx1 dD (6.15)
Below, we show a general method to solve this integral (Def. 6.6.1) and a partic-
ular case (Def. 6.13 using Heaviside-Gibbs algebra.
6.6.1. Mapping a k−Form Case

Definition 6.12. The integral of a differential form wk in Rn over the k−volume
c(u1 , · · · , uk ) : [u11 , u1n ] × · · · × [uk1 , ukn ] ⊂ Rk → Rn , is represented by Eq. 6.16.
ukn u1n
∂ (x1 , · · · , xn )
ˆ ˆ ˆ
wk = ··· f1 (c(u1 , · · · , uk )) +···+
D uk1 u11 ∂ (u1 , · · · , uk )
∂ (xn−k , · · · , xn )
fn (c(u1 , · · · , uk )) du1 · · · duk (6.16)
∂ (u1 , · · · , uk )
where

∂ x1 ∂ x1 ∂ xn−2 ∂ xn−2
··· ···
∂ u1 ∂ uk ∂ u1 ∂ u3

∂ (x1 , · · · , xn ) . . ∂ (xn−k , · · · , xn ) . ..
= .. . . ... , · · · , = .. ..
. .
∂ (u1 , · · · , uk ) ∂ (u1 , · · · , uk )

∂x ∂ x3 ∂ xn
3 ∂ xn
··· ···
∂ u1 ∂ uk ∂ u1 ∂ u3
(6.17)
Example 6.13. Let w4 = x1 x2 x3 x4 dx4 dx3 dx2 dx1 be a 4-form in R4 . Determine

the integral over the 4−volume c(u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ) = (u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ) on the interval
[0, 1] × [0, 1] × [0, 1] × [0, 1].
Solution 6.13.
ˆ ˆ 1ˆ 1ˆ 1ˆ 1
w4 = [x1 x2 x3 x4 dx4 dx3 dx2 dx1 ] du1 du2 du3 du4 =
D 0 0 0 0
ˆ 1ˆ 1ˆ 1ˆ 1
∂ (x4 , x3 x2 x1 ) 1
x1 x2 x3 x4 du4 du3 du2 du1 = . (6.18)
0 0 0 0 ∂ (u , u ,
4 3 2 1 u , u ) 16
∂ (x4 , x3 , x2 , x1 )
Note 6.4. = 1.
∂ (u4 , u3 , u2 , u1 )
6.6.2. k−Riemann Integral Case

Definition 6.13. An integral of a differential form wk in Rk is equivalent to a
k−Riemann Integral (Eq. 6.19).
ˆ ˆ ˆ ak ˆ an
· · · wk = ··· f (x1 , · · · , xk ) dx1 · · · dk (6.19)
D a1 ak+m
Example 6.14. Let w4 = x1 x2 x3 x4 dx4 dx3 dx2 dx1 be a 4-form. Determine the inte-
gral on the interval [1, 2] × [3, 4] × [5, 6] × [7, 8].
˘ ˆ 2ˆ 4ˆ 6ˆ 8
3465
Solution 6.14. w4 = x1 x2 x3 x4 dx4 dx3 dx2 dx1 = .
D 1 3 5 7 16
6.7. Remarks
The integration of differential forms in this chapter, is based on the review of
geometric algebra in 2D space (Chap. 2), 3D space (Chap. 3), and nD space
(Chap. 5).
We suggest the reader reviews and solves all the exercises in this chapter to get
familiar with the integration operator of this algebra.
Note that in some cases, it is not possible to provide an example in Heaviside-
Gibbs algebra.
In (Chap. 8) the concepts of differentiation and integration of differential forms
are used to introduce Green’s theorem, using the line integral and double Rie-
mann integral.
The previous chapters are the basis to properly understand Green’s, Stokes’,
Gauss’ theorems, and Calculus Fundamental Theorem.
6.8. Exercises
Exercise 6.1. Let w0 = 3x2 + 2x be a 0-form. Determine the integral on the inter-
val [1, 3].
Exercise 6.2. Let w0 = x2 + 2xy − z be a 0-form in R3 . Determine the integral on

the interval [1, 2] × [1, 2] × [1, 2].
Exercise 6.3. Let w1 = x4 dx + 3xydy − zdz be a 1-form in R3 . Determine the in-

tegral over the curve c(t) = (t,t 2 ,t 3 ) on the interval [0, 2].
Exercise 6.4. A particle moves along the oriented trajectory T (t) = (t,t 4 ), t ∈
[0, 2π ] and the force is represented by the vector field F(x, y) = (−2yx, sin x).
Compute the work done by the force field on a particle that moves along curve T .
Exercise 6.5. Let w1 = −yxdx + cos xdy be a 1-form in R2 . Determine the integral
over the curve c(t) = (t,t 4 ) on the interval [−π , π ].
Exercise 6.6. Let w1 = x4 + 2x cos x dx be a 1-form. Determine the integral on the

interval [−π , π ].
Exercise 6.7. Let w2 = −ydxdy + x2 dydz be a 2-form in R3 . Determine the inte-

π
gral over the surface c(r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , θ ) on the interval [0, 1] × [0, ].
2
Exercise 6.8. Let the external side surface of a solid circle with radius 2, height 3,
and the vector field F(x, y, z) = (x, y, z). Compute the surface integral of the vector
function over the vector field.
Exercise 6.9. Let w2 = x3 + 2xy dy dx be a 2-form. Determine the integral on the

interval [0, 1] × [0, x].
Exercise 6.10. Let w3 = xyzdzdydx be a 3-form in R3 . Determine the integral over

the volume c(r, θ , φ ) = (r, θ , φ ) on the interval [0, 1] × [0, π ] × [0, π2 ].
Exercise 6.11. Let w3 = x4 z + 2xy dz dy dx be a 3-form. Determine the integral on

the interval [0, 1] × [0, 1] × [0, 1].
Exercise 6.12. Let w4 = x1 x2 x3 x42 dx4 dx3 dx2 dx1 be a 4-form. Determine the in-
tegral on the interval [0, π ] × [0, 2π ] × [0, 3π ] × [0, 4π ].
CHAPTER 7
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Carlos Polanco
Abstract This chapter reviews The Green’s, Stokes’, and Gauss’ Theorems as a
direct result of the differentiation and integration operations set out in previous
chapters. All the exercises are solved using the Grassmann algebra. The Funda-
mental theorem of calculus is introduced at the end of this chapter, as an extension
of the theorems studied here.
Keywords: dw1 form, dw2 form, w1 form, w2 form, divergence, Field associated,
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Gauss’ theorem, Grassmann algebra, Green’s
theorem, Heaviside-Gibbs algebra, rotational, Stokes’ theorem
7.1. Preliminaries
In the following sections, we will introduce the operators and properties of the
Grassmann algebra (Chaps. 2-6) with some examples. These operators and their
properties are required to introduce the Green’s, Stokes’, and Gauss’ theorems.
If the reader is interested in knowing these theorems under the Heaviside Gibbs
algebra, he/she can review (Chap. 1).
These theorems derive directly from the integration and differentiation operators
of Grassmann algebra and their generalization is provided in the last section of
this chapter.
7.2. Green Theorem

Definition 7.1. Let w1 be a 1−form on an open over a region D ⊂ R2 bounded by
∂ D in the positive perimeter, then
Carlos Polanco
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 83
ˆ ˆ
w1 = dw1 (7.1)
∂D D
Green’s theorem states that the effect of the vector-valued function F over the ori-
ented closed curve ∂ D, counter-clockwise orientation (represented by w1 −form
over R2 ), is equivalent to the rotational effect over the area bounded by the region
D, i.e. dw1 .
Proof. The definition of field associated (Sect. 5.3.2) is verified.
Example 7.1. Let w1 = −y dx + x dy. Verify Green’s theorem over the region
c(t) = (cost, sint),t ∈ [02π ].
ˆ ˆ 2π ˆ 2π
′ ′
Solution 7.1. w1 = −y dx + x dy dt = − sint(cost)t + cost(sint)t dt
ˆ 2π ∂D 0 0
2 2
= sin t + cos t dt = 2π .
0
dw1 = d(−y ∧ dx) + d(x ∧ dy))

∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x
=− dx + dy ∧ dx + dx + dy ∧ dy
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

∂y ∂y (7.2)
=− dx ∧ dx − dy ∧ dx
∂x ∂y

∂x ∂x
+ dx ∧ dy + dy ∧ dy
∂x ∂y
= 2dxdy
now, we parameterize c(r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , 1)

ˆ 1 ˆ 2π ˆ 1 ˆ 2π ˆ 1 ˆ 2π
∂ (x, y)
ˆ
dw1 = [2dxdy] d θ dr = 2 d θ dr = 2r d θ dr
D 0 0 0 0 ∂ (r, θ ) 0 0
= 2π .
∂ (x, y)
Note 7.1. = r.
∂ (r, θ )
The Green’s theorem is verified.
7.3. Stokes’ Theorem

Definition 7.2. Let w1 be a 1−form on an open over a region S ⊂ R3 bounded by
∂ S in the positive perimeter, then
ˆ ˆ
w1 = dw1 (7.3)
∂S S
Stokes’s theorem states that the effect of the vector-valued function F over the ori-
ented closed curve ∂ D, counter-clockwise orientation (represented by w1 −form
over R3 ), is equivalent to the rotational effect over the area bounded by the region
D, i.e. dw1 .

