A Level Biology Notes by Nyama

A LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
MICROMETRY
Micrometry: The measurement of microscopic objects.
 A micrometer is used.
 In biology we often need to measure very small objects.
 When measuring cells or parts of cells, the most useful unit is the micrometer (µm).
 One micrometer is 1000 of a millimeter.
 1µm =1/1000mm.
 Even smaller structures such as the organelles with such small sizes are measured using
even smaller units.
 The Nanometers are used (nm).
 1nm=1/1000µm.
NB* Note that centimeters are not units in Biology, nm, µm, & mm are used.
Microscopy
 The use of microscopes in Biology is called microscopy.

 Microscopes used are light microscope and electron microscope.
Distinguish between resolution and magnification.
 Resolution is the ability of a microscope to distinguish two objects close together rather
than to see them as one object.
 Magnification is the number of times an object is enlarged.
image
Magnification=sizeof sizeofobject .
real
 E.g. A person makes a drawing of an incisor tooth and the width of the actual tooth is 5mm
while the tooth drawing is 12mm .Calculate the magnification of the drawing?
Magnification = 12/5 =x2, 4
Calculation of magnification and the conversion of units.
 Let’s say, the real diagram of a red blood cell is 7nm and asked to calculate the
magnification.
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HIPPO HIGH- A LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES Produced By Mr. Nyama (PGDE –ZOU, BSc AGRONOMY-MSU,)
Step 1– measure the diameter of the cell in the diagram. You find that it is 30mm.
Step2-we have been given its real size so we need to convert 30mm to µm .there are
1000µm in a mm , so 30mm =30x1000µm
Step 3-we can now put the numbers in the equation.
Calculating magnification from a scale bar
 When given a scale bar, there is no need to measure the leukocyte .We can simply use the
scale bar.
 All you need to do is to measure the length of the scale bar and then substitute it’s measured
length and the length that it represents on the scale bar.
 Remember to convert the measurements to µm.
Step 1– measure the scale bar. Here it is 24mm
Step2-substitute into the equation.
image
Magnification=sizeof sizeofobject .
real
= length of scale Bar

Length of scale bar represents
Light microscope
 A light microscope (compound microscope) uses the magnifying powers of the convex lens
to produce a magnified image of a small object.
 Therefore the magnification of the light microscope I equal to the objective lens & the
magnifying lens.
Common stains used in light microscopy
Stain Use Colours produced

METHYLENE Staining living cells Dark blue nucleus , light cytoplasm 9in bacteria the
BLUE whole cell takes up the stain)
Iodine Staining living plant cells Very dark blue starch grains
Acidified Staining lignin (the Bright red
phloroglucinal substance in the cell walls
of xylem vessels)
Acetin orcein Nuclei and chromosomes Red
Light green Staining plant cell walls Green
Electron microscope.
 Is like an up-side-down light microscope.

 The radiation enters @ the top and the specimen at the bottom is viewed.
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 The principle is the same as on the light microscope in that , a beam of radiation electrons is
focused by condenser lenses and the image is magnified by further lenses.
 A photograph taken by the electron microscope is called an electron micrograph
 The major advantage of an electron microscope is it’s high resolving power i.e., 0, 5 nm in
practice.
Comparison of a light microscope and an electron microscope
Electron microscope Light microscope

Radiation source Electrons Light
Wavelength About 0,005nm 400-700nm
Max resolution 0,5NM 200nm
Max magnification X250000 X1500
Lenses Electromagnets Glass
Qn. Describe what is meant by the term resolution. [2]
Qn. State the maximum magnification that can be achieved by a light microscope and a
transmission electron microscope.
Select your answers from the list below.
10x 40x 100x 400x 1500x 25 000x 50 000x 500 000x
light microscope ................................... x
transmission electron microscope ................................... x

[Total 2 marks]
CELL STRUCTURE AND CELL FUNCTION
Ultra-structure of a typical animal cell
 A typical animal cell is surrounded by a membrane known as the cell surface or plasma
membrane.
 Inside the membrane is a jelly-like fluid known as the cytoplasm.
 It contains the nucleus and other organelles.
 The cytoplasm and the nucleus together are known as the protoplasm.
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Nucleus
 It is the largest cell organelle enclosed by two membranes perforated by nuclear pores.
 It contains chromatin which is the extended form taken by chromosomes during
interphase.
 Chromosomes contain DNA the molecule of inheritance.DNA is organized into genes which
control the activities of the cell.
 Nucleolus manufactures ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
 It is a system of flattened membrane bound sacs called cisternae, forming tubes and sheets.
 It is continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope.
(a) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Have ribosomes on them.
 Their role is to manufacture proteins.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum is abundant in cell that either secrete proteins or that are
growing rapidly.
(b) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 Lacks ribosomes on its surface.
 Abundant in cells that secrete steroids or lipid substances
 These are the site for lipid and steroid synthesis.
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 Functions of endoplasmic reticulum
 To provide area for biochemical reactions.
 To act as a pathway for the transport and exchange of material.
 To manufacture proteins e.g. enzymes
 To manufacture lipids and steroids.
 To collect and store any synthesized material.
 To form a structural skeleton for maintaining cellular shape
Ribosomes
 Very small organelles consisting of a large subunit and a small subunit.

 They are made of roughly equal amounts of protein and RNA.
 There are two types i.e. 70s and 80s ribosomes.
 They are responsible for protein synthesis .
 They are either bound to ER or lie free in the cytoplasm.
 They form polysomes i.e. collection of ribosomes strung along messenger RNA
Mitochondria
 They are envelope bound and the inner membrane folds to form cristae.
 It consists of a matrix with few ribosomes, a circular DNA molecule and phosphate granules.
 In aerobic respiration, cristae are the sites for oxidative phosphorylation and electron
transport chain.
 Matrix is the site for Krebs’s cycle of enzymes.
Golgi apparatus.
 Composed of a series of parallel membranes that are flattened fluid spaces.

 The cristae are slightly curved the entire structure appear concave.
 Functions of Golgi apparatus:
 Manufacture of glycoproteins which are required for secretions.
 Production of secretory enzymes.
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 Production of carbohydrates e.g. those involved in the manufacture of new cell walls.
 Transport and storage of lipids.
 Formation of lysosomes.
Lysosomes.
 A simple spherical sac bound by a single membrane and containing digestive and or
hydrolytic enzymes.
 Functions of Lysosomes:
 To contain enzymes capable of digesting a wide variety of substances.
 To digest cytoplasmic organelles.
 To act as suicide bags which help to rapidly digest entire cells that are old.
Vacuoles
 They are temporary membrane bound pockets of cell sap.

 White blood cells in higher animals form similar vacuoles around pathogens which are
engulfed.
Centrioles
 Found as a pair near the nucleus.

 They are made up of bundles of tubules.
 They pull apart during cell division to produce a spindle made of microtubules which are
involved in chromosome movement.
Cilia and flagella
 They are concerned with cell movement e.g. they are outgrowths from cells which can beat
either in one direction (cilia) or in a wavelike manner (flagella).
 Flagella are larger than cilia.
 Both cilia and flagella have a characteristic 9+2 arrangement of microtubules.
Plant cells
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 Plant cells tend to be uniform in their shape because the cell is bound by a rigid cell wall.
 The cells give strength and support to plants due to insoluble cellulose fibres which are
meshed in a matrix of carbohydrates called pectates or hemicelluloses.
 Plant Cells have have the following:
Vacuole
 Is a fluid filled space in the cytoplasm.

 In plants a vacuole is a permanent feature.
 It is surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast.
 Is filled with cell sap.
 The vacuole determines the osmotic properties of a plant cell.
Chloroplast.
 Are large organelles containing their own DNA and have a double membrane.
 Chloroplasts have a folded inner membrane which gives a greater surface area for
biochemical reactions to occur.
 Granna are interconnected by membranes called lamella.
 This is where chlorophyll is found which is responsible for trapping sunlight during
photosynthesis.
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Prokaryotes and eukaryotes
 Prokaryotes are organisms which are single celled e.g. bacteria.