Example 7.2. Let w1 = xy dx+ez dy+x dz. Verify Stokes’ theorem over the region
c(t) = (cost, sint, 1).
ˆ ˆ 2π ˆ 2π
′
Solution 7.2. w1 = xy dx + ez dy + x dz dt = cost sint(cost)t + e1
∂D ˆ 02π 0
′ ′ 2 t
(sint)t + cost(1)t dt = − cost sin t + e cost dt = 0.
0
dw1 = d(xy ∧ dx) + d(ez ∧ dy) + d(x ∧ dz)

∂x ∂y ∂z
z z

∂e ∂e ∂ ez
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂x ∂x ∂x
∂x ∂y ∂z
(7.4)

∂x ∂y ∂z
z z z
∂e ∂e ∂e
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂x ∂x ∂x
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −xdxdy + dzdx + ez dzdy
now, we parameterize c(r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , 1)

ˆ 1 ˆ 2π ˆ 1 ˆ 2π
∂ (x, y)
ˆ
dw1 = [ − xdxdy + dzdx + ez dzdy] d θ dr = − r cos θ
D 0 0 0 0 ∂ (r, θ )
ˆ 1 ˆ 2π
∂ (z, x) ∂ (z, y)
+ + e1 d θ dr = −r2 cos θ d θ dr = 0.
∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ ) 0 0
∂ (x, y) ∂ (z, x) ∂ (z, y)

Note 7.2. = r, = 0, and = 0.
∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ )
The Stokes’ theorem is verified.
7.4. Gauss’ Theorem

Definition 7.3. Let w2 be a 2−form on an open over a region ω ⊂ R3 bounded by
∂ ω , in the positive perimeter, then
¨ ˚
w2 = dw2 (7.5)
∂ω ω
Example 7.3. Let w2 = xz dxdy − xydxdz − xdydz. Verify Gauss’s theorem over
the region T (θ , φ ) = (cos θ sin φ , sin θ sin φ , cos φ ), θ ∈ [0, 2π ], and φ ∈ [0, π ].
ˆ ˆ π ˆ 2π ˆ π ˆ 2π
Solution 7.3. w2 = [xz dxdy − xydxdz − xdydz] d θ d φ =
D 0 0 0 0
∂ (y, x) ∂ (z, x) ∂ (z, y)
cos θ sin φ cos φ + cos θ sin φ sin θ sin φ + cos θ sin φ dθ dφ
∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ )
ˆ π ˆ 2π
= d θ d φ = − cos θ sin φ cos φ sin φ cos φ − cos θ sin φ sin θ sin φ sin2 φ sin θ
0 0 ˆ π ˆ 2π
− cos θ sin φ sin2 φ cos θ d θ d φ = − cos θ cos2 φ sin2 φ + cos θ sin3 φ sin2 θ
0 0
+ cos2 θ sin3 φ d θ d φ = 0.
∂ (x, y) ∂ (z, x) ∂ (z, y)

Note 7.3. = − sin φ cos φ , = − sin2 φ sin θ , and = sin2 φ
∂ (θ , φ ) ∂ (θ , φ ) ∂ (θ , φ )
cos θ .
dw2 = −d(xdydz) + d(xydzdx) + d(xzdxdy)
∂x ∂x ∂x
= (− dx − dy − dz) ∧ (dy ∧ dz)
∂x ∂y ∂z
+( dx + dy + dz) ∧ (dz ∧ dx)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ xz ∂ xz ∂ xz
+( dx + dy + dz) ∧ (dx ∧ dy)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂x ∂x ∂x
=− dx(dy ∧ dz) − dy ∧ (dy ∧ dz) − dz(dy ∧ dz)
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ dx(dz ∧ dx) + dy(dz ∧ dx) + dz(dz ∧ dx) (7.6)
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ dx(dx ∧ dy) + dy ∧ (dx ∧ dy) + dz(dx ∧ dy)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂x ∂x ∂x
=− dxdydz − dydydz − dzdydz
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂x ∂y ∂z
= (2x − 1) dxdydz
now we parameterize T (ρ , θ , φ ) = (ρ cos θ sin φ , ρ sin θ sin φ , ρ cos φ ), θ ∈ [0, 2π ],

φ ∈ [0, π ], and ρ ∈ [0, 1].
ˆ ˆ 1ˆ π ˆ 2π ˆ 1ˆ π ˆ 2π
dw2 = 2x − 1dxdydz d θ d φ d ρ = (2ρ cos θ sin φ − 1)
D 0 ˆ 01 ˆ 0π ˆ 0 0 0
2π
∂ (x, y, z)
= ρ cos φ (2ρ cos θ sin φ − 1)d θ d φ d ρ = 2ρ 2 cos φ sin φ −
∂ (ρ , θ , φ ) 0 0 0
ρ cos φ d θ d φ d ρ = 0.
∂ (x, y, z)
Note 7.4. = ρ cos φ .
∂ (ρ , θ , φ )
The Gauss’ theorem is verified.
7.5. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Definition 7.4. Let wk be a k−form on an open over a region V ⊂ Rn bounded by
∂ V , in the positive area, then
ˆ ˆ
wk = dwk (7.7)
∂V V
Proof. The definition of field associated (Sect. 5.3.3) by mathematical induction

is verified.
Example 7.4. Let w3 = x3 x4 dx1 dx2 dx3 . Verify the Fundamental Theorem of Cal-
culus over the region T (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = (u1 , u2 , u3 , u1 ), u1 ∈ [0, 1], u2 ∈ [0, 1] and
u3 ∈ [0, 1].
Solution 7.4.
ˆ ˆ 1ˆ 1ˆ 1
w3 = [x3 x4 dx1 dx2 dx3 ] du1 du2 du3
D 0 0 0
ˆ 1ˆ 1ˆ 1
∂ (x1 , x2 , x3 )
= u1 u3 du1 du2 du3
0 0 0 ∂ (u1 , u2 , u3 ) (7.8)
ˆ 1ˆ 1ˆ 1
= u1 u3 du1 du2 du3
0 0 0
9
=
2
∂ (x1 , x2 , x3 )
Note 7.5. = 1.
∂ (u1 , u2 , u3 )
dw3 = d(x1 x4 dx1 dx2 dx3 + x2 x3 dx3 dx4 dx1 )
∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4
=( dx1 + dx2 + dx3 + dx4 ) ∧ (dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ dx3 )
∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ x3 ∂ x4
∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3
+( dx1 + dx2 + dx3 + dx4 ) ∧ (dx3 ∧ dx4 ∧ dx1 )
∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ x3 ∂ x4
∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4
= dx1 (dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ dx3 ) + dx2 (dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ dx3 )
∂ x1 ∂ x2
∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4
+ dx3 (dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ dx3 ) + dx4 (dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ dx3 )
∂ x3 ∂ x4
∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3
∂ x1 ∂ x2
∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3
∂ x3 ∂ x4
∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4
∂ x1 ∂ x2
∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4
∂ x3 ∂ x4
∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3
∂ x1 ∂ x2
∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3
∂ x3 ∂ x4
= −(x1 + x3 ) dx1 dx2 dx3 dx4

(7.9)
now, we parameterize T (u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ) = (u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ),u1 ∈ [0, α1 ], u2 ∈ [0, α2 ],

u3 ∈ [0, α3 ], and u4 ∈ [0, α4 ].
ˆ ˆ α1 ˆ α2 ˆ α3 ˆ α4
1
dw3 = (x1 + x3 ) dx1 dx2 dx3 dx4 = . Where α1 = α3 = α4 =
D 0 0 0
0 4
1 √ 1 √
1, and α2 = − 1 − 3 , or α2 = 3−1 .
2 2
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is verified.
7.6. Remarks
The theorems in this chapter are based on the review of geometric algebra in 2D
(Chap. 2), 3D space (Chap. 3), and nD space (Chap. 5).
It is important to note that the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is a general-
ization of the Green’s, Stokes’, and Gauss’ theorems (Chap. 1), specially the line
integral and surface integral.
We strongly advise the reader reviews and solves all the exercises in this chapter,
to get familiar with the differentiation operator of this algebra.
In the next chapter, we will review the three applications of exterior calculus.
Exercises Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 89
7.7. Exercises
Exercise 7.1. Let w0 = xyz dz dy dx be over the interval [0, 1]× [0, 2]× [0, 3]. Solve
and explain the meaning in Heaviside-Gibbs algebra and Geometric algebra.
Exercise 7.2. Let w1 = yx dx + 2zy dy + dz, evaluate the line integral over the re-
gion c(t) = (cost, sint), 1),t ∈ [0, 2π ]. Solve with Heaviside-Gibbs algebra and
Geometric algebra.
Exercise 7.3. Let w2 = 2xdxdy + 3ydydz + 4zdzdx evaluate the surface integral
over the región T (r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sint, 1), r ∈ [0, 1], θ ∈ [0, 2π ]. Solve with
Heaviside-Gibbs algebra and Geometric algebra.
Exercise 7.4. Let w1 = −4y dx + 4x dy. Verify Green’s theorem over the region
c(t) = (cost, sint),t ∈ [0, 2π ].
Exercise 7.5. Verify Green’s theorem over D xydx + x2 y2 dy, where c is the trian-
´
gle with vertices (0, 0), (2, 0), and (0, 2).
Exercise 7.6. Let w1 = y dx + ez dy + x dz. Verify Stokes’ theorem over the region
c(t) = (cost, sint, 1).
´
Exercise 7.7. Verify Stokes’ theorem over D xdx + ydy + zdz, where c is defined
by c(t) = (cost, sint, 1 − cost − sint) [1].
Exercise 7.8. Let w2 = xz dxdy − xydxdz − dydz. Verify Gauss’ theorem over the
region T (θ , φ ) = (cos θ sin φ , sin θ sin φ , cos φ ), θ ∈ [0, 2π ], and φ ∈ [0, π ].
Exercise 7.9. Verify Gauss’ theorem over V x2 dydz + y2 dzdx + zdxdy, where c is
´
defined by T (θ , φ ) = (cos θ sin φ , sin θ sin φ , cos φ ) [1].
Exercise 7.10. Let w3 = x3 x4 dx1 dx2 dx3 . Verify the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus over the region T (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = (u1 , u2 , u3 , u1 ), u1 ∈ [0, 1], u2 ∈ [0, 2], and
u3 ∈ [0, 3].
III
APPLICATIONS
The second part of the book starts with the characterization of the real-valued
functions with a review of the concepts of continuity, differentiation, and integra-
tion. Integration is presented with mappings on a plane and space. We define the
vector-valued functions, their geometric representation and the two vector oper-
ators: rotational and divergence. Each section is self-contained so the unfamiliar
reader can follow up the subject.
CHAPTER 8
Applications
Carlos Polanco
Abstract This chapter gives an alternative solution to the spread of an epidemic

outbreak of k dimension, using a k−Form. The k−region, derivative, and integral
of this k−Form are interpreted. An extension of the k dimension is proposed using
a k−Form equivalent to the electric current and the magnetic field, known as Am-
pere’s law. An algorithm to determine the main function of a protein is introduced
using a k−Form. Finally, the k−region, derivative, and integral of this k−Form
are interpreted.
Keywords: Ampere’s law, clinical variables, mathematical epidemiology, non-