 Eukaryotes are organisms usually complex and these include animal and plant cells.
Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Cell division Binary fission. Mitosis and meiosis.
No spindle Spindle in animal cells.
Genetic material. DNA is circular and lies free in DNA is linear , often associated
the cytoplasm . with proteins to form
No true nucleus. chromosomes .
It is contained in the nucleus.
Protein synthesis. 70s ribosomes. 80s ribosomes.
No ER present. ER present and ribosomes may
be attached to ER.
Organelles. Few organelles. Many organelles ,.
None envelope bound. Envelope bound organelles e.g.
nucleus.
Cell walls. Rigid, contain polysaccharides Rigid , contain
of amino acids , murein is the polysaccharides , lignin is the
main strengthening compound. main strengthening material.
Respiration Use mesosomes except blue Use mitochondria for aerobic
green bacteria cytoplasmic respiration.
membranes.
Photosynthesis No chloroplasts Contain chloroplasts
Nitrogen fixation Some have the ability None have the ability.
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Membranes
 Cell membranes separate their contents from their external environment controlling the
exchange of materials between the two.
 Membranes also act as receptor sites for hormones and neurotransmitters and other
chemicals.
 Membranes are described as selectively permeable, since other substances such as
glucose , amino acids, fatty acids , glycerol and ions can diffuse through slowly.
 wMembranes are made almost entirely of proteins and lipids.
Phospholipids
 Each phospholipid molecule consist of a polar head containing a phosphate and two fatty
acids.
 The polar head is hydrophilic and the tails are hydrophobic.
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 In aqueous environments, the hydrophilic heads face the external environments and the
hydrophobic fatty acid tails come into close intact to exclude water.
Proteins
 Freeze fracturing reveals the presence of proteins which penetrate into and often through
the phospholipids bilayer.
 The more metabolically the membrane is , the more the protein cuticles are found.
Glycolipids and cholesterol
 Glycolipids are lipids with carbohydrate residues, like phospholipids they have polar heads
and non-polar tails.
 Cholesterol acts as a plug reducing even further exit and entry of molecules through the
membrane.
Fluid mosaic model membrane
 This was so called because of the protein molecules which float about hap-hazard in the
phospholipid bilayer.
 The membrane is 7nm thick.
 Its basic structure is the phospholipid bilayer.
 The phospholipids are fluid and move about rapidly by diffusion in their own layers.
 Unsaturated fatty acids are bent.
 Most protein molecules float about in the phospholipid bilayer forming a fluid mosaic
pattern.
 The proteins stay in the membranes because they have regions of hydrophobic amino acids
which interact with fatty acid tails to exclude water.
 The two sides of the membrane can differ in composition and function
Channel proteins and carrier proteins
 These are involved in the selective transport of polar molecules and ions across the
membranes.
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Transport across the cell surface membrane.
 To obtain nutrients.
 To excrete waste products.
 To secrete useful substances e.g. enzymes and hormones.
 To generate ionic gradients essential for nervous and muscular activity.
 To maintain a suitable pH and ionic concentration within the cell for optimum enzyme
activity.
 Polar molecules e.g. glucose, amino acids, are repelled by hydrophobic lipids of membranes.
However, transport across must still occur therefore they are specialized in transport of
these polar molecules.
 There are 4 mechanisms and these are diffusion osmosis, active transport, phagocytosis and
facilitated diffusion.
Qn. Small non-polar substances enter cells in different ways to large or polar substances.
Outline the ways in which substances, other than water, can enter a cell through the
plasma (cell surface) membrane.
In your answer, you should use appropriate technical terms, spelt correctly.
small, non-polar substances
large substances
polar substances [Total 5 marks]
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Biological molecules and Water
Macromolecule
 A macromolecule is a giant molecule made from many repeating molecule unit. Poly-many,
saccharides -carbohydrates.
 Such molecules are called polymers.
 The individual units are known as monomers.
 The units are joined together by condensation reaction which is the removal of water
molecules.
 The bonds can be broken by hydrolysis .Example of macromolecules are polysaccharides,
proteins and nuclei acids e.g DNA and their constituent monomers are monosaccharides,
amino acids and nucleotide respectively.
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are substances which contains the elements (carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen)and hence a general fomular Cx(H2O)y where x and y are variable number .
 They have the following general properties :
i. They area aldehyde or keto
ii. They all contain several hydroxyl group .
Monosaccharide
 Monosaccharides are single sugar units.

 Their general formula is (H2O)n
 They are classified according to the number of carbon atom i.e triose, tenthose, pentose,
hexose are the most common .
 Triose e.g glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone are intermediates in respiration.
 Pentose e.g ribose , deoxyribose and ribulose aid in the synthesis of nucleic acid and
coenzyme .
Aidose and Ketoses
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 In monosaccharides all carbon atoms have a hydroxyl group attarched . The remain carbon
atom is either c-atom.
Open chain and closed chain
 The rings structure of pentose and hexose are the usual forms with only a small portion of
the molecules in the open chain forms.
 These ring structure is the form used to make disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Alpha and Beta isomers
 Glucose can exists in two different ring forms called the Alpha and Beta forms.
 The hydroxyl group on the carbon atom 1 projects below the ring (alpha glucose) or above
the ring (BETA GLUCOSE).
 These two are said to be isomers of each other.
 Alpha glucose is used to make starch (monomer of starch) and Beta glucose used to make
cellulose.
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
Disaccharide
 Are formed when two monosaccharides usually hexose combines by condensation reaction
forming a glyosidic bond.
 It normally forms between C-atoms 1 & 4 of neighboring (1,4 linkages ).
 Most common disaccharidesare maltose, lactose and sucrose.
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Polysaccharides
 Function as store of food and energy e.g starch and glycogen and as structural material e.g
cellulose .
 They are convenient storage molecules cause their large size make them more insoluble in
water , hence they do not exert on osmotic pressure on the cell .
Starch.
 Is a polymer of alpha glucose.

 It is an energy store in plant.
 It has two components which are amylase and amylopectin .
 Amylase have a straight chain and the glucose residues are joined together by 1, 4 glycosidic
bond .
 These bonds cause the chains to coil helically into more compact shape.
 Amylopectin is also more compact as it have many branches formed by 1, 6 glycosidic
bonds thus twice glucose residues as amylose.
 As suspension of amylase in water gives a blue black colour with iodine (potassium
iodide )and amylopectine give a red violet colour .
Glycogen
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 Is of animal equivalent of starch and act as a store of energy.
 It is a polysaccharide made from alpha glucose.
 In vertebrates, glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles where it work as an energy
reserve.
 Its conversion back to insulin is controlled by insulin
Structure Function related to structure

Starch It consist branched and The large size of the molecule makes
unbranched chain of amylase starch insoluble and can be used for food
and amylopectin storage in plant.
molecules .these chain
comprises large alpha glucose
units that’s are folded.
Cellulose It consist of Beta GLUCOSE The cross bonds give cellulose its tough
units in a long unbranched and resistance properties to provide
chain linked by many cross structural strength to cell walls
bridges between the chains.
It is a mean of food storage in animals due
Glycogen It consist of alpha glucose units to its compact shape that is not bulk.
in more branched and compact
chains.
Cellulose
 Is a polymer of Beta glucose and has a structural role
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 One of the glucose molecule is rotated 180 for the bond to be formed. This rotation gives
cellulose a different structure to starch.
 It consist of long chain of glucose residues with about 10 000 residues per chain.
 The Beta 1, 4 linkages make the chain in contrast to starch where 1,4 linkages cause of chain
to be curve.
 Hydroxyl project out wards from each chain in all direction and form hydrogen bonds with
neighboring chains .
 The chain associate in group of appropriate 60-70 to form micro fibrils which are arranged
in larger bundle to form micro fibrils.
 These have tremendous tensile strength.
 Several layers of cell wall are found in cell wall.
 This prevents the cell from bursting when water enters the cell by osmosis and help to
determine the shape of plant cells.
 The layers are freely permeable to water and food material.
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Lipids
 Lipids are classified in general as water insoluble substances extracted from cells by solvent
e.g benzene, chloroform, ether. Lipids are made of glycerol and fatty acids.
Fatty acids
 Contain the acidic group (-COOH).

 Have the general formula R-COOH .R is the hydrogen or group such as –CH3-C2H3 etc.
increasing CH3 IN each subsequent member of the series.
 Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an even number of carbon atom between 14 and
22.
Steric acids
 The tails are hydrophobic.

 Fatty acids with one or more double bonds etc. oleic acid are said to be unsaturated while
those lacking double bond are saturated. Unsaturated bonds melt at a lower temperature
than saturated bonds.
Triglyceride
 Glycerol has 3 hydroxyl all of which can bond with 3 fatty acids to form a triglyceride
 Condensation reaction takes place resulting in an ester link and is known as esterification.
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Function of triglycerides
 They are non-polar and no even distribution charge which mean they do not form hydrogen
bonds with water molecules and do not dissolve in water (hydrophobic).
 They are less dense than water, they float on the top and they act as energy store.
 Have high energy value than carbohydrates cause of higher proportion of hydrogen as
compared to carbohydrates.
 Animal excess energy to fats and in vertebrates the fats act as the insulator.
 When fats are oxidized H2O is a product to desert animals e.g. kangaroo rat.
Phospholipids
 These are the containing phosphate, one of the OH (hydroxyl group) of glycerol, combines
with phosp
 horic acid (H3PO4) and the other combine with fatty acids.
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Glycolipid
 Is the association of lipids and carbohydrates.

 The carbohydrates chain forms at the polar heard of the molecules.
 Glycolipids are found in membrane.
Structure Role in cell

Triglyceride Possess hydrophobic tails of fatty acids Alternative energy for the cell
which cause the molecule to be insoluble
in water
Phospholipids Possessing a hydrophilic phosphoric head Major component of the cell

and hydrophobic tail of fatty acid. membrane bilayer.
Glycolipid Possessing a carbohydrate component in Found as one of the component in

the lipid structure the cell membrane bilayer and act as
recognition site .it also make the cell
membrane more stable.
Amino acids
 These are the basic units from which the proteins are made.
 Plants are able to make all the amino acids they need in their diet, these are called essential
amino acids they require from these.
 There is a central carbon atom attached to an acidic carboxyl group, a basic amino group i.e.
NH2 and a hydrogen atom.
 The 4 position is occupied by the R group. This group give each amino acids have its
uniqueness.
 Amino acids are amphoteric (are acidic and basic) because they contain an acid and basic
part. Such ions are dipolar and are known as zwitterions.
 Amino acids maintain the pH cause in acid conditions it absorbs protons while in basic
condition it donates proteins.
Bonds used in protein structure
 Amino acids combine to form protein and are joined together to form peptides bonds
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 The protein folds into a particular shape as a result of 4 types of bonds. These are ionic,
disulphide, hydrogen and hydrophobic interaction.
Peptide bonds
 Is formed when condensation reaction occurs between the amino group of one amino acids
and the carboxyl group of another.
 A polypeptide is formed when amino acids are joined this way.
Ionic bonds
 Acidic R groups are negatively charged and basic R groups are positively charged.
 They can be attracted to each other, formic ionic bonds.
 In aqueous environment, this bond is weaker than a covalent bond and can be broken by
changing the pH.
 As a result pH changing have a destructive effects on protein structure.
Disulphide bonds
 The amino acid cistern have contain a sulphide group –SH as its R group.
 If two molecules of cistern lie up alongside each other neighboring sulphidryl groups can be
oxidized and form disulphide bonds
 Disulphide can be formed between different parts of chain of amino acids e.g. insulin,
causing the molecule to fold into a particular shape.
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Hydrogen bonds
 When hydrogen is part of an OH group /NH group it become slightly positively charged
(electropositive) cause the electron which are shared and which are negatively charged are
attracted more towards the oxygen and nitrogen atoms .
 The hydrogen may then be attracted towards a neighboring electronegative oxygen /
nitrogen atom.
Hydrophobic interaction
 If a polypeptide contain non-polar R groups i.e. hydrophobic and is in aqueous environment,

the chain will tend to fold so that hydrophobic groups come into close contact and exclude
water.
 This how many globular protein folds up.
Protein
 Are made from amino acid therefore contain the elements C, H, O and N & in some cases
sulphur.
 Proteins are macromolecules of high Mr, consisting of amino acids.
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 The potential variety of protein is limited because the sequence of amino acds in each
protein is specific for that protein and is generally controlled by the DNA of the cell on
which it is made.
Structure of protein
 Each protein contain a characteristic of 3 dimension shape, its conformation.

 There are four levels of structure which are as follows :
Primary structure
 It is the number of sequence of amino acids.

 The sequence of amino acids of a protein detects its biological function.
 In turn this sequence is controlled by the sequence of bases on DNA.
 Substitution of a single amino acid can cause major alteration in the protein function, as in
the sickle cell anemia.
Secondary structure
 The most common secondary structure is Alpha helix whose structure is maintained by
hydrogen bonds which are formed between neighboring CO and NH groups.
 The hydrogen atom of the NH group is bonded to oxygen of carbon dioxide group, 4 amino
acids away.
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 Amino acids would be bonded to 5 &2 to 6 etc. .
 Alpha helix make one complete turn for every 36 amino acids.
Keratin
 Is a protein which is alpha helical and is the structural protein of hair protein, nail .
 Its hardness and stretchibility may vary with the degree of cross linkages ofdisulphide
bonds between neighboring chains .
 Another type of secondary structure is B pleated sheat .
 The proteins that make silk , is fibrin is entirely in this B pleated form .
 It is made up of a number of adjacent chains which are more extended than the alpha helix.
 They are arranged in parallel fashion ,either running in the same direction, or in opposite
direction they are joined by hydrogen bond , formed between the CO and NH groups ,of one
chain and groups are involved in hydrogen bonding to the structure is rigid and very stable .
 The whole structure is known as the B pleated sheet .
 In grobular protein a single polypeptide chain commonly fold back to itself several times to
form B pleated sheet .
 Another arrangements is seen in the protein collagen .
 Three polypeptides chain are found wound around each other.
 They are like strands of a rope to form a triple helix .
 There are about 1 000 amino acids in each chain and the complete triple helix structure is
called tropollogen .
 The 3 strands are held together by hydrogen bonds.
 Many triple helix can be parallel to each other to form fibrils.
 They are joined by covalent bonds.
 Fibrils in turn unite to form fibers.
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Collagen
 Collagen is the main protein that form teuckans,ligaments ,connective ,tissues and skin .
Tertiary structure
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 Usually the polypeptide chain bends and fall extensively, forming a compact globular
structure.
 This is the tertiary structure and is maintained by ionic, disulphide and hydrogen bonds and
hydrophobic interaction (all the bonds).
 Myoglobin is formed found in the muscles where its function is rto store oxygen.
 Oxygen combines with heam group contained in myoglobin just like in heamoglobin.
Quaternary structure
 Highly complex protein consists of more than one polypeptide chain.

 The chains are held together by hydrogen bonds ionic bonds hydrophobic interaction.
 Their precise arrangement is known as quaternary structure.
 It consists of four separate chains of two types which is Alpha chains and Beta CHAINS.
 Theseresembles myoglobin in structure to Alpha CHAINS, EACH CONTAIN 146.
 A mutation which causes one of the hydrophilic amino acids to be replaced by a
hydrophobic amino acids there by reducing its solubility is responsible for sickle cell
anemia.
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Denaturation of protein
 Denaturation the loss of three dimensional shape of a protein molecule.

 The amino acids sequence of protein remains unaffected (the primary structure remains the
same )
 If denaturation occurs, the molecules unfolds and can no longer perform its normal
function.
Qn (a) In globular proteins, the polypeptide chain bends and folds to give a more compactshape.
This is the tertiary structure of the protein. Name three types of bond that help to maintain the
tertiary structure.
[3]
(b) Monosaccharide can also be linked together to form long chain molecules
calledPolysaccharides. State two ways, other than the names of the monomers present, in which the
structure of a Polysaccharide chain differs from that of a polypeptide chain.
[2]
(c) The fibrous protein collagen and the polysaccharide cellulose both possessconsiderable tensile
strength. List two features that contribute to the strength of
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(i) collagen; [2]
(ii) cellulose. [2]
Water molecules
 Is a vital chemical constituent of living organisms
THE STRUCTURE AND PROPETIES OF WATER
BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFINCE OF WATER
 WATER IS IMPOTANT FOR TWO MAIN REASONS :
1) IT IS VITAL FOR CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT OF LIVING CELLS.
2) It provides environment needed by living organisms that leave in water.
 The chemical of water are due to its small size, its polarity and hydrogen bonding between
its molecules.
 Polarity is an even distribution of a charge in a molecule.
 The electronegative oxygen atom draws electrons from the hydrogen atom making the
oxygen atom more negative, relative to the hydrogen atom.
 Thus what is dipole (contain both negative and positive poles )
 Water molecules therefore have weak attraction for each other, with positive charges
coming together and cause them to stick to each other like links in a chain.
 These bonds are relatively weaker than the ionic and the covalent bond bonds and are
called hydrogen bonds
Diagram
The solvent properties of water
 Water has high solvent of polar molecules e.g. ionic compounds like NaCL and non ionic
substances like sugar that contain polar group.
 On contact with water the ions and the polar group are surrounded by water molecules
which separate the molecules from each other.
 Biochemical reaction takes place in aqueous conditions.
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 Water as a solvent acts as transport medium e.g. in blood, lymphatic system and xylem and
the phloem vessel.
High heat capacity
 Water has high heat capacity i.e. (the total amount of water required to raise water
temperature of 1Kg of water by 1 degree.
 A large amount of heat energy results in a small rise in temperature.
 Temperature changes within water or aqueous unitary therefore minimized.
 Biochemical processes consequently operate over a small temperature range and are less
likely to be affected extremities of temperatures.
 Water also provides a very constant external environment for many cell and organisms.
High heat of evaporation
 Latent of evaporation is the measure of vaporization is a measure of heat energy

required to vaporize a liquid.
 A large amount of water is required to make water vapour.
 This is due to hydrogen bonding of water molecules.
 Therefore water have usually high boiling point.
 Evaporating water as a result takes a lot of heat energy with them from the
surrounding thus cooling takes place.
 This is made use of in the transpiration, sweating and panting of mammals.
 High heat of evaporation also means that a large amount of heat can be lost with
minimal loss the body, plant etc.
High heat of fusion
 Latent heat of fusion is the measure of the heat energy required to melt a solid i.e. (ice)
 Ice requires a relative large amount of heat energy to thaw it.
 Conversely, liquid must loss a relative large amount of heat to freeze.
 Content of a cell and their environment are less likely to freeze.
Density and freezing properties
 Water has highest density at 4 degrees

 Its density increases as the temperature decreases
 Ice therefore tends to float.
 Ice insulates the water below it thus increasing survival chance of organisms below it.
 Since water below 4 degrees tend to rise, this this also tends to maintain circulation in lentx
ecosystem.
 This may result in nutrient cycling and colonization of water to greater depth.
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High surface tension and cohesion
 Cohesion is the force where individual molecules stick together at the surface, a force called
surface tension between the molecules as they try to occupy the least possible space (ideally
a sphere).
 Water has a higher surface tension which makes it possible for small organism to skate over
its surface.
 The high cohesion of water is important in cell and in the translocation of water in the
xylem vessel.
Water as a reagent
 Water is biological significant as an essential metabolite that is , it takes part in chemical

reaction of metabolism .
 For example it is used as a source of hydrogen and electron.
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Cell and Nuclear division
Chromosomes
 A composed of deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA] and protein with small amount of

chromosomal RNA .
 DNA has a negative charge distributed along it’s length and positively charged protein
molecule called histones and bond to it .
 Between division of the nucleus each chromosome contain one DNA molecule .
 Before the nucleus divides the DNA replicates such that at nuclear division the
chromosomes is a double structure, containing two identical DNA molecules.
 The two parts of the chromosomes are referred to as chromatids.
 Each chromatids one of the two identical molecules.
 Species in which there are two sets of chromosomes are referred to as diploid given
symbol 2n . A few simple organisms have only one set of chromosomes and are referred to
as hyploid symbol n
 Garments either sex are haploid.
Diagram of Chromosome
 There are two types of nuclear division: meiosis and mitosis.

 Mitosis is aprocess by which acell nucleus divides to produce daughter nuclei containing
identical sets of chromosomes of parent cell.
 Usually it is followed by division of whole cell to form two daughter cells a process known
as cell division.
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 Mitosis with cell division results in increase in cell number and is the method by which
growth replacement and repair of cell occurs in eukaryotes.
 In unicellular eukaryotes, mitosis results in asexual reproduction.
Meiosis
 Is the process by which a cell nuclear divide to form four daughter cells containing half
the number of chromosomes of the original cell .
 It is also called reduction division since it reduces the number of chromosomes in the cell
from the diploid 2n to hypoid n.
 Meiosis occurs during gametogenesis in animals and during spore formation in plants .
PHASE EVENTS WITHIN THE CELL

GROWTH PHASE Intensive cellular synthesis mitochondrion,chloroplast divide .energy store
G1/G2 increases mitotic spindle begins to form.
M Nuclear division occurs in four phases.
C Equal distribution of organelles and cytoplasm into each daughter cells.
THE CELL CYCLE
 The sequence of events which occur between one cell division and next is called cell cycle. It
has three main stages.
INTERPHASE MITOSIS CELL DIVISION

This is a period of synthesis The actual process of nuclear This is the process of division
and growth. The cell produces division. of the cytoplasm into the
the material required or it’s daughter cells.
own growth ,DNA replication
also occurs .
PHASE EVENTS IN THE CELL

G1 Intensive cellular synthesis including new organelle cell growth occurs.
S DNA replication occurs. Protein molecules [histones] produced .At this stage the cell
is 4n.
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MITOSIS
 Has 5 stages / phases
1. INTERPHASE
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 Variable according to the function of the cell. .
 DNA replicates
 Each chromosome exits as a pair of chromatids joined at the centromere .
 The cell now has 4n.
 Chromosomes now visible as loosely coiled threads called chromatin.
Centrioles replicate.
2. PROPHASE
 Formation of spindle.
 It is the longest phase .
 Chromosomes shorten and thicken by coiling.
 Chromosomes now available as a double structure .
 In animal cells centrioles move to opposite poles .
 A star from short microtubules radiating from cetrioles.
 The spindle is formed .
 Chromatids form chromosomes .
 Nuclear envelope disappear .
3. METAPHASE
 Chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle attached by the centromeres to the
spindle .
 Chromosomes move to metaphase plate.
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4. ANAPHASE
 A very rapid stage.