clinical variables, structural proteomics
8.1. Mathematical Epidemiology
8.1.1. Preliminaries
In recent years, after the emblematic analysis of 335 infectious emerging dis-
eases from 1940 to 2004, in which it was reported that 60% were zoonosis and
25% were mosquito-borne viruses [30], and after the A-H1N1 flu outbreak of
1989 [31], there has been substantial progress in the development of surveillance
systems of serious diseases with epidemic potential to support public health, clin-
ical infrastructure, and the limited responsiveness of Emergency Services.
At present, it is still uncertain if a sporadic zoonosis restricted to a certain area
will become a global pandemic or something in between. Therefore, surveillance
systems of severe infectious diseases with epidemic potential should not only be
based on the number of notified cases and their space-time distribution in a deter-
mined geographical area, to issue an early warning.
Carlos Polanco
Applications Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 91
The best would be to also consider non-clinical variables, such as socio-demographic

factors, public transport, livestock production, and vaccinated population, as it is
known [31] that these factors are the epidemiological foundation for the spread of
a potential pandemic outbreak. Today, a person can be infected on one continent
and be on another 10 hours later.
This, combined with the virulence of the pathogenic agents and some socio-
demographic factors, determine their spreading capability. A surveillance system
of severe infection diseases with epidemic potential, will give health authorities
valuable time to promote suitable measures and minimize the spread of the dis-
ease.
For this reason, it is expected that a surveillance system of severe infectious dis-
eases with epidemic potential identifies, as soon as possible, specific symptomatic
cases of an infectious process; this requires a predictive element that foresees, with
a certain degree of accuracy, a possible event in the time/space of this infectious
process so the authorities take preventive measures in the affected region.
In our opinion, two of the main factors undermining the effectiveness of the warn-
ings are, on the one hand, the increasingly efficient means of transport and on the
other, the numerous mild diseases e.g. colds that present fever.
Nowadays, the surveillance systems of serious infectious diseases with epidemic
potential are mainly based on the number of microbiologically [32] verified cases;
the warnings, although real, are also late as monitoring is based on the assumption
that symptomatic subjects will go to a clinic.
However, if the transmissibility and/or lethality of the virus is very high, or if the
number of medical facilities in the area is very limited, the index patient and some
of his/her contacts will probably die before receiving medical attention, which
will make even harder to trace back the contacts net that will continue growing.
Additionally, the number of doctors and clinics available is frequently less than
optimal, as in the case of developing countries, where the population does not
usually seek medical advice for many different reasons.
In this circumstance, it is necessary to have a predictive model of serious infec-
tious diseases with pandemic potential that considers and weights clinical and
non-clinical variables, instead of depending only on the number of microbiolog-
ically confirmed cases, and that forecasts the emergence and progress of the out-
break in a region.
8.1.2. Model
The model proposed, defines a k−form function (Eq. 5.20), whose dxk is a mea-
sure of the net flux through the boundary of an infinitesimal (k + 1)−region, en-
closed in an oriented k−geographical region that represents the effect of the total
flux on a particular area of that k−geographical region,
where
Definition 8.1. The derivative [3] of a 3−form function wk (Eq. 8.1) is a k +

1−form function of C1 class wk+1 = dwk (Eq. 8.2).
wk = f (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx j ∧ · · · ∧ dxk (8.1)
n
∂ f (x1 , · · · , xn )
dwk = ∑ ∂ xi
dxi ∧ dx j ∧ · · · ∧ dxk (8.2)
i=1
and,

is represented by (Eq. 8.3).
ˆ ˆ ak ˆ an
wk = ··· f1 (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx1 · · · dx2 + · · · +
D a1 ak+m
fn (x1 , · · · , xn ) dxn · · · dx1 dD (8.3)
The previous definitions are in (Chaps. 5, and 6) if the reader wants to deepen in
these concepts, it is advisable to review these chapters.
8.1.2.1 Clinical Variables
Clinical variables [31] are parameters strongly associated with an epidemic pro-
cess and they are related to the seriousness of the patients’ condition, or the med-
ical supplies necessary for their attention, i.e. hemodynamic monitors and me-
chanical ventilators.
8.1.2.2 Non-Clinical Variables
Non-clinical variables associated with an epidemic process are those variables that
are not associated with the medical aspect and may well be associated with trans-
port phenomena, education, population growth, or accessibility to drinking water,
e.g. passengers traveling, illiterate indigenous population, immigrant population,
and dwellings without piped water.
8.1.3. Algorithm
The function is a vector-valued function f : Rk → Rk , where k is the number of
clinical and non-clinical variables.
The integral 6.6 of a k−form represents the total effect or flux that a vector-
valued function f (x) has over the oriented k−volume, on an interval of the do-
main of the function; and the derivative (Def. 5.3.5) dxk is a measure of the net
flux through the boundary of an infinitesimal (k + 1)−region enclosed in an ori-
ented k−volume.
8.1.4. Discussion
A method that estimates an epidemic outbreak is a multifactorial phenomenon,
its dissemination can certainly be measured by counting the number of infected
people and the deaths, however, this approach is very expensive. In the case of
viral phenomena, particularly of the coronavirus type, the infection rate can grow
very fast and become uncontrollable.
In this sense, algorithms oriented to estimate early warnings with epidemic (or
pandemic) potential, should cover multiple variables of very different nature. This
is only possible in orientable regions located in k dimension spaces that are ideal
for the re-creation of these phenomena.
8.2. Structural Proteomics
Structural proteomics is a discipline that focuses on the identification and classi-
fication of proteins, and although it started with experimental techniques in lab-
oratories, today it is done with mathematical-computational programs that eval-
uate, with different algorithms, the proteins and their amino acids or nucleotides
(genes), as in this work.
This type of algorithm acts in the three-dimensional expression where the protein
acts, or in its linear representation called sequence.
After this classification, and in order of importance, the algorithms are classi-
fied in supervised or non-supervised. A supervised algorithm is one whose metric
requires some form of human assistance, while those that do not require any as-
sistance are called non-supervised algorithms.
Here is an approximation to a non-supervised algorithm, whose metric uses a
differential form w.
8.2.2. Model
The model described below, defines a k−form function (Eq. 5.20), whose dxk is a
measure of the net flux through the boundary of an infinitesimal (k + 1)− region
enclosed in an oriented k− geographical region that represents the effect of the
total flux over a particular area of that k−geographical region.
Definition 8.3. The derivative [3] of a k−form function wk (Eq. 8.4) is a k +

1−form function of C1 class wk+1 = dwk (Eq. 8.5),
where
wk = f (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx j ∧ · · · ∧ dxk (8.4)

n
∂ f (x1 , · · · , xn )
dwk = ∑ ∂ xi
dxi ∧ dx j ∧ · · · ∧ dxk (8.5)
i=1
and

ˆ ˆ ak ˆ an
wk = ··· f1 (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx1 · · · dx2 + · · · +
D a1 ak+m
fn (x1 , · · · , xn ) dxn · · · dx1 dD (8.6)
The previous definitions correspond to Chaps. 5, and 6, if the reader wants to

deepen in these concepts it is advisable to review these chapters.
8.2.3. Algorithm
A function is a vector-valued function f : Rk → Rk , where k is the number of polar
interactions.
The integral 6.6 of a k−form represents the total effect or the flux that a vector-
valued function f (x) has over the oriented k−volume, on an interval of the domain
of the function; and the derivative (Def. 5.3.5) dxk is a measure of the net flux
through the boundary of an infinitesimal (k + 1)−region enclosed in an oriented
k−volume.
8.2.4. Discussion
A method that estimates the predominant function of a protein is a multifactorial
phenomenon. This can be obtained by studying a fundamental physico-chemical
property, such as the polarity/charge of the amino acids in their sequence, thor-
oughly evaluating the protein and not only by obtaining a numerical value.
In this sense, algorithms oriented to estimate the predominant function of a protein
should be a matrix or vector, so all possibilities are evaluated. With this in mind,
it will be necessary to define the metric in oriented regions of k dimension. The
algebra studied in this book will be applied to this purpose.
8.3. Ampere’s Law
The physicist and mathematician Andre-Marie Ampere (1775–1836) stated one of
the main theorems of electromagnetism that is often considered as the magnetic
equivalent of Gauss’ theorem.
He explained that static electricity and magnetism have a common origin, but
different effect. The common origin is an electric charge or steady charge, when
these charges are in motion they induce a magnetic field. He also observed that
there are materials that exhibit continuous movement of these charges and are,
therefore, permanent magnets. Thus, Andre-Marie Ampere created a new field
named Electrodynamics.
Ampere’s law relates a static magnetic field to the cause producing it, i.e. a steady
electric current.
˛ ¨ ¨
~ · d~l = d
H J~ · d~S + ~D · d~S (8.7)
C S dt S
Where the last term is the displacement current, provided that this current is con-
stant and directly proportional to the magnetic field and the integral is (E) multi-
plied by its relative mass [33].
8.3.2. Model
The model proposed below defines a k−form function (Eq. 5.20), whose dxk is the
measure of the net flux through the boundary of an infinitesimal (k + 1)− region,
enclosed in an oriented k−geographical region that represents the effect of this
total flux over a particular area of that k−geographical region,
where
Definition 8.5. The derivative [3] of a k−form function wk (Eq. 8.8) is a k −

1−form function of C1 class wk+1 = dwk (Eq. 8.9).
wk = f (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx j ∧ · · · ∧ dxk (8.8)
n
∂ f (x1 , · · · , xn )
dwk = ∑ ∂ xi
dxi ∧ dx j ∧ · · · ∧ dxk (8.9)
i=1
and,