 The centromers split into two and the spindle pull the daughter chromosomes to opposite
poles.
 The separated are pulled behind the centromeres.
 The shortening of the spindle fiber by the removal of the subunits account to moving of
chromatids during anaphase.
5. TELOPHASE
 The chromatids reach the opposite poles.
 They uncoil and lengthen to from chromatin again.
 The spindle fiber disintegrate and centrioles replicate.
 Nuclear envelope reforms.
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CYTOKINESISE
 Is the actual division of the cytoplasm to form two daughter cells.

 The cell become evenly distributed towards the two poles.
 In animal cells the cell surface membrane invigilates around the equator forming a farrow
which eventually meet up and completely separate the cells .
 In plant cells , spindle fibre remain around the equatorial plane and increase in number to
form a barrel shaped region called the phagmoplast. Cell organelles line at the equator
 Forming a cell plate. the cell plate spreads across the equator meeting the cell wall , there by
separating the two daughter cells .
 The new cell wall is called a primary cell wall ,it later develops to a secondary cell wall by
the deposition of cellulose and lignin .
SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS
1. GENETIC STABILITY
 Mitosis produces two cells with the same chromosomal number as the mother cell .No
variation is introduced during mitosis.
2. GROWTH
 The number of cells in organism increase with mitosis .This is the basic of growth in a
multicellular organism.
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3. CELL REPLACEMENT
 Replacement of cell tissue involve mitosis.
4. REGENARATION
 Some animals are also regenerated some parts of their body by mitosis.
5. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Mitosis is the basic of asexual reproduction of new individuals of a spice by one parent
organism.
MEOSIS [REPRODUCTION DIVISION]
 Like mitosis involves DNA replication during interphase in the parent cell but this is
followed by two cycles of nuclear division which are meiosis one and mitosis two.
 Meiosis occurs during gametogenesis and spore formation in plants.
Meiosis I
PROPHASE 1
 Longest phase.
 Crossing over may occurs.
 Chromosomes shorten and become visible as a single structure.
 Homologous pair up in a process called synapses.
 Each pair is called a bivalent.
 One of the homologues pair comes from the father paternal and the other from the mother
maternal.
 The bivalents shorten and thicken by coiling.
 The homologous chromosomes partially separate some for a fill points along the
length .These points are called chiasmata.
 Genes from one chromosome may swap with genes from the other chromosome leading to
new gene combinations in the resulting chromatids.
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METAPHASE 1
 The bivalents become arranged around the equator attached to their centromers .
ANAPHASE 1
 Spindle fibres pull homologues chromosomes apart centromeres face opposite poles of the
spindle.
 This separates the chromosomes into two haploid one set at each of the opposite spindle.
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TELOPHASE 1
 Chromatides usually uncoil and nuclear envelope reforms.

 Cytokinesis now occurs as in mitosis.
 In many plants there is no telophase I.
 Cell formation and interphase II and then the cell passes from anaphase II to prophase II.
 Reduction ofchromosomes has occurred but sister chromatids are genetically different .
INTREPHASE II
 Present only in animal cells and varies in length.

 No synthesis occurs and no further and replication occurs.
 The second meiotic division is similar to mitosis.
PROPHASE II
 Only present if interphase two is present.

 The nucleoli and the nuclear envelope disappears, the chromatids, shorten and thicken.
 Centrioles if present move to opposite poles and the spindle axis of the first meiotic
division.
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METAPHASE II
 Chromosomes arrange theme self at the centre of the equator and centromers appear as
double structure .The orientation or assortment of chromosomes is at the equator is
random.
 Independent assortment occurs at metaphase II .
ANAPHASE II
 The centromers divide and the spindle pulls to opposite poles and to double centromeres
 The separated chromatids now called chromosomes are pulled along the centromeres.
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TELOPHASE II
 The stage is similar to that found at mitosis .The chromosomes uncoil, lengthen and become
very indistinct .The spindle fiber disappear and the centrioles replicate.
 Nuclear envelope reforms around the nucleus .Cell wall forms in plants and four daughter
cells are produced.
SIGNIFICANTS OF MEIOSIS
1. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 All organisms reproduce sexually use meiosis. Garment production involves meiosis.
 The number 2n is restored during fertilization.
2. GENETIC VARIATION
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 Meiosis provides a platform for new gene combinations of genes. This results in genetic
variation in offspring when garments fuse.
a) Independent assortment
 The orientation of bivalents at the equator of the spindle in metaphase one is random. The
bivalents separate independently of those in other bivalents during anaphase.
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b) CROSSING OVER
 Is the result when chiasmata cross over of segments of chromatids occurs between
homologues during prophase 1
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MITOSIS MEIOSIS
PROPHASE Homologues chromosomes Homologues chromosomes
remain separated Pair up in a process called
synapsis.
Crossing over occurs No crossing over
METAPHASE CHROMOSOMES BCOME Bivalents become arranged at

ARANGED AT THE EQUATOR. the equator.
ANAPHASE Chromosomes pulled apart by Homologous chromosomes
spindle fibres. pulled apart by the spindle
fiber.
TELOPHASE Cell contain the same number Cells contain half the number
of chromosomes as the mother of the chromosomes .
cell
CANCER
 Are a group of diseases that are caused by uncontrolled cell division which involve mitosis.
 The problem is caused by mutations /abnormal activation of genes which control cell
division. Such abnormal genes are called oncogenes.
 An abnormal cell divides by mitosis to form an irregular mass of undifferentiated cells
called tumor.
 Tumor cell can break away and spread to all parts of the body especially in blood stream or
lymphatic system causing secondary tumor called metastasis .
 The process is known as metastasis.
 Tumors that spread and eventually cause ill health and death are described as
malignant .The rest of tumors that do not spread such as the warts are described as benign .
CAUSES OF CANCER
 Change in the genetic constitution of a cell / organism are called mutations . And any factor
that brings about a mutation is called a mutagen .
 An agent that causes cancer is referred to as carcinogens are not always mutagens .
 Development of malignant cancer cell involves several steps and is usually caused by more
than one factor operating over a considerate period of time .
1. Retroviruses
 Retroviruses are RNA viruses which when they invade animal cells, use the enzyme
reverse transcriptase to make DNA copies of the viral RNA .
 The DNA contain a gene which alters host cell division genes , switching them on and
causing the cell
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47
ENZYMES
 Enzymes are protein molecules synthesized by living cells that speed up the rate of
chemical reactions. That is they are biological catalyst, globular proteins.
 They are used to catalyze a vast number of reactions at temperatures suitable for living
organisms, between 5-40 degrees Celsius.
 The chemical which an enzyme works on is called a substrate.
 An enzyme, combined with its substrate to form a short lived enzyme / substrate
complex.
 Once catalysis has occurred, the complex breaks up into product and enzyme.
 The enzyme remain unchanged at the end of the reaction
 A number of enzymes can be used in sequence to convert one substrate into one /
several products via a series of intermediate compounds.
 The chain of such reaction is known as a metabolic cell owing to the specific enzymes.
 This enzyme serves to control the chemical reaction that occurs within cells.
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
Enzymes possess the following properties
 They are all globular proteins

 Being proteins, they are coded for by the DNA
 They are catalyst
 They are very efficient, they have a high turnover rate .A typical enzyme undergoes 100
reactions.
 They are highly specific; an enzyme will only catalyze one reaction.
 Their catalyzed reaction is reversible
 They are affected by pH, temperature, substrate concentration & enzyme concentration.
 Enzyme lower Activation energy
 Enzymes possess Active sites where the reaction take place
o Mechanism of enzymes
 Activation energy is the amount of energy required for a reaction to occur.
 Enzymes by function as catalyst serve to reduce the activation energy (E.a) required for a
chemical reaction to occur, thus the overall rate of reaction to greatly increased.
Diagram
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 Enzymes are very specific. This is because enzymes have a particular shape into which the
substrate fit exactly. This is referred to as the lock and key hypothesis.
 The substrate is thought to be like a key whose shape is complementary to the lock.
 The site where substrate bite in the enzyme is called the active site and it is this which has a
specific shape.
 Active sites are usually a very small position of enzyme between 3 & 12 amino acids long.
These amino acids are brought together to for a particular shape of INDUCED FIT
HYPOTHESIS.
 The active site, due to the interacting of hydrogen, ionic, disulphide linkages & hydrophobic
interactions or bonds – the tertiary structure of proteins.
 Sometimes when the substrate do not fit exactly into the active site maybe induced or
moulded into a more precise shape as to fit the substrate for catalysis to occur more
effectively.
 This is known as the Induced fit hypothesis
 Enzymes change shape slightly as substrate enters active site making the fit more precise.
Factor affecting the rate of enzyme reaction.
 The rate of an enzyme controlled reaction is measured by the amount of substance changed
(e.g. use of amylase/ amount of product formed(e.g. the use catalase )formed during a
period of time
 The rate is determined by measuring the shape of the tangent to the curve in the initial
stage of the reaction.
Diagram
49
(1)Enzyme concentration
 Assuming that the substrate concentration is maintained at a level , ceteris paribus , the rate
of reaction is proportional to the enzyme concentration increases, the rate also increases
Diagram
(2)Substrate concentration
 For a given enzyme concentration , the rate of an enzyme controlled reaction increased with
increasing substrate concentration but there comes a time when any further increase in
substrate concentration does not result in significant increase in the rate of reaction.
 This is because at high substrate concentration , virtually all the active sites will be
saturated & any extra substrate have to wait until the active sites are free, that means that
V-max is reached.
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(3)Temperature
 As temperature increases, the rate of enzyme controlled reaction increases.

 This is because the E.K of molecules of both the enzyme & the substrate such that they start
to vibrate quickly & their chances of fruitful collision are greatly increased.
 The temperature beyond the optimum temperature will result in the decrease of the rate of
reaction, as the secondary & tertiary structure of the enzyme is disrupted thus the enzyme
becomes denatured & catalysis declines.
 Low temperature inactivates enzymes.
 Catalysis becomes very low or almost ceases.
 This is basic of refrigeration in preserving food for a long time catalysis gradually resumes
as the temperature gradually increases.
 The effect of temperature on enzyme activity can also be expressed as the temperature co-
efficient Q10.
Q10 = Rate of reaction (a) (x+10) degrees Celsius divided by the rate of reaction (a) x degrees
Celsius.
 Over a range of 0 – 40 degrees Celsius, Q10 for an enzyme controlled reaction is 2 e.g. there
rate of an enzyme controlled reaction doubles for every 10 degrees Celsius rise.
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(4) pH
 Enzymes are very sensitive to a slight change in pH changes & as such operate in very
narrow pH ranges. The optimum pH is that at which the maximum rate of reaction occur.
 When the pH is altered, above or below, this optimum value, the rate of enzyme activity
diminishes significantly.
 Pepsin has an optimum pH of 2, while Arginine has 9,7 for instance. Changes in pH alter the
ionic charge of acidic & basic group & therefore disrupt the ionic bonds that maintain the
specific shape of the enzyme.
 Extreme pH denatures the enzyme. The peptide bond can be hydrolyzed.
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Enzyme inhibition
 Molecules/ substance that reduce the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction are referred to
as enzyme inhibitors.
 Inhibition is a normal part of the regulation of enzyme activity & many drugs & poisons act
as enzyme inhibition to achieve their effects.
 Inhibition can be divided into competitive & non competitive
Competitive inhibition
 This occurs when a compound (inhibitor) have a shape similar to the actual substrate such
that they both competes for the active sites of the enzyme.
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 Normally the molecule / inhibitor does not take part in the reaction, but while it occupies
the active site, it prevent the actual substrate to be catalyzed hence the rate of the reaction
decreases.
 However, a characteristic feature of competitive inhibitor is that of the substrate is
increased the rate of reaction also increases
Non competitive inhibitor- reversible
 This type of inhibitor has no structural similarity to the substrate & combines with the
enzyme at a point other than the active site.
 It does not affect the ability of the substrate to bind with the enzyme, but makes it
impossible for catalysis for catalysis to occur.
 The rate of reaction decreases with inhibitor concentration to almost nil, when inhibitor
saturation is reached.
 However, increasing substrate concentration does not increase the rate of reaction.
 When the inhibitor is removed, the enzyme regains its catalytic activity hence reversible
Non competitive inhibitor/irreversible
 Some chemicals can cause irreversible inhibition of enzymes.

 Some concentration of chemicals reagents e.g. heave metals or certain iodine containing
compounds, complete inhibit enzymes.
 They may be in active site or elsewhere.
 Once such reactions have occurred the enzyme loses its catalytic activity effectually /
permanently.
 The change may cause the enzyme protein to precipitate.
Allosteric enzymes
 These are enzymes which can change their shape.

 They are regulated by compound bind to the enzyme at specific site well away from the
active site.
 While there, they cause the active site to change, there by affecting the ability of the
substrate to bind the enzyme.
 Compounds of this nature are called allosteric inhibitor.
Enzyme Co- factor.
 Enzymes require non proteins components called co- factors for their effective activity.
 Co- factors vary from simple inorganic ions to complex organs molecules &may either
remain unchanged at the end of a reaction or be generated by a later process.
 There are 3 types of co-factors & these are inorganic ions prosthetic group & coenzymes.
Prosthetic group (e.g. Haem, FAD, hydrogen carrier molecules)
 There are organic molecules that are tightly bound on a permanent basis to the enzyme.
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 They assist in catalytic activity of the enzyme e.g. fluorine adenine dinucleotide (FAD) which
contains fluorine.
 Its function is to accept hydrogen. Haem is found in the catalase & peroxides which
catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide in to water & oxygen.
Inorganic ions (enzyme activators(CL)
 These are thought to mold either the enzyme or substrate in a shape that easily allows an
enzyme / substrate complex to be formed.
 Hence, they greatly increase the chance of the reaction occurring, salivary amylase is
activated by chloride ions.
Coenzyme (NAD, NADP, Coenzyme A & ATP)
 Like prosthetic group, coenzymes are organic molecules which act as co- factors, but they
do not remain attached to the enzyme between reactions.
 Coenzymes are derived from victims. NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) is derived
from vitamins nicotinic & can exist in both reduced & oxidized form.
 It function as a hydrogen acceptor.
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INHERITED CHANGE AND EVOLUTION
-Inheritance is a process in which the material is passed from the parents to the off-springs.
-In sexual reproduction the fusion of male and female gametes results in transfer of DNA from
parents
 A gene is a sequence of nucleotide on the DNA strand which codes for a certain peptide
chain. It’s also referred as a unit of inheritance.
 An allele is an alternative form of the same gene responsible for determining, construction
of characteristics. e.g. an allele for black skin color and an allele for white skin color.
 A dominant allele is an allele which influences the appearance of the phenotype presence
of an alternative allele. It suppose of expression of a recessive allele. It is represented by
capital letters.
 A recessive allele which influence the appearance of the phenotype only in the presence of
the other identical allele. It will not express itself in the presence of the alternative allele of
the same gene.
 A phenotype is the outward appearance of an organism or the external expression of a
gene or genotype e.g. black white etc.
 A genotype is the genetic constitution of an organism with respect to alleles under
consideration e.g. BB, Bb, bb.
 A locus is the position of an allele in the DNA molecule.
 Homozygous is a diploid condition in which the alleles at a given locus are identical e.g. BB
or bb.
 Heterozygous is a diploid condition in which the alleles at a given locus are different e.g.
Bb.
 A first filial generation (F1) these are off-springs produced by crossing parental genotypes
of organism.
 A second filial generation (F2) these are produced by crossing the parents from the F1
generation.
PRINCIPLE OF MANDALIAN INHERITANCE
1. MANDALIAN FIRST LAW OF SEGREGATION

 In one of Gregor Mandel’s experiments he crossed pure breeding pea plants which are tall
and short. Cross pollination was presented and the F1 were all tall and no short plants were
produced. He intercrossed the F1 ones to produce the F2 generation. On counting these 787
were tall plants, 277 were short.
 This is a ratio of 3:1 Mandel made the following conclusions:
 There were no intermediate plants in F1 and F2 generation, this indicated that inheritance
is not a process in which parental features are blended. It is a process in which definite
features which may show themselves in F2 generation only, this implied that the F1 were
carrying the allele for shortness were being suppressed. All the F1 were tall and this
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indicated that the allele for tallness was dominant and the allele for shortness was
recessive.
THE GENETIC DIAGRAM
Let T represent the allele for dominant tallness. And t represents the recessive allele for shortness.
Back cross test or test cross is then done by intercrossing the parents from F1 generation.
TEST 1 BACK CROSS TECHNIQUE
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 An organism showing dominant characteristics can have two possible genotypes, A tall
plant can have either homozygous or heterozygous tall. The phenotype will be the same but
the genotype is different and is determined by crossing the plant with the recessive
organism.
 By crossing this organism with the unknown genotype with homozygous recessive it is
possible to determine the unknown or dominant characteristics genotype e.g. tall pea plant.
 If half the off-springs are tall and the other half is short this implies that the unknown
genotype is heterozygous tall.
MANDEL’S LAW OF SEGREGATION
 It states that the characteristics of organisms are determined by internal factors which
occur in pairs and only one of the pair of such a pair is represented in a single gamete.
The internal factors are the genes.
 This law’s explanation is obtained from meiosis, the alleles are located on one of the two
homologous chromosomes and during meiosis the homologous chromosomes come
together and they segregate into different gametes. Each gamete only receives one of each
type of chromosome and it also receives one of the pair of alleles.
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ALBINISM
 It is a condition in which the external segregation fails to develop due to lack of the skin
pigment melanin.
 The individuals have light skin, white hair and pink eyes. It is an example of monohybrid
inheritance in humans caused by a recessive allele.
 This implies that it will only exert its effects in the homozygous condition. The genotype of
a normal person AA and of a carrier is Aa and the sufferer is aa. It is a result of gene
mutation.
CODOMINANCE
 It is a condition in which two or more alleles fail to show complete dominance or