ˆ ˆ ak ˆ an
wk = ··· f1 (x1 , · · · , xn ) dx1 · · · dx2 + · · · +
D a1 ak+m
fn (x1 , · · · , xn ) dxn · · · dx1 dD (8.10)
These definitions are found in (Chaps. 5, and 6) if the reader wants to deepen in
this concept, it is advisable to review these chapters.
Ampere’s work arose a question, can a magnetic field generate an electric current?
Michael Faraday (1791-1867) proved it can.
With these two contributions, it was possible to know the amount of electric cur-
rent that we can get from the variation of a magnetic flow. This made possible the
large-scale generation of electrical energy.
8.3.3. Algorithm
The function is a vector-valued function f : Rk → Rk , where k is the number of
clinical and non-clinical variables.
The integral 6.6 of a k−form represents the total effect or flux that a vector-valued
function f (x) has over an oriented k−volume on an interval of the domain of the
function, and the derivative (Def. 5.3.5) dxk is a measure of the net flux through the
boundary of an infinitesimal (k + 1)−region enclosed in an oriented k−volume.
8.3.4. Discussion
This approach extends to a k dimension the oriented region of ampere’s law. Al-
though its use solves cases in three-dimensional space or plane, its generalization
requires the algebra studied in this book if the oriented region is in this dimension.
8.4. Remarks
The reader will find that although the solution to any of the problems found here
is extensive, it is theoretically possible.
Therefore, these three applications cannot be solved with Heaviside-Gibbs alge-
bra as it is impossible to orient the regions to higher spaces, however, the solution
is possible if we use Geometric algebra (or Grassmann algebra [2, 9, 20, 22,
23, 24, 26].
In these chapters (Chaps. 5-7), we showed how the Geometric algebra or Grass-
mann algebra is used in the generalization of the n dimensional space.
CHAPTER 9
SOLUTIONS
Solutions Chapter 1
Solution 1.1. (i) The map is T : R ⇒ R2 , (a cos θ , b sin θ ), θ ∈ [0, 4π ]. (ii) See
(Fig. 1.2).
Figure 1.2 Map of the ellipse where b < a. Figure adapted from [1].
(iii) The mapping runs twice the perimeter of the ellipse.
Solution 1.2. The map is T : R ⇒ R3 , (cos θ , sin θ , 1−cos θ −sin3 θ ), θ ∈ [0, 3π ].
Solution 1.3. (i) The paraboloid is the graph of the function f (x, y) = 1 − x2 −
y2 , the map T : R2 ⇒ R2 , (r cos θ , r sin θ ), r ∈ [0, 1], θ ∈ [0, 2π ] transforms the
rectangle into the unit circle and f ◦ T is the third component of the map T : R2 ⇒
R3 . Then, T (r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , 1−r2 cos2 θ −r2 sin2 θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , 1−
r2 ).
´ 2π
◦ c(t) · c′ (t) dt = (− sin2 t, cost) · (− sint, cost)dt = π .
¸
Solution 1.4. (i) CF 0
Carlos Polanco
′
´ 2π
(− sin2 t, cost, 1) · (− sint, cost, 0)dt =
¸
Solution 1.5. (i) C F ◦ c(t) · c (t) dt = 0
π.
√ ‚
Solution 1.6. (i) T (r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , 1 − r2 ). S F ◦ T (u, v) · η (u, v)dS =
´ 2π ´ 1 √ 2 r2 sin θ
0
2
0 (r sin θ , r cos θ , 1 − r ) ·(
√ cos θ , √
−r
, r) dr d θ = 23 π . (ii) T (t) = (cost,
1−r2 1−r2
´ 2π
sint, 0) D F ◦ T (t) · T ′ (t) dt = 0 (sint, cost, 0) · (− sint, cost, 0) dt = 0.
¸
´ 1 ´ 2π p
Solution 1.7. 0 0 (cos θ , sin θ , 0) × (−r sin θ , r cos θ , 0) d θ dr = π .
Solution 1.8. From Green’ theorem

˛ ¨
F ◦ c(t) · c′ (t) dt = (∇ × F) · k dy dx.
∂C C
Then F(x, y) = (2xy−x2 , x+y2 ) and the first mapping is T1 (t) = (t,t 2 ),t ∈ [0, 1] so
´1 3 2 4 7
√
0 (2t´ −t ,t +t )·(1, 2t) dt = 6 . The second mapping is T2 (t) = (t, t),t ∈ [1, 0],
0 3 1
then 1 (2t 2 − t 2 , 2t) · (1, 2√ t
) dt = − 17 1
15 . So the line integral is 30 . The double
˜ ´ 1 ´ √x 1
integral is C (∇ × F) · k dy dx = 0 x2 (0, 0, 1 − 2x) · k dydx = 30 . The double
integral is equal to the line integral, the Green’ theorem is verified.
Solution 1.9. From Stokes’ theorem

˛ ¨
′
F ◦ c(t) · c (t) ds = (∇ × F)(Tβ ) · Tv × Tu dv du.
∂D S
2 2
Since x2 + y2 = 2 ⇔ x2 + y2 = 4, the mapping is T (t) = (2 cost, 2 sint, 2),t ∈
´ 2π ´ 2π
[2π , 0]. Then − 0 (6 sint, −4 cost, 8 sint)·(−2 sint, 2 cost, 0) dt = 0 −12 sin2 t −
2
8 cos2 t dt = 20π . With the mapping Tβ (r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , r2 ), the double in-
´ 2 ´ 2π 2
tegral is C (∇ × F)(Tβ ) · Tβ r × Tβ θ dr d θ = 0 0 (2r sin θ + r cos θ , 0, − r2 − 3) ·
˜
(r2 cos θ , r2 sin θ , −r) d θ dr = 2π . The double integral is equal to the line integral,
the Stokes’ theorem is verified.
Solution 1.10. From Gauss’ theorem

‹ ˚
F ◦ T (u, v) · Tv × Tu dv du = (∇ · F) dz dy dx.
∂W W
First we compute ∇ · F = 2xz3 + 2xz3 + 4xz3 = 8xz3 , then
‹ ˚
F ds = (∇ · F)dV (1.1)
s B
ˆ 3ˆ 2 ˆ 1
= 8xz3 dx dy dz
−3 −2 −1
= 0.
Solutions Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 99
Solutions for Chapter 2

Solution 2.1. v = −σ2 + σ1 ∧ σ2 , v = σ2 + 2σ21 , v = 1 + σ1 + 2σ2 − σ12 .
Solution 2.2. a = −σ1 + σ2 , and b = 2σ1 + 3σ2 .
Solution 2.3. ab = −σ2 + σ1 = σ1 − σ2 . So a ∧ b = σ1 − σ2 .

1
Solution 2.4. ab = 1 − 3σ12 , and ba = 1 + 3σ12 , a ∧ b = (ab − ba) = −3σ12 .
2
Solution 2.5. (i) ab = σ2 , ba = −σ2 . (ii) a · b = 0. (iii) a ∧ b = σ2 .
Solution 2.6. (i) a(b+c) = 2. (ii) ab = 1− σ12 and ac = 1+ σ12 , then ab+ac = 2.
(iii) From (i) and (ii) yes, it is.
Solution 2.7. (i) a(b+c) = 1− σ1 + σ2 +3σ12 . (b+c)a = 1+ σ1 + σ 2+3σ12 . (ii)

a ∧ (b + c) = σ1 − σ2 . (iii) a ∧ b = −σ2 and a ∧ c = 0, then a ∧ b + a ∧ c = σ1 − σ2 .
(iv) Yes, it is.
a 2 − σ1 + σ1 σ2
Solution 2.8. a−1 = = .
a · a 2 − 4σ1 + 4σ12
Solution 2.9. (i) From the definition, the reversion of a is a† = σ2 σ1 .
Solution 2.10. Its blades are < a >0 = 1 and < a >1 = 0 < a >2 = 2σ12 .
Solution 2.11. a ∧ b = −2σ12 + σ1 then I(a ∧ b) = σ12 (−2σ2 + σ1 ) = −2σ1 − σ2 .
Solution 2.12.
q
||a|| = ⌊aa† ⌋
p
= ⌊(1 + 2σ1 + 3σ2 + 3σ21 )(1 + 2σ1 + 3σ2 − 3σ21 )⌋
p (2.2)
= ❤
22❤
⌊5 + ✭ σ1❤−✭6σ✭
✭ ✭ ❤ 2⌋
❤
√
= 5.
Solution 2.13. (i) a(bc) = −ασ2 − σ1 . (ii) (ab)c = −ασ2 − σ1 . (iii) From the
results (i) and (ii) yes, it is.
Solution 2.14. (i) Ia = σ1 σ2 a = σ2 + σ1 . (ii) aI = aσ1 σ2 = −σ2 − σ1 . (iii) From

these results, (i) is a rotation of π2 in the clockwise direction and (ii) is a rotation
of π2 in the counter-clockwise direction.
Solution 2.15. (i) IIa = σ1 σ2 σ1 σ2 a = −2σ1 − 3σ2 . (ii) aII = aσ1 σ2 σ1 σ2 =

−2σ1 − 3σ2 . (iii) From these results, (i) is a reflection of π in the clockwise
direction and (ii) is a reflection of π in the counter-clockwise direction.
u σ1 − 2σ2 10 5
Solution 2.16. u = = . Then y = −uxu = σ1 + σ2 .
||u|| 3 9 9
Lx0 =(1,1) (v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0}
[(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 ) − (σ1 + σ2 )] ∧ σ1 = 0
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 1)σ2 ] ∧ σ1 = 0
The exterior product (x − x0 ) ∧ v = 21 [(x − x0 )v − v(x − x0 )],
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 1)σ2 ] ∧ σ1 = (x2 − 1)σ1 σ2 = 0

(2.3)
From (Eq. 2.3), x1 = R and x2 = 1, so the points with the form (R, 1) are the
solution. Note that the point (1, 1) meets the line Lx0 (v).
Px0 =(2,1) (u ∧ v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ (u ∧ v) = 0} (2.4)
[(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 ) − (σ1 + 2σ2 )] ∧ (σ1 σ2 ) = 0

(2.5)
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 ] ∧ (σ1 σ2 ) = 0
From the equation [(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 ][σ1 σ2 ] − [σ1 σ2 ][(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 −
2)σ2 ] = 0. So, the points (x2 − 2, x1 − 1) are the solution. Note that the point (2, 1)
meets the plane Px0 =(2,1) (u ∧ v).

Solution 3.1. v = 2σ123 , v = 1 + 3σ321 , v = 1 + σ1 + 2σ2 − σ12 + σ123 .
Solution 3.2. a = −σ1 + σ2 + σ3 , and b = 2σ1 + 3σ2 − 3σ3 .
Solution 3.3. ab = σ23 − σ13 ba = σ23 − σ23 . So a ∧ b = 0.