recessiveness to each other. This causes the alleles to show equally their effects on the
phenotype.
 This is due to the failure of one of the alleles to be dominant in the heterozygous condition.
Co dominance is found in both plants and animals.
 The heterozygous has a phenotype which is intermediate between homozygous dominant
and recessive condition produced by crossing pure breeding black and splashed white
fowls.
 A cross between pure breeds of red and white cows produces an intermediate color called
ROAN.
 The presence of the black plumage is the result of possession of an allele for black pigment
melanin. Splashed white fowls also lack this melanin. Heterozygous show a partial
development of this melanin which produces a blue sheen in the plumage.
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 If the F1 generation intercrossed, the F2 generation shows the modification of the Normal
Mendelian F2 phenotypic monohybrid ratios of 3:1
 A phenotypic ratio of 1:2:1 is product of alleles which are codominant.
SEX DETERMINATION
 Sex chromosomes carry genes that determine an individual’s sex. In females the two sex
chromosomes are identical and are called X chromosomes.
 The female genotype (autozome) is XX. In males the two sex chromosomes differ. They are
heterozomes X chromosome and one Y chromosome. Their genotype is XY.
 The genotype XX is described as homogametic since it produces gamete cells with X
chromosomes. The XY genotype is described as heterogametic since half the gametes
contain X chromosomes and the other half contains the Y chromosomes.
 The sex genotypes differ in other organisms e.g. in female butterflies have XY genotype and
male XX.
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SEX LINKAGE-GENES ON SEX CHROMOSOMES
 Genes carried on the sex chromosomes are said to be sex linked. In the case of
heterogametic sex there is a portion of X chromosome for which there is a non homologous
region of the Y chromosomes.
 Characteristics determined by genes carried on the non-homologous portion of the X
chromosome appear in males if they are recessive e.g. hemophilia and color blindness e.g.
hemophilia male is married to a carrier woman.
DIHYBRID INHERITANCE
 Is concerned with the inheritance of two pairs of alleles consider the following example;
 Pea plants can produce the seeds which are round and wrinkled, Also they can be green and
yellow. One pure breed produce seeds that are round and yellow seeds while one pure
breed produces round and yellow seeds while the other pure breed winkled and green
seeds.
Let R the dominant allele for round seeds and r for winkled.
Let Y be the dominant allele for yellow seeds and y for green.
Parental phenotype: Round and Yellow x Winkled and green
Parental genotype: RRYY rryy
Meiosis:
Gametes : RY RY RY RY ry ry ry ry
Using PANNET’S square
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Genotypic ratio:1: 2 : 2 : 4
Phenotypic ratio:9:3:3:1
 Basing on the results of the dihybrid cross therefore the presence of new combinations of
characteristics. Mandel postulated his second law known as “the principle of
independent assortment”.On one pair of characteristics may combine with either one. The
typical dihybrid ratio of 9:3:3:1 only apply to characteristics controlled by genes and
different chromosome are said to be linked, they form a linkage group.
HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS
 They are controlled by an autozomal gene. The gene locus is represented by a single (I)
isohaemoglobin.
 There are three alleles for the blood groups A, B, and O. A, AB, and B are codominant
(equally dominant) while O is recessive to both.
 The presence of the single dominant allele, A or B results in the blood producing a substrate
agglutinin which acts as an antibody e.g. the genotype IAIOwould give rise to agglutionogen
A on the red blood cell membrane and plasma would contain agglutinin anti-B. There are
six possible genotypes and only four exist.
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 The A, B, O blood groups in humans are controlled by multiple alleles of a single autozomal
gene. The gene locus is usually represented by the symbols (IA, IB, and IO). There are three
alleles represented by the symbols IA, IB, IO. Allele IA and allele IBare equally dominant to IO
which is recessive to both.
THE SUMMARY OF MENDEL’S 2nd LAW.
 Orientations on the equatorial spindle of bivalents during metaphase 1 and of

chromosome in metaphase 2 are random. The subsequent separation of these
chromosomes during anaphase 1 and 2 respectively produces new alleles
recombination in gamete cells. This is called independent assortment and results in the
random assortment of material and paternal chromosomes between daughter nuclei. This
is the basis of Mendel’s second law.
A PEDIGREE CHART
 Taking an example of albinism.
 A pedigree chart is a diagram of a family tree over several generations, showing the
descendants. The relationships and the presence or absence of a specific trait in all the
members.
 In the chart the males are represented by squares and females by circles.
 Shading indicates the incidence of the particular genotype.
 Under investigation, analysis of the pedigree chart enables us to detest the difference
between a dominant and a recessive trait.
 A dominant trait occurs in members of every generation. A recessive trait is seen in
frequently often skipping one or more generations.
HOW MUTATION CAN AFFECT THE PHENOTYPE
63
 Chromosome mutation – is a change in the structure and amount of the chromosomes, and
gene sequence on the chromosome. The changes are most likely to occur when chromatids
break and rejoin during cross over in prophase of meiosis. Sections of the chromosome may
be lost or incorporated into other chromosome i.e.
 detection,
 inversion,
 Translocation
 and duplication (reshuffling of genes).
 CHANGE IN CHROMOSOME NUMBER
 An individual’s failure of chromosome segregation during anaphase in meiosis leads
to the production of 24 chromosomes in a gamete cells instead of the normal 23 in a
human being.
 Usually it is the 21st chromosome (which is very small) which fails to separate to
two separate chromosomes.
 An extra chromosome is left in the gamete to leave 24 chromosomes (2n+1).
 The outer gamete is left ladening another chromosome it is left with 22
chromosomes (2n-1). The process of a failure in chromosome segregation is called
non-disjunction.
EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS
(A) DOWN’S SYNDROME/ MONGOLISM

 It is caused by non-disjunction. When a gamete with an extra chromosome fuses with a
normal gamete with 23 chromosomes the total number of chromosome will be 47 (2n+1)
instead of 46 (2n).
 DOWN’S SYNDROME CHILDREN HAVE THE FOLLOWING DISABILITIES
1. Flat broad face.
2. Squint eyes, with a skin fold in the inner corner.
3. Furrowed and protruding tongue.
4. Short stacky body thick neck.
5. Thick neck.
6. Short life expectancy.
7. Low IQ (intelligence quotient)
Qn. Coat colour in cats is determined by a sex-linked gene with two alleles, black and orange.
When black cats are mated with orange cats, the female offspring are always tortoiseshell, their
coats show black and orange patches of various sizes, while the male offspring have the same
coat colour as their
(a) Using the symbols XB for black and XO for orange, draw genetic diagrams to account forboth
these crosses.
(i) black female X orange male
(ii) orange female X black male
64
(b) List the genotypes and their phenotypes of the offspring that may result from mating
atortoiseshell female with a black male.
[4]
(c) Suggest an explanation for the tortoiseshell coat in terms of the activity of the Xchromosomes.
[1]
Qn. Fig. 4.1 shows four generations of a family in which some members of the family suffer from
sickle cell anaemia.
(a) Using the symbols HNfor the allele for normal haemoglobin and HSfor the allele for
sickle cell haemoglobin, state the genotypes of the individuals A and C [1]
(b) Draw a genetic diagram to show the probability of the parents A and B producing
another child with sickle cell anaemia. [5]
65
66
ENERGETICS
 Need to use energy in living organisms.
 Energy is defined as the capacity \ ability to do work.
 Living organisms require a constant supply of energy for them to keep working and alive.
 Energy required by living organisms for :
1) Anabolic reactions e.g growth.
2) Active transport of sustains against concentration gradient.
3) Phagocytosis, pinocytosis , exocytosis, endocytosis.
4) Electrical transmission of nerve impulse.
5) Mechanical , contraction of muscles .
6) Maintainace of temperature heat from respiration.
7) Bioluminescence.
8) Electrical discharge.
Structure of ATP
 ATP is a energy carrier molecule made up of organic base adenine ,a pentose sugar ribose
and three phosphate groups.
 The third phosphate can be debouched from ATP by the release producing ADP plus a
inorganic phosphate .
Hydrolyses
ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + energy [30 .6KJ/mol ]
Condensation
 Adding Pi to ADP is known as phosphorylation. The enzyme ATPASE has catalyzed the
reaction.
 All cells in every living organism use ATP as their energy source
 ATP is known as the universal energy carrier molecule.
Photosynthetic pigments
67
 Photosynthetic pigments of higher plants fall into two classes the chlorophylls and
carotenoids .
 The role of the pigments is to absorb light .
 There are located in the thylakoids .Chloroplasts absorb mainly red blue violet light
reflecting green.
 The chlorophyll has flat light absorbing and it has a magnesium at the centre .
 It also as along hydrophobic tail .Chlorophyll is the most common pigment and it exists in
various forms each differ slightly according to it’s light absorbing peck.
68
CARTENOIDES
 Cartenoides are yellow , orange and red carbon pigments that absorb strongly in the blue
violet range .
 They are accessory pigments because they pass their energy they absorb to the chlorophyll.
 Carotenoide have two types carotenes and xanthophylls.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
69
 The chlorophyll and accessory pigments molecules are are located in two types of
photosystems known as photosystem 1 and photosystem 2 .
 Each contain an antenna complex of pigments collect light of different wave length making
the process more efficient.
 All the energy harvesting transferred to chrolophylls are known as P700 in PS1 and P680
in PS2.
 The biochem of photosynthesis.
 The commonly used equation for photosynthesis is
SUNLIGHT
6H2O +6CO2 C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 .
CHLOROPYLL
 It implies that carbon dioxide reacts with H2O to give carbohydrates + oxygen in a one of
process yet the CO2 and H2O do not react together perse .
 Photosynthesis is divided into stages. The first stage is the light depended stage and the
dark stage.
70
LIGHT DEPENDED STAGE: THE Z SCHEME / PHITOPHOSPHORYLATION
 An electron from P700 orP680 is boosted to a higher energy level when light strikes the
photosystem;
 the the electron which acquires excitation is is accepted by electron acceptor x or y .
 The electrone acceptor x or y become reduced and chlorophylls become oxidized with
positive change.
 The electrons with the excess energy of oxidation are very unstable tend to fall down to
their ground state .
 The electrons then in terms of energy via a series of electrons acceptors.
 The excess energy lose when they fall back to the ground state is coupled is coupled in the
production of ATP.
 The positive change left in the p680 contribute to to the photochemical lysis of water which
releases electrons which lost from electron acceptor X .
 Electrons flow X along a chain of electron carries loosing energy [used to phospholyate
ADP to ATP ] FILLING THE HOLE LEFT IN p700 ,electrons also pass down from Y to NADP
along a chain a chain of electron carries to and combine with hydrogen ions from water to
form reduced NADP.
 This is called non cyclic photophosphorylation .
 In cycle photophosphorylation electrons from Y are recycled to P700 via a electron chain
carries results in ATP being formed
71
Light independent stage; The Calvin cycle
 The light independent ( or dark ) reactions takes place in stroma and do not require light .
 they make use of the ATP ( energy ) and NADPH2 from from the light dependent stage of
photosynthesis .
 The biochemistry of these reactions take place where promulgated by Calvin ,Benson and
Basham , hence they are known as Calvin –Benson cycle .
1. CO2 fixation
 The first stage is carbon dioxide fixation or acceptance.
 The carbon dioxide acceptor RuBP a 5C compound combines with CO2 to form a highly
unstable 6C compound which quickly breaks down to form to 3C compound to glycerate
phosphate.
 The enzyme Ribulose biphoshate carboxylase oxyfenal ( Rubisco) catalyse the reaction .
2. Reduction phase
 The glycerate phosphate a 3C acid contains the carboxylic group (COOH) which is reduced
to an aldehyde group (-CHO).
 Energy from ATP and hydrogen from NADPH2 are used to remove oxgen from GP.
72
 TP is produced a sugar phosphate, the first carbohydrate made in photosynthesis.
3. Regeration of RuBP – the CO2 Acceptor