1
Solution 3.4. ab = −σ3213 = −σ21 = σ12 , and ba = −σ12 , a ∧ b = (ab − ba) =
2
−σ12 .
Solution 3.5. (i) ab = σ21 , ba = −σ21 . (ii) a · b = 0. (iii) a ∧ b = σ21 = −σ12 .
Solution 3.6. (i) a(b + c) = 2σ31 − σ32 + σ12 . (ii) ab = σ31 − σ32 and ac = σ31 +
σ12 , then ab + ac = 2σ31 − σ32 + σ12 . (iii) From (i) and (ii) yes, it is.
Solution 3.7. (i) a(b+c) = 1− σ1 + σ2 +3σ12 . (b+c)a = 1+ σ1 + σ 2+3σ12 . (ii)

a ∧ (b + c) = σ1 − σ2 . (iii) a ∧ b = −σ2 and a ∧ c = 0, then a ∧ b + a ∧ c = σ1 − σ2 .
(iv) Yes, it is.
a 1 − σ1 + 2σ1 σ3
Solution 3.8. a−1 = = .
a · a −2 + 4σ12 − 4σ3
Solution 3.9. (i) From the definition, the reversion of a is a† = −σ1 σ3 .
Solution 3.10. Its blades are < a >0 = 1 and < a >2 = 2σ12 < a >3 = −σ123 .
Solution 3.11. a ∧ b = −2σ3 then I(a ∧ b) = σ123 (−2σ3 ) = −2σ12 .
Solution 3.12. The norm of a is.
q
||a|| = ⌊aa† ⌋
p
= ⌊(1 + σ1 + σ2 − σ21 )(1 + σ1 + σ2 + σ21 )⌋
p (3.6)
= ⌊4 + ❍4σ✟
✟ 2⌋
❍
√
= 2.
Solution 3.13. (i) a(bc) = −ασ32 − σ31 . (ii) (ab)c = −ασ32 − σ31 . (iii) From the
results (i) and (ii) yes, it is.
Solution 3.14. (i) Ia = σ1 σ2 σ3 a = σ23 + σ12 . (ii) aI = aσ1 σ2 σ3 = σ23 + σ12 . (iii)
From these results, (i) is a rotation of π2 in the clockwise direction and (ii) is a
rotation of π2 in the counter-clockwise direction.
Solution 3.15. (i) IIa = σ1231232 + σ1231233 = −σ1 − σ3 . (ii) aII = σ2123123 +
σ3123123 = −σ1 − σ3 . (iii) From these results, (i) is a reflection of π in the clock-
wise direction and (ii) is a reflection of π in the counter-clockwise direction.
u σ1 − 2σ2 2 8
Solution 3.16. u = = . Then y = −uxu = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 .
||u|| 3 3 9
Lx0 =(0,1,0) (v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0}
[(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 + x3 σ3 ) − (0σ1 + σ2 + 0σ3 )] ∧ (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) = 0

[(x1 − 0)σ1 + (x2 + 1)σ2 + (x3 − 0)σ3 ] ∧ (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) = 0
(x2 − 1)σ23 + x1 σ13 = 0

(3.7)
From (Eq. 4.11), x1 = 0, x2 = 1, and x3 = R. So, the points with the form (0, 1, R)
are the solution. Note that the point (0, 1, 0) meets the line Lx0 (v).
Px0 =(2,1,1) (u ∧ v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ (u ∧ v) = 0} (3.8)
[(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 ) − (σ1 + 2σ2 )] ∧ (σ1 σ2 ) = 0

(3.9)
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 ] ∧ (σ1 σ2 ) = 0
From (Eq. 4.13), [(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 ][σ1 σ2 ] − [σ1 σ2 ][(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 −
2)σ2 ] = 0. So, the points (x2 − 2, x1 − 1) are the solution. Note that the point
(2, 1, 1) meets the plane Px0 =(2,1,1) (u ∧ v).

Solution 4.1. v = 2, v = 1 + 3σ1 , v = −σ1 ∧ σ2 ∧ σ3 ∧ σ4 ∧ σ5 ∧ σ6 , v = 2σ21 ,
v = 1 + σ1 + 2σ2 − σ12 + σ123456789 .
Remark 4.1. All of the above vectors are considered to be multivectors in their
most general sense. So it is avoided to qualify them particularly as bivectors,
trivectors among other adjectives.
Solution 4.2. (i) a = −σ1 + σ2 + σ3 − σ4 + 2σ5 , and b = 2σ1 + 3σ2 − 3σ3 + σ4 −

σ5 + 3σ6 .
(ii) The line generated by Lx0 and the plane generated by Px0 , with the orientation
of the vectors v and u ∧ v respectively.
Lx0 =(1,2,3,4) (v) = {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ v = (4, 3, 2, 1) = 0},
Px0 =(1,2,3,4) (u ∧ v) = {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ [u = (1, −1, 1, −1) ∧ v = (1, 2, −2, 3)] = 0}.
1
Solution 4.3. ab = σ2345 , and ba = σ2345 , a ∧ b = (ab − ba) = 0.
2
1
Solution 4.4. ab = σ2345 , and ba = σ2345 , a · b = (ab + ba) = σ2345 .
2
Solution 4.5. (i) ab = σ12345678 , ba = −σ56781234 = σ12345678 . (ii) a·b = σ12345678 .
(iii) a ∧ b = 0.
Solution 4.6. (i) a(b + c) = σ4 − 2σ234 − σ134 . (ii) ab = −σ234 − σ134 and ac =
−σ234 + σ4 , then ab + ac = σ4 − 2σ234 − σ134 . (iii) From (i) and (ii) yes, it is.
Solution 4.7. (i) a(b + c) = −σ234 − σ34 . (b + c)a = σ234 − σ34 . (ii) a ∧ (b + c) =
−σ234 . (iii) a ∧ b = −σ234 and a ∧ c = −σ34 , then a ∧ b + a ∧ c = −σ234 − σ34 .
(iv) Yes, it is.
a 1 + σ1 + σ1 + · · · + σn a
Solution 4.8. a−1 = = =
a · a a + σ1 a + σ2 a + · · · + σn a a + a(σ1 + σ2 + · · · + σn
a a 1
= = = .
a + a(a − 1) a + a2 − a) a
Solution 4.9. (i) From the definition, the reversion of a is a† = σ654321 .

Remark 4.2. Note that in this case a† = −a.
Solution 4.10. Its blades are < a >0 = 1 and < a >2 = 2σ12 < a >7 = σ123456 .
Solution 4.11. a ∧ b = −a then I(a ∧ b) = −Ia.
Solution 4.12. The norm of a is.
q
||a|| = ⌊aa† ⌋
p
= ⌊(σ1 + σ2 + · · · + σn )(σ1 + σ2 + · · · + σn )⌋
q (4.10)
❤❤✭ ✭
= ⌊n + ✭ ✭❤✭ ❤✭
vector-residue⌋
❤❤
√
= n.
Solution 4.13. (i) a(bc) = σ12346 . (ii) (ab)c = σ12346 . (iii) From the results (i) and
(ii) yes, it is.
Solution 4.14. (i) Ia = σ1234 a =. (ii) aI = aσ1234 . (iii) From these results, (i) is a
rotation of π2 in the clockwise direction and (ii) is a rotation of π2 in the counter-
Solution 4.15. (i) IIa = σ1234 σ1234 a. (ii) aII = aσ1234 σ1234 . (iii) From these re-
sults, (i) is a reflection of π in the clockwise direction and (ii) is a reflection of π
in the counter-clockwise direction.
u σ1 − 2σ2 2 8
Solution 4.16. u = = . Then y = −uxu = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 .
||u|| 3 3 9
Lx0 =(1,1,1,1) (v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ v = 0}
[(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 + x3 σ3 + x4 σ4 ) − (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 + σ4 )] ∧ (σ1 + σ4 ) = 0

[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 + 1)σ2 + (x3 − 1)σ3 + (x4 − 1)σ4 ] ∧ (σ1 + σ4 ) = 0
The exterior product (x − x0 ) ∧ v = 21 [(x − x0 )v − v(x − x0 )],
[(x2 − 1)σ12 + (x3 − 1)σ13 − (x4 − 1)σ14 ] = 0

(4.11)
From (Eq. 4.11), x1 = R, x2 = 1, x3 = 1, and x4 = 0. So, the points with the form
(R, 1, 1, 1) are the solution. Note that the point (1, 1, 1, 1) meets the line Lx0 (v).
Px0 =(2,1,1,1,1) (u ∧ v) := {x | (x − x0 ) ∧ (u ∧ v) = 0} (4.12)
[(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 ) − (σ1 + 2σ2 )] ∧ (σ1 σ2 ) = 0

(4.13)
[(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 ] ∧ (σ1 σ2 ) = 0
From (Eq. 4.13), [(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 − 2)σ2 ][σ1 σ2 ] − [σ1 σ2 ][(x1 − 1)σ1 + (x2 −
2)σ2 ] = 0. So, the points (x2 − 2, x1 − 1) are the solution. Note that the point
(2, 1, 1, 1, 1) meets the plane Px0 =(2,1,1,1,1) (u ∧ v).

Solution 5.1. The n degree of a wi form is the term that corresponds to the highest
degree in the form. wo (x, y, z) = 3 + 2xyz is a 0−form. wi (x, y, z) = 3 + 2xyz + 4dz
is a 1−form. w2 (x, y, z) = 3 + 2xyz + 4dz + dydz is a 2−form. Note this in-
cludes terms of a 0−form and a 1−form. w3 (x, y, z) = 2 + exyz dx ∧ dy ∧ dz.
w4 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = ex1 dx1 ∧ d2 ∧ d3 ∧ d4 .
Solution 5.2.
2 yz 2 yz 2 yz 2 yz
d(ex ) = (ex )′x + (ex )′y + (ex )′z
2 yz 2 yz 2 yz
(5.14)
= 2xyzex + x2 zex + x2 yex
Solution 5.3.
2 yz 2 yz
d(ex dx + sin xyzdy) = d(ex dx) + d(sin xyzdy)
2 2 2
= (ex yz )′x dx + (ex yz )′y dx + (ex yz )′z dx
+ (sin xyz)′x dx + (sin xyz)′y dx + (sin xyz)′z dx (5.15)
2 2
= x2 zex yz dydx + x2 yex yz dzdx
+ xz cos xyzdydx + xy cos xyzdzdx
Solution 5.4.
d(x2 y + y3 ) = (x2 y + y3 )′x + (x2 y + y3 )′y + (x2 y + y3 )′z

(5.16)
= 2xy + 3y2 + 0
Solution 5.5.
d(x3 y + y3 dydz) = (x3 y + y3 dydz)′x + (x3 y + y3 dydz)′y + (x3 y + y3 dydz)′z