 Some of the TP is used to generate the RuBP consumed in the first reaction.
 The regeneration of RuBP involves a complex cycle containing 4, 5, 6. And 7C sugar
phosphates.
(a) Outline the main features of the Calvin Cycle. [9]

 RuBP 5C ;
 combines with carbon dioxide ;
 rubisco ;
 to form an unstable 6C compound ;
 which forms 2 X GP (PGA) ;
 ATP;
 energy source
 and reduced NADP ;
 forms TP (GALP) ;
 TP used to form glucose / carbohydrates 1 lipids / amino acids ;
 TP used in regeneration of RuBP
 requires ATP ;
 as source of phosphate ;
 light independent ;
73
Qn. Fig. 1.1 shows the arrangement of photosystems, protein complexes containing
chlorophyll molecules, on the thylakoid membrane of a plant chloroplast.
(a) Describe the photoactivation of chlorophyll. [3]

(b) Explain how the photolysis of water occurs. [3]
(c) Outline how ATP is formed in the chloroplast [3]
(d) Suggest an advantage of having photosystems, the electron transport chain and
ATPsynthase as part of the thylakoid membrane.
[1]
[Total: 10]
Solution
1 (a) 1 chlorophyll absorbs mainly red and blue light;

2 light absorbed by antenna complex;
3 energy transferred;
4 reaction centres/P700/P680;
5 light energy excites electron(s)/reference passing to higher energy level;
6 electron lost from chlorophyll 3 max
(c) 1 water is split into H+ and OH-;
2 electron removed from OH-;
3 to replace electron from photosystem/chlorophyll;
4 OH breaks down into O2 and water;
5 H+ used to form reduced NADP;
6 reference correct, balanced equation; 3 max
(d) 1 reference flow of electrons along ETC;
2 reference to pumping H+ across membrane;
3 reference to H+/proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane;
4 flow of protons down gradient;
74
5 via ATPase/stalked particles;
6 formation of ATP from ADP and Pi;
7 cyclic, electron returns to original photosystem;
8 non-cyclic, electrons from PSII to PSI; 3 max
(e) reference increased efficiency/short diffusion distance/close together; 1
The C4 pathway
 Certain plants (C4 plants) possess a characteristic leaf anatomy in which two rings of cells
are found around each of vascular bundles.
 The inner ring the bundle sheath cells contain chloroplast which differ in form from those
in mesophyll cells thee are referred to as the kranz anatomy
Hatch slack pathway
 The hatch slack pathway is a pathway for transporting CO2 from the mesophyll , it’s a
pumping mechanism for CO2 .
 The carbon dioxide in acceptor is PEP and the reaction is catalysed by PEP carboxlase an
efficient enzyme with high affinity for CO2 and not inhibited by O2.
PEP caboxylase
PEP + CO2 oxaloacetate
 Oxaloacetate is then reduced by NADPH 2 to MALATE .

 Malate is then shunted through plasmodesm into the bundle sheath cells where they
accepted by RUBP in the normal C3 pathway .
75
C3 and C4 plants
 C3 plants have GP and c4 have a four carbon compound oxaloacetate.

 The enzyme Rubisco is also able to catalyes the combination of Rubp with oxygen .
 This results in the lose of Rubp which can be used only in the presents of CO2frome the
plant.As this process has the overall effect of taking in O2and giving out CO2 and this is
called photorespiration.
 However C4 prevent photorespiration by keeping Rubp and Rubisco away from O2.The
cells containing these two compoundes are arranged around the vascular bundle called
bundle sheath.
 They have nodirect contact with the air CO2 is absorbed by the mesophyl cells which are in
contact with air space .
 The mesoptle cells contain a enzyme called PEP CARBOXYLASE which catalyses the
combination of CO2 with the three carbon molecule phophopyruvate.
 The opd made frome the reaction is oxaloasetate .
 Stil inside the the mesopyle cell oxaloacetate is converted to malate and this malate is
shunted into the bundle sheath.
 Here CO2 is removed from the malate and delivered to Rubp by Rubisco in the usual
way .The calvin cycle then procceds normally.
 Some of the most productive crop are C4 plants .Sugar cane is is especially efficient
converting around 8percent sunlight to energy in carbohydrates.
Difference between C4 AND C3 PLANTS
C3 C4
GP present oxaloacetate
High photorespiration Minimum photorespiration
Sheath bundle cells absent Bundle sheath cells present.
Have Rubisco PEP and rubisco are present .
No malate is fromed Malate is formed .
Combination of rubisco with CO2 Combination of CO2 with PEP.
76
77
FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTORESPIRATION
I. TEMPERATURE
II. CARBON DIOXIDE
III. WATER
IV. SUNLIGHT
V. CHLOROPHYLL
TEMPERATURE
 AS little affect o the rate of photosynthesis since energy required is from sunlight not heat.
 Calvin cycle is enzyme controlled hence needs optimum temperature to operate a maximum
rate.
LIGHT INTERNSITY
 As for CO2 concentration light tends to be the rate limiting at low intensities but not at high
intensities.
 Rate of photosynthesis is measured by the rate of O2 production.
 Plants respire as well as photosynthesis .At low light intensities the plants tend to
respire .As light intensities increase the rate of photosynthesis.
 This is called the light compensation point .Above this light intensity the rate of
photosynthesis exceeds the rate of respiration and so O2 is released from the plant.
78
CARBON DIOXIDE
 When CO2 is the rate limiting increase in the CO2 increases the rate of photosynthesis .
 This makes a rising straight line on the graph on the rate against CO2 concentration.
 Concentration point is the point where rate of concentration of CO2 is equal to O2 thus
photosynthesis equal to respiration.
 When CO2 concentration is not a factor limiting increase in the concentration of CO2 will
not change the rate of photosynthesis .The graph is horizontal.
RESPIRATION
79
 The which makes ATP using in organic molecules and is subdivided into glycolysis and the
Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
 The glucose is dismantled streadility in a series’ of reactions known as the metabolic
pathway.
 The metabolic path ways of respiration are divided into three main stages.
I. Firstly in the cytoplasm of the cell glucose is converted into pyruvate. {glycolysis}
II. . The next inside the mitochondrion is in cycle of reactions called Krebs cycle .
III. Finally in the mitochondrion the electrons produced in the Krebs cycle are passed to the
electron transport chain producing ATP in a process called oxidative
phosphorylation.
 Glucose are uncreative so they are activated before glycolysis occurs.
 This is done by addition of a phosphate to the glucose forming glucose phosphate.
 The atoms in this molecule are then arranged to form fructose phosphate and another
group added to form fructose biphosphate.
 Each of these additions of a phosphate group is done by transferring a phosphate group to
the sugar from ATP.
 The is split into 3 carbon molecule triose phosphate .Each of these converted into GP then
pyruvate in a series of steps.
 These steps release energy which is used to ATP from GP .Four molecules of ATP are made
directly there are then in the cytoplasm using energy released as ATP are gradually
changed to pyruvate .
 The conversion of TP to GP releases hydrogen ions to electrons which are transferred to
the coenzyme NAD to form reduced NAD.
 These hydrogen and high energy electrons are passed into mitochondria where they can
be used to produce 5ATP molecules in oxidative phosphorylation only in the presents of
oxygen.
80
The Krebs cycle
 If oxygen is available, THE PYRUVATE FROMED IN GLYCOLYSIS IS passed into the

mitochondrion through the inner and outer membrane.
 Once in the matrix of the mitochondrion pyruvate is converted into Acetyl coenzyme A .
 One hydrogen ion, two electrons and one CO2 molecule is released.
 The acetyl coenzyme A which conteins two carborn molecules is added to oxaloacetate
[4CO2].
 The result Compound a six carbon compound citrate is gradually required than
oxaloacetate. At two stages in the Krebs cycle CO2 plus that was removed from the
compound involved. This is called decarboxylation.
 This CO2 plus that which was produced when pyruvate was converted into acetyl coenzyme
A diffuses out of the mitochondrion out of the cell then out of the organism.
 Electrones and hydrogen ion are both picked up by the oxidized form of the coenzyme NAD
and some by FAD.
 These coenzymes can hold electrons which will which will then be fed into the ETC.
 When one glucose molecule is respired two pyruvate are produced and they result in the
formation of six reduced NAD and two reduced NAD are produced when pyruvate is
converted to acetyl coenzyme A .
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OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION [ETC]
 ATP is made by addition of inorganic phosphate to ADP are phosyphorylation reaction.