(5.17)
= 3x2 y dxdydz
Solution 5.6.
′ ′ ′
−x −x −x −x
d 2 dxdy = dxdy + dxdy + dxdy
x y + y2 x2 y + y2 x x2 y + y2 y x2 y + y2 z
= 0 dxdydz
(5.18)
Solution 5.7. (i)

dw = d(xdx + yzdy + x3 ydz)

= d(xdx) + d(yzdy) + d(x3 ydz)
= d(x)dx + d(yz)dy + d(x3 y)dz
= dxdx + zdydy + ydzdy + 3x2 ydxdz + x3 dydz
(5.19)
= ydzdy + 3x2 ydxdz + x3 dydz
= −ydydz + 3x2 ydxdz + x3 dydz
= 3x2 ydxdz + (x3 − y)dydz
= 3x2 ydx ∧ dz + (x3 − y)dy ∧ dz
d(xdx) = (x)′x dx + (x)′y dx + (x)′z dx

= dxdx + 0 + 0 (5.20)
= dxdx
d(yzdy) = (yz)′x dy + (yz)′y dy + (yz)′z dy

(5.21)
= 0 + zdydy + ydzdy
d(x3 ydy) = (x3 y)′x dz + (x3 y)′y dz + (x3 y)′z dz

(5.22)
= 3x2 ydxdz + x3 dydz + 0
(ii)
d(dw) = d[3x2 ydxdz + (x3 − y)dydz]

= d(3x2 ydxdz) + d[(x3 − y)dydz]
= d(3x2 y)dxdz + d(x3 − y)dydz (5.23)
= 6xydxdxdz + 3x2 dydxdz + 3x2 dxdydz − dydydz
=0
d(3x2 y)dxdz = (3x2 y)′x dxdz + (3x2 y)′y dxdz + (3x2 y)′z dxdz
(5.24)
= 6xydxdxdx + 3x2 dydxdz + 0
d(x3 − y)dydz = (x3 − y)′x dydz + (x3 − y)′y dydz + (x3 − y)′z dydz
(5.25)
= 3x2 dxdydz − dydydz + 0
(iii)
(w ∧ η ) = (xdx + yzdy + x3 ydz) ∧ (xydz)

= x2 ydxdz + y2 zxdydz + x3 yx2 dzdz (5.26)
2 2
= x ydxdz + y zxdydz
(iv)
d(w ∧ η ) = d(x2 ydxdz + y2 zxdydz)

= d(x2 ydxdz) + d(y2 zxdydz)
= d(x2 y)dxdz + d(y2 zx)dydz (5.27)
2 2
= −x dxdydz + y zdxdydz
= (y2 z − x2 )dxdydz
d(x2 y)dxdz = (x2 y)′x dxdz + (x2 y)′y dxdz + (x2 y)′z dxdz
= 2xydxdxdz + x2 dydxdz + 0 (5.28)
2
= −x dxdydz
d(y2 zx)dydz = (y2 zx)′x dydz + (y2 zx)′y dydz + (y2 zx)′z dydz
= y2 zdxdydz + 2yxzdydydz + y2 xdzdydz (5.29)
2
= y zdxdydz
(v)
From (iv) d(w ∧ η ) = dw ∧ η + (−1)k w ∧ d η .
2 yz 2 yz 2 yz 2 yz
d(ex )dxdy = (ex )′x dxdy + (ex )′y dxdy + (ex )′z dxdy
2 yz
(5.30)
= −x2 yex dxdydz
Solution 5.8. (i)

1
w11 ∧ w12 = (w11 w12 − w12 w11 )
2
= (3dx + dy)(ex dx + 2dy)
= 3ex dx ∧ dx + 6dx ∧ dy + ex dy ∧ dx + 2dy ∧ dy (5.31)
= (6 − ex )dx ∧ dy
= (6 − ex )dxdy
(ii)
d(6 − ex ) ∧ dx ∧ dy = −ex dx ∧ dx ∧ dy
(5.32)
=0
Solution 5.9.
dx ∧ dy = (−r sin θ d θ + cos θ dr) ∧ (r cos θ d θ + sin θ dr)
= −r2 sin θ cos θ d θ d θ − r sin2 θ d θ dr + r cos2 θ drd θ + cos θ sin θ drdr
= (−r sin2 θ − r cos2 θ )d θ ∧ dr
= r dr ∧ d θ
(5.33)
Solution 5.10. (i)
w4 ∧ w4 = dx1 dx3 (5.34)
(ii)
dw4 = d(dx1 dx3 )

= (dx1 dx3 )′x1 + (dx1 dx3 )′x2 + (dx1 dx3 )′x3 + (dx1 dx3 )′x4 (5.35)
= −dx1 dx2 dx3 + dx1 dx3 dx4

ˆ ˆ 3
Solution 6.1. w0 = 3x2 + 2x = (17 + 6) − (13 + 2) = 23 − 3 = 20.
D 1
ˆ ˆ 2ˆ 2ˆ 2
Solution 6.2. w0 = x2 + 2xy − z = (22 + 8 − 2) − (13 + 4 − 1) =10
D 1 1 1
−4 = 6.
ˆ ˆ 2 ˆ 2
′ ′ ′
Solution 6.3. w1 = x4 dx + 3xydy − zdz = t 4 (t)t + 3t 3 (t 2 )t − t(t 3 )t dt =
ˆ 2 D 0 0
7 3 13
6t 4 + t 4 − 3t 3 dt = t 4 − t 3 = .
0 5 4 20
˛ ˆ π ˆ π
′ 5 3
Solution 6.4. F ◦ T (t) · T (t) dt = (−t , 2 sint) · (1, 4t ) dt = −t 5 +
T −π −π
8t 3 sint dt = 16π (π 2 − 6).
ˆ ˆ π ˆ π ˆ π
′ ′
Solution 6.5. w1 = −yxdx + cos xdy = −t 5 (t)t + cost(t 4 )t dt =
D −π −π −π
−t 5 + 4t 3 cost dt = 0.
ˆ ˆ π
2
Solution 6.6. w1 = x4 + 2x cos x dx = π 5 .
D −π 5
ˆ 1ˆ π ˆ 1ˆ π
∂ (x, y)
ˆ
2 2
Solution 6.7. w2 = −ydxdy + x2 dydz d θ dr = −r sin θ
0 ∂ (r, θ )
D
ˆ 1 0ˆ π 0 0
∂ (y, z) 2 2
+r cos θ d θ dr = −r2 sin θ + r2 cos2 θ sin θ d θ dr = − .
∂ (r, θ ) 0 0 9
∂ (x, y) ∂ (y, z)
Note 6.1. = r, and = sin θ .
∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ )
√
Solution 6.8. Using T (r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , 3) with θ ∈ [0, 2π ], r ∈ [0, 2].
θ2 ˆ r 2
∂T ∂T
‹ ˆ
S θ1 r1 ∂r ∂θ
√
2π ˆ 2
∂T ∂T
ˆ
= F(T (r, θ )) · × dr d θ
0 0 ∂r ∂θ (6.36)
√
ˆ 2π ˆ 2
= (r cos θ , r sin θ , 1) · (0, 0, r)dr d θ
0 0
= 2π .
¨ ˆ 1ˆ x ˆ 1
3 9
Solution 6.9. w2 = x + 2xy dy dx = x4 + x3 dx = .
D 0 0 0 20
Solution 6.10.
ˆ ˆ 2ˆ 2π ˆ π
w3 = [xyzdzdydx] drd θ d φ =
D 0 0 0
ˆ 1ˆ π ˆ π2
∂ (z, y, x) π4
rθ φ = . (6.37)
0 0 0 ∂ (r, θ , φ ) 8
∂ (z, y, x)
Note 6.2. =1
∂ (r, θ , φ )
˚ ˆ 1ˆ 1ˆ 1
3
Solution 6.11. w3 = x4 z + 2xy dx dy = .
D 0 0 0 5
˘ ˆ πˆ 2π ˆ 3π ˆ 4π
Solution 6.12. w4 = x1 x2 x3 x42 dx4 dx3 dx2 dx1 = 24π 9 .
D 0 0 0 0

˚ ˆ 1ˆ 2ˆ
3
9 4 1 9
Solution 7.1. w0 = = . In the Heaviside-
xyzdz dy dx =
D 0 0 0 2 2 2 2
Gibbs algebra, this integral represents a volume in the R3 space or an area in R2 .
In the Geometric algebra this is a 0−form w0 integral.
ˆ ˆ 2π ˆ 2π
′
Solution 7.2. dw1 = yx dx + 2zy dy + dz = ( cost sint(cost)t + 2 sint
ˆ D2π 0 0
′ 2
(sint)t ) dt = ( − sin t cost + 2 sint cost)dt. Now if F(x, y) = (yx, 2zy, 1), ⇒
0 ˆ 2π
F ◦C = (cost sint, 2 sint, 1), then ( cost sint, 2 sint, 1) · ( − sint, cost, 0) dt. So
0
both integrals are equivalent.
ˆ ˆ 1ˆ 2π ˆ 1ˆ 2π
Solution 7.3. w2 = [2zdxdy + 3xdydz + 4ydzdx] d θ dr = 4
D 0 0 ˆ 1 ˆ 2π 0 0
∂ (x, y) ∂ (y, z) ∂ (z, x)
+r cos x + r sin x d θ dr = 24 r d θ dr = 24π .
∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ ) 0 0
∂ (x, y) ∂ (y, z) ∂ (z, x)

Note 7.3. = 6r, = 0, and = 0.
∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ )
If F(x, y, z) = (2x, 3y, 4z), T (r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sint, 1), r ∈ [0, 1], θ ∈ [0, 2π ], its Ja-
ˆ 1 ˆ 2π
cobian is 24, then 24 rd θ dr = 24π . So both integrals are equivalent.
0 0
ˆ ˆ 2π ˆ 2π
′
Solution 7.4. w1 = −4y dx + 4x dy dt = −4 sint(4 cost)t + 4 cost
∂D 0 0
′
(4 sint)t dt
ˆ 2π
= 16 sin2 t + 16 cos2 t dt = 16π .
0
dw1 = d(−4y ∧ dx) + d(4x ∧ dy))

∂ 4y ∂ 4y ∂ 4x ∂ 4x
=− dx + dy ∧ dx + dx + dy ∧ dy
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

∂ 4y ∂ 4y (7.38)
=− dx ∧ dx − dy ∧ dx
∂x ∂y

∂ 4x ∂ 4x
+ dx ∧ dy + dy ∧ dy
∂x ∂y
= 8dxdy
Now, we parameterize c(r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , 1)

ˆ 1 ˆ 2π ˆ 1 ˆ 2π ˆ 1 ˆ 2π
∂ (x, y)
ˆ
dw1 = [8dxdy] d θ dr = 8 d θ dr = 8r d θ dr
D 0 0 0 0 ∂ (r, θ ) 0 0
= 16π .
∂ (x, y)
Note 7.4. = r.
∂ (r, θ )
Green’s theorem is verified.
Solution 7.5.
ˆ 2ˆ 2−x
∂Q ∂P
¨
( − ) dydx = 2xy2 − xdy dx
D ∂x ∂y 0 0
4
=−
15
ˆ ˆ
x(t) y(t) dx dy
P ◦ c(t) + Q ◦ c(t) = P · c1 (t)
+ Q · c1 (t)
∂D dt dt ∂D dt dt
ˆ 1 (7.39)
dx dy
+ P · c2 (t) + Q · c2 (t)
∂D dt dt
ˆ 2
dx dy
+ P · c3 (t) + Q · c3 (t)
∂ D3 dt dt
4
= 0− +0
15
4
=−
15
Where c1 (t) = (t, 0),t ∈ [0, 2], c2 (t) = (2 −t,t),t ∈ [0, 2], and c3 (t) = (0,t),t ∈
[2, 0].
ˆ ˆ 2
dx dy
P · c1 (t) + Q · c1 (t) = xy(0) + x2 y2 (2)dt
∂ D1 dt dt 0
ˆ 2
= 0(1) + 0(0)dt
0
=0
ˆ ˆ 2
dx dy
P · c2 (t) + Q · c2 (t) = xy(−1) + x2 y2 (1)dt
∂ D2 dt dt 0
ˆ 2
= −t(1 − t) + (1 − t)2 (t 2 )dt (7.40)
0
4
=−
15
ˆ ˆ 0
dx dy
P · c3 (t) + Q · c3 (t) = xy(1) + x2 y2 (0)dt
∂ D3 dt dt 2
ˆ 0
= 0(0) + 0(1)dt
2
=0
ˆ ˆ 2π ˆ 2π
′
Solution 7.6. w1 = y dx + ez dy + x dz dt = sint(cost)t + e1
∂D ˆ 02π 0
′ ′ 2
(sint)t + cost(1)t dt = − sin t + e cost dt = −π .
0
dw1 = d(y ∧ dx) + d(ez ∧ dy) + d(x ∧ dz)

∂y ∂y ∂y
∂x ∂y ∂z
z
∂e ∂ ez ∂ ez
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂x ∂x ∂x
∂x ∂y ∂z
(7.41)

∂y ∂y ∂y
∂x ∂y ∂z
z z z
∂e ∂e ∂e
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂x ∂x ∂x
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −dxdy + dzdx + ez dzdy
Now, we parameterize c(r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , 1)

ˆ 1 ˆ 2π ˆ 1 ˆ 2π
∂ (x, y)
ˆ
dw1 = [ − dxdy + dzdx + ez dzdy] d θ dr = −
D 0 0 0 0 ∂ (r, θ )
ˆ 1 ˆ 2π
∂ (z, x) ∂ (z, y)
+ + e1 d θ dr = −r d θ dr = −π .
∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ ) 0 0
∂ (x, y) ∂ (z, x) ∂ (z, y)

Note 7.5. = r, = 0, and = 0.
∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ )
Stokes’s theorem is verified.
Solution 7.7. If T (θ , r) = (r cost, r sint, 1 − r cost − r sint),

∂ (Ty , Tz ) r cos θ sin θ
= (7.42)
∂ (θ , r) r sin θ −r cos θ

∂ (Tz , Tx ) r sin θ −r cos θ
= (7.43)
∂ (θ , r) −r sin θ sin θ

∂ (Tx , Ty ) −r sin θ sin θ
= (7.44)
∂ (θ , r) r cos θ sin θ
ˆ 1ˆ 2π
∂R ∂Q ∂P ∂R ∂Q ∂P
¨
dw = (− ) dydz + ( − ) dzdx + ( − ) dxdy
S 0 0 ∂ y ∂ z ∂ z ∂ x ∂x ∂y
ˆ 1 ˆ 2π
∂R ∂Q ∂ (Ty , Tz )
= ( − ) ◦ T (θ , r)
0 0 ∂y ∂z ∂ (θ , r)
∂P ∂R ∂ (Tz , Tx )
+( − ) ◦ T (θ , r)
∂z ∂x ∂ (θ , r)
∂Q ∂P ∂ (Tx , Ty )
+( − ) ◦ T (θ , r)
∂x ∂y ∂ (θ , r)
ˆ 1 ˆ 2π
∂ (Ty , Tz ) ∂ (Tz , Tx ) ∂ (Tx , Ty )
= (0) + (0) + (0) d θ dr
0 0 ∂ (θ , r) ∂ (θ , r) ∂ (θ , r)
=0
(7.45)
ˆ ˆ 2π
dx dy dy
P · c(t) + Q · c(t) + R · c(t) = (cost)(− sint)
∂D dt dt dt 0
+ (sint)(cost)
+ (1 − cost − sint)(sint − cost)dt
=0
(7.46)
ˆ ˆ π ˆ 2π ˆ π ˆ 2π
Solution 7.8. w2 = [xz dxdy − xydxdz − dydz] d θ d φ =
D 0 0 0 0
∂ (y, x) ∂ (z, x) ∂ (z, y)
cos θ sin φ cos φ + cos θ sin φ sin θ sin φ + dθ dφ
∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ ) ∂ (r, θ )
ˆ π ˆ 2π
= d θ d φ = − cos θ sin φ cos φ sin φ cos φ − cos θ sin φ sin θ sin φ sin2 φ sin θ
0 0 ˆ π ˆ 2π
− sin2 φ cos θ d θ d φ = − cos θ cos2 φ sin2 φ + cos θ sin3 φ sin2 θ cos θ
0 0
+ sin2 φ d θ d φ = 0.
∂ (x, y) ∂ (z, x) ∂ (z, y)

Note 7.6. = − sin φ cos φ , = − sin2 φ sin θ , and = sin2 φ
∂ (θ , φ ) ∂ (θ , φ ) ∂ (θ , φ )
cos θ .
dw2 = −d(dydz) + d(xydzdx) + d(xzdxdy)
∂1 ∂1 ∂1
= (− dx − dy − dz) ∧ (dy ∧ dz)
∂x ∂y ∂z
+( dx + dy + dz) ∧ (dz ∧ dx)
∂x ∂y ∂z
+( dx + dy + dz) ∧ (dx ∧ dy)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂1 ∂1 ∂1
=− dx(dy ∧ dz) − dy(dy ∧ dz) − dz(dy ∧ dz)
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ dx(dz ∧ dx) + dy(dz ∧ dx) + dz(dz ∧ dx) (7.47)
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ dx(dx ∧ dy) + dy(dx ∧ dy) + dz(dx ∧ dy)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂1 ∂1 ∂1
=− dxdydz − dydydz − dzdydz
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2x dxdydz
Ahora aplicamos la parametrizacion T (ρ , θ , φ ) = (ρ cos θ sin φ , ρ sin θ sin φ ,

ρ cos φ ), θ ∈ [0, 2π ], φ ∈ [0, π ], and ρ ∈ [0, 1].
ˆ ˆ 1 ˆ π ˆ 2π ˆ 1 ˆ π ˆ 2π
dw2 = 2xdxdydz d θ d φ d ρ = 2ρ cos θ sin φ
D 0 ˆ0 ˆ 0 ˆ 0 0 0
1 π 2π
∂ (x, y, z)
= ρ cos φ 2ρ cos θ sin φ d θ d φ d ρ = 2ρ 2 cos φ sin φ
∂ (ρ , θ , φ ) 0 0 0
d φ d ρ = 0.
∂ (x, y, z)
Note 7.7. = ρ cos φ .
∂ (ρ , θ , φ )
Gauss’s theorem is verified.
Solution 7.9.
∂P ∂Q ∂R
ˆ ˚
= +( + ) dz dy dx
Ω Ω ∂x ∂y ∂z
ˆ −1 ˆ √1−x2 ˆ √1−x2 −y2
(7.48)
= √ √ 8xyz dz dy dx
−1 − 1−x2 − 1−x2 −y2
=0
π ˆ 2π
∂ (Ty , Tz ) ∂ (Tz , Tx ) ∂ (Tx , Ty )
¨ ˆ
dΩ = P◦T +Q◦T +R◦T dθ dφ
∂Ω 0 0 ∂ (θ , φ ) ∂ (θ , φ ) ∂ (θ , φ )
π ˆ 2π
∂ (Ty , Tz ) ∂ (Tz , Tx )
ˆ
= cos2 θ sin2 φ + sin2 θ sin2 φ + cos2 φ
0 0 ∂ (θ , φ ) ∂ (θ , φ )
∂ (Tx , Ty )
dθ dφ
∂ (θ , φ )
ˆ π ˆ 2π
= (cos2 θ sin2 φ )(− cos θ sin2 φ ) + (sin2 θ sin2 φ )(− sin2 φ )
0 0
+ (cos φ )(− sin2 θ sin φ cos φ − cos2 θ sin φ cos φ )d θ d φ
2
=0
(7.49)
Note 7.8. The sign depends on the orientation.

∂ (Ty , Tz ) cos θ cos φ sin θ cos φ
=
∂ (θ , r) 0 − sin φ (7.50)
= − cos θ sin2 φ

∂ (Tz , Tx ) 0 − sin φ
=
∂ (θ , r) − sin θ sin φ cos θ cos φ (7.51)
2
= − sin φ

∂ (Tx , Ty ) − sin θ sin φ cos θ cos φ
=
∂ (θ , r) cos θ sin φ sin θ cos φ (7.52)
2 2
= − sin θ sin φ cos φ − cos θ sin φ cos φ
Solution 7.10.
ˆ ˆ 1ˆ 2ˆ 3
w3 = [x3 x4 dx1 dx2 dx3 ] du1 du2 du3
D 0 0 0
ˆ 1ˆ 2ˆ 3
∂ (x1 , x2 , x3 )
= u1 u3 du1 du2 du3
0 0 0 ∂ (u1 , u2 , u3 ) (7.53)
ˆ 1ˆ 2ˆ 3
= u1 u3 du1 du2 du3
0 0 0
9
=
2
∂ (x1 , x2 , x3 )
Note 7.9. = 1.
∂ (u1 , u2 , u3 )
dw3 = d(x1 x4 dx1 dx2 dx3 + x2 x3 dx3 dx4 dx1 )
∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4
=( dx1 + dx2 + dx3 + dx4 ) ∧ (dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ dx3 )
∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ x3 ∂ x4
∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3
+( dx1 + dx2 + dx3 + dx4 ) ∧ (dx3 ∧ dx4 ∧ dx1 )
∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ x3 ∂ x4
∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4
∂ x1 ∂ x2
∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4
∂ x3 ∂ x4
∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3
∂ x1 ∂ x2
∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3
∂ x3 ∂ x4
∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4
∂ x1 ∂ x2
∂ x1 x4 ∂ x1 x4
∂ x3 ∂ x4
∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3
∂ x1 ∂ x2
∂ x2 x3 ∂ x2 x3
∂ x3 ∂ x4
= −(x1 + x3 ) dx1 dx2 dx3 dx4

(7.54)
Now, we parameterize T (u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ) = (u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ),u1 ∈ [0, α1 ], u2 ∈ [0, α2 ],

u3 ∈ [0, α3 ], and u4 ∈ [0, α4 ].
ˆ ˆ α1 ˆ α2 ˆ α3 ˆ α4
9
dw3 = (x1 + x3 ) dx1 dx2 dx3 dx4 = . Where α1 = 1, α2 =
D 0 0 0 0 √ 2

− 7 1 √
2, α3 = 3, and α4 = −1 − , or α4 = 7−2 .
2 2
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is verified.
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Subject Index
0−Forms, 68 Distributivity a(b + c)b on Gn , 58
1−Forms, 68 Distributivity a ∧ (b + c) in Gn , 58
2−Forms, 69 Distributivity a ∧ (b + c) on G2 , 25
3−Forms, 69 Distributivity a ∧ (b + c) on G3 , 43
Div(dw2 ), 77 Divergence, 77
Grad(dw0 ), 76 Divergence associated to dw2 , 77
Rot(dw1 ), 76 Divergence of a function, 10
k−Forms, 70 Double Riemann integral, 88
k−Riemann integral case, 88 Double Riemann integral case, 85
Dual: Iar , 27, 45, 60
Ampere’s Law, 106
Associativity in Gn , 59 Early
Associativity on G2 , 26 Warnings, 101
Associativity on G3 , 44 Emerging
Diseases, 101
Bivector, 21 Epidemic
Blades: < a >, 28, 46, 61 Potential, 101, 102
Surveillance system, 102
Clifford algebra, 19, 37, 55 Epidemic surveillance
Component: vk , 29, 47, 62 System, 102
Component: v⊥ , 29, 47, 62 Systems, 101, 102
Counter-clockwise orientation, 12 systems, 101
Counter-clockwise orientation Exterior derivative, 67
boundary, 12
Counter-clockwise orientation Fever, 102
surface, 12, 13 Fundamental theorem of Calculus,
91
Derivative of 0−Forms, 71
Derivative of 1−Forms, 71 Gauss’ theorem in R3 , 13
Derivative of 2−Forms, 73 Geometric algebra on G2 , 19
Derivative of 3−Forms, 74 Geometric algebra on G3 , 37
Derivative of k−Forms, 75 Geometric algebra applications, 101
Differential forms, 67, 68 Geometric algebra on G2 , 19
Differentiation, 67 Geometric Algebra on G3 , 37
Differentiation of Forms, 70 Geometric Algebra on Gn , 55
Distributivity a(b + c)b on G2 , 25 Geometric algebra on Gn , 55
Distributivity a(b + c)b on G3 , 43 Geometric product, 21
Carlos Polanco
Subject Index Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases 121
Geometric product on G2 , 21 Oriented region, 11
Geometric product on G3 , 39 Oriented surface, 13
Geometric product on Gn , 57 Oriented trajectory, 11
Geometric Representation of a Line Orthonormal basis, 19, 37, 56, 67,
in Rn , 63 68
Geometric Representation of a line Outer product, 67
on R2 , 31 Outer product on G2 , 20
Geometric Representation of a line Outer product on G3 , 38
on R3 , 49 Outer product on Gn , 56
Geometric Representation of a Outer product: v × w, 7
Plane in Rn , 64
Geometric representation of a plane Pandemic
on R2 , 33 Potential, 101
Geometric representation of a plane Real-valued function, 68
on R3 , 50 Reflections in G3 , 48
Gradient, 76 Reflections in Gn , 62
Gradient associated to dw0 , 76 Reflections on G2 , 29
Grassmann algebra, 19, 37, 55 Reverse element a† , 27, 45, 60
Green’s theorem in R2 , 12 Reverse element in Gn , 60
Inner product on G2 , 20 Reverse element on G2 , 27
Inner product on G3 , 38 Reverse element on G3 , 45
Inner product on Gn , 57 Rotational, 76
Inner product: v · w , 5 Rotational Associated to dw1 , 76
Integration, 81 Rotational of a function, 9
Integration of 0−Forms, 81 Rotations in G3 , 48
Integration of 1−Forms, 82 Rotations in Gn , 62
Integration of 2−Forms, 83 Rotations on G2 , 29
Integration of 3−Forms, 85 Scalar multiplication: α v, 5
Integration of k−Forms, 86 Simple Riemann integral case, 83
Socio-demographic
Line integral, 78, 88, 96
Factors, 102
Line integral of F, 11
Stokes’ theorem in R3 , 12
Mapping a 1−Form case, 82 Structural Proteomics, 104
Mapping a 2−Form case, 84 Surface integral, 78, 96
Mapping a 3−Form case, 85 Surface integral of F, 11
Mapping a k−Form case, 87
Tangent plane, 67
Mathematical epidemiology, 101
Transmissibility, 102
Multiplicative inverse in Gn , 59
Triple Riemann integral case, 86
Multiplicative inverse on G2 , 26
Trivector, 40
Multiplicative inverse on G3 , 44
Multivector, 58 Unitary associative algebra, 19, 37,
55
Norm in Rn , 5
Normal vector, 13 Vector addition: v + w, 4
Normed vector space: V (F), 3 Vector algebra, 3
Number of contacts Vector substraction: v − w, 4
Network, 102 Vector-valued function, 9, 68
Virus
Oriented closed curve, 13, 92 A-H1N1, 101
Oriented closed surface, 11, 84, 89
Oriented curve, 12 Zoonosis, 101

Exterior Calculus Theory and Cases

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Exterior Calculus Theory and Cases

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Exterior Calculus:

Theory and Cases

Exterior Calculus: Theory and Cases

Author: Carlos Polanco

ISBN (Online): 978-981-4998-78-9

ISBN (Print): 978-981-4998-79-6

ISBN (Paperback): 978-981-4998-80-2

©2021, Bentham Books imprint.

Bentham Science Publishers Pte. Ltd.

Case Credits Page

2 Case 9.3 altered and reproduced with permission from: Carlos 19

3 Case 9.4 altered and reproduced with permission from: Carlos 37

4 Figure 1 and explanation reproduced with permission from: Eric 62

5 Video from: Eleonora Catsigerasi, [Derivada exterior de formas difer- 67

6 Chapter 8 from: J.E. Marsden and A. Tromba, [Vector Calculus], defi- 67

Symbol Description Page

Symbol Description Page

Abstract In this chapter, we introduce the main operators of Heaviside-Gibbs al-

Keywords: cross product: v × w, divergence of vector function, Gauss’ Theo-

1.1. Normed Vector Space: V (F)

Definition 1.1. A normed vector space V over a field F ∈ Rn is an algebraic

1.2. Basic operators

1.2.1. Vector Addition: v + w

1.2.2. Vector Substraction: v − w

1.2.3. Scalar Multiplication: α v

Example 1.3. Given vector v = (−3, 4, 5) ∈ R3 and scalar α = −3 ∈ R, what is

Solution 1.3. α v = (−3)(−3, 4, 5) = (9, −12, −15).

1.2.4. Norm: ||v||

1.2.5. Inner product: v · w

a · b = ||a|| ||b||cos θ (1.4)

1.2.6. Outer Product: v × w

The cross product on a plane or space represents the normal vector η = a × b,

||a × b||2 = ||a||2 ||b||2 −(a · b)2

||a × b||= ||a|| ||b|| |sin θ | (Rmk. 1.5)

The geometrical representation of ||a×b|| is the area of a parallelogram with sides

1.3. Vector-Valued Functions

1.3.1. Rotational of a Vector Function

Definition 1.9. For a vector-valued function F : R3 → R, (F1 (x), F2 (x), F3 (x)),

Example 1.8. Let the vector-valued function F : R3 → R, x3 y + x2 z2 − sin xyz. (i)

Solution 1.8. (i)

1.3.2. Divergence of a Vector Function

Definition 1.10. For a vector-valued function F : Rn → R, (F1 (x), F2 (x), · · · , Fn (x)),

Example 1.9. Let the vector-valued function F : R3 → R, x3 y + x2 z2 − sin xyz. (i)

1.3.3. Line Integral

1.3.4. Surface Integral

1.4. Vector Theorems

1.4.1. Green’s Theorem

1.4.2. Stokes’ Theorem

dt = − cos2 t sint + sin2 t cost + (1 − cost − sint)2 (sint − cost) dt = 0. On the

1.4.3. Gauss’ Theorem

Tθ dr d θ , with T (r, θ ) = (r cos θ , r sin θ , 2) ⇒ (r cos θ , r sin θ , 2) · (0, 0, r)

Figure 1.1 Graphical interpretation of normal vector over a surface.

Exercise 1.2. Consider a segment of length 3π in R. Define a map from R to

Abstract This chapter is a review of Geometric algebra or Grassmann alge-

Keywords: Associativity: a(bc) = (ab)c, bivector, blades < a >i , distributivity:

2.1. Geometric Algebra on G2

An arbitrary element will be Eq. 2.2.

Remark 2.1. An equivalent would be σi ∧ σ j , σi σ j , and σi j .

Example 2.1. Provide some examples of elements on G2 .