 In the respiration process it requires oxygen and is known as oxidative phosphorylation.
 The Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondrion.
 Reduced NAD and FAD provide energy for ATP synthesis as they are passed in the ETC .
 The electrons are paced along ATP is made.
 At the end of the ETC oxygen is used to combine with electrons as they off the chain with
hydrogen ions to form water.
 If there‘s no enough O2 the ETC wont work and hence resulting in the occurrence of
anaerobic respiration .
82
ANAROBIC RESPIRATION
 In anaerobic respiration glycolysis takes place as ussul pyruvate a small amount of ATP is
formed .If pyruvate was allowed to form it will inhibit glycolysis so it is converted to
something else.
83
 The reduced NAD which is produced in glycolysis must be oxidized back to NAD or the cell
will run out of ATP.
Alcohol fermentation
 Yeast convents pyruvate to ethanol .CO2 is removed from pyruvate to produce ethanol.
CH3 COCOOH CH3 CHO + CO2
{ETHANOL}
 The enzyme alcohol dehydrogenate convets the ethanol to ethenil . This requires hydrogen
which is taken from reduced NAD .
 The overall reaction equation
 Conversion of pyruvate acetyle CoA [link ring]
Lactase fermentation
 In the lactase fermentation the pyruvate from glycolysis accepts the hydrogen ions from
reduced NAD directly .
CH3 COCOOH CH3 CHO HCOOH
NADH2 NAD {lactase}
 If oxygen be made unavailable again lactase can be further broken down to to release it’s
remaining energy or alternatively be resynthesised to carbohydrates or extricated.
 Lactase fermentation is useful to animals living in in flacuating levels of oxygen , a baby in
the period just after birth .
84
LACTASE FERMATAION ALCOHOL FERMANTAION
Yield 2ATP Yield 2 ATP
NO CO2 PRODUCED CO2 PRODUCEDTION INVOLVED
Pyruvate, decarboxylase ,alcohol used Lactase ,dehydrogenase ,is used .
Yield 180kj Yield 210kj
Explain the role of NAD in aerobic respiration. [6]
 coenzyme;
 for dehyrogenase;
 reduced;
 carries electrons;
 and protons/H+/H/hydrogen; R H2/hydrogen molecules
 from Krebs cycle;
 and from glycolysis;
 to cytochromes/electron transfer chain;
 reoxidised/regenerated;
 ATP produced;
 3/2.5 (molecules of ATP) per reduced NAD;
Describe the main features of the Krebs Cycle. [9]

 matrix;
 of mitochondrion;
 acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate;
 to form citrate;
 4C to 6C;
 decarboxylation/produce CO2;
 dehydrogenation/oxidation;
 2CO2 released;
 reduced NAD produced; accept reduced coenzyme for one mark - annotate 9/10
 reduced FAD produced;
85
 ATP produced;
 series of steps/intermediates;
 enzyme catalysed reactions;
 oxaloacetate regenerated;
 AVP;
ALTERNATIVE RESPIRATORY SUBSTRATES
RESPIRATION OF FATS
 The oxidation of fats is proceeded by it’s hydrolysis to glycerol and fatty acids .The glycerol
may then be phosphorylated and converted to TP .
 This can be incorporated into the glycolysis pathway and subsequently the Krebs cycle .
 The fatty acid compound is progressively broken down in the matrix of the mitochondrion
into two CO2 compounds which are converted to Actyle coenzyme A .
 This then entres the krebs cycle with the consequent release of energy .The oxidation of fats
has the advantage of producing large amounts of H+ IONS.
 These can be transported by hydrogen carries and used to produce ATP in the electron
transported by hydrogen carries for this region fats librerate move and double the the
energy for the same amount of carbohydrates.
86
RESPIRATION OF PROTEINS
 Proteins must be hydrolysed to constituent animo acid which then have the amino [NH2]
group removed in the liver by deamination.
 The remaining portion of the amino acid then entre the respiratory pathway at a number of
points depending on their carbon content.
 5 carbon amino acid and 4 C amino acid are converted to pyruvate ready to be converted to
acetyl coenzyme A
 Other a, a with longer quantities of carbon undergo transmination reaction to convert
them to 3, 4 or 5 amino acid .
REPIRATION QUNTIENTS
 The respiratory [RQ] is the measure of the CO2 involved by the organisisms to the O2
consumed over a certain period.
 In the fats ratio of O2 to CO2 is far smaller than on carbohydrate. A fat requires quantity of
O2 for as complete oxidation and thus RQ less than one.
GLYCEROL
 Is first phosphorylated by ATP into GP and then dehydrogenated by NAD to the sugar
dehydrogenate phosphates.
 This is next converted into isomer glycerddehyde 3 phosphate
 The process consume ATP and yield ATP when hydrogen is to along the respiratory chain
87
 Glycerated 3 phosphate is subsequently incorporated into the glycolysis pathway and Krebs
cycle liberating a further 17ATP.
 Therefore a yield per one molecule of glycerol aerobically respires to 20/1 =19 ATP.
 Respiring Q measures of rotating ATP of CO2 evolved by one organism consumed over a
long period of time.
FATTY ACIDS
 Each fatty acid molecule is oxidized by a process called oxidation which involves 2C
fragments of acetyl COEZYME A being split off from the acid molecule.
 Each Acetyl coenzyme formed can entre Krebs cycle as usual to be oxidized to CO2 and
H2O
 A lot of energy is released per one molecule of glycerol. A lot of energy is released when a
fatty acid is oxidized.
 Fatty acids therefore contribute more than half the normal energy required of heart, resting
skeletal muscle liver and kidney.
PROTEIN
 Proteins are first hydrolyzed into their constituent aa then delaminated and transmission.
OXDATIVE DEAMINATION
 Occurs in vertebrates liver cells on ammonium molecules is removed from the amino acids
by dehydrogenation and hydrolysis.
 The deamination amino acids is an alpha keto acid .It may be respired like a carbohydrate
or via the fatty acid pathway.
TRANSMINATION
 Is the transfer of an amino acid group

 An amino acid to a keto acid .One amino acid can be converted to another .
 This process also produce an alpha keto acid able to enter the normal respiratory pathway.
SUMMARY OF PATHWAYS
88
TRANSPORT
Transport in plants
Xylem
 The xylem has two major functions:the conductor of water, mineral salts and support.
 It consists of both physiological and structural importance in plants.
 It consists of four cell types :tracheids, vessel elements, parenchyma and fibres
Tracheids
 A single cell elongated and lignified and lapering end and wall that overlap with adjacent
tracheds in the same way as sclerenchyma fibres.
 They have mechanical strength and give support to the plant.
 They are dead with empty lumen when mature.
 Water pass through the lumens without being obstructive by living organisms.
 It pass from trenched to trached through the pits via the pit membrane or through
unlignified portions of the cell walls
Vessels
 Are characteristic conducting units of angiosperms xylem.

 They are very long tubular structures formed by fusion of several cell end to end in a row .
 Each of the cell forming a xylem is equivalent to a trached and is called a vessel element.
 A vessel is formed when a neighboring vessel element of a given raw fuse as a result of their
end walls break down.
 A series of rims is left around the inner side of the vessel marking the remains of the end
wall.
89
Protoxylem
 A mature protoxylem can be stretched as surrounding cells elongate because ligning is not
deposited over the entire cell wall but only in rings or spirals
 There act as reinforcement for the tubes during elongation of stem nd roots
 As growth proceed, more xylem vessel develop and these undergo more extensive
lignifiction completing their development in the mature reigns of the organs and forming
metaxylem
 Mature xylem can not grow since they are dead, rigid and fully lignified tubes
 The long empty tubes of xylem provide an ideal system for translocation of large quantities
of water with minimal obstructions
 Water can pass through plants from vessel to vessel through unlignified portions of the cell
wall
 High tensile strength due to lignifications preventing tube collapse when conducting water
under tension
 In the primary body(plant) the distribution of xylem in the roots is central, helping to with
stand the turging strains of aerial plants as they bend or lean over
Xylem parenchyma
 Also referred to as filling tissue

 It has thin cellulose cell wall and living contents
 Two systems of parenchyma exist in secondary xylem derived from meristems cell-ray initials
and fusiforms
 Parenchyma is found in the medulcing rays. Its functions are food storage , deposition of
tannins ,crystals transport food ,water and gaseous exchange
 Parenchyma is found in pith and cortex
 Fusiforms initial give rise to xylem vessel or phloem sieve tubes and companion cells but
occasionally give rise to parenchyma cells-these form vertical rows of parenchyma in the
secondary xylem
Xylem fibres
 They are shorter and narrow or tracheoids and have much thicker walls
 They resemble sclerenchyma fibers ,having overlapping end walls
 Have thicker walls and narrow and lumens hence conifer additional mechanical strength in
xylem
Phloem
 Sieve tubes & companion

 Are tube like structure and translocate solution of organic solutes eg sucrose throughout
the plant
 They are formed by end fusion of the sieve tube or sieve elements
 The first phloem is to be produced to the photo phloem & is produced in the zone of
elongation of the growing root or stem
 As the tissues around it grow and elongate it becomes stretched and much of it eventually
collapse & become non-functional
 More phloem however has ceased to be called metaphloem
90
 Sieve tube have cell walls made up of cellulose and pectic substances with the cytoplasm
being confined to a thin layer around the periphery of the cell
 Although they lack nuclei, sieve elements remain living but they depend on adjacent
companion cells which develops from the same original meristematic cells
 Sieve plate is derived from two adjacent and walls of neighboring sieve elements
 Originally plasmodesmata run along the wall but the canal enlarge to form pore allowing
flow of liquid from one element to the next
 Secondary phloem which develops from the vascular cambium appears similar in structure
to primary phloem except it to be crossed by bound of lignified fibres and medullary rays of
parenchyma
Phloem parenchyma, fibres and sclereids
 Are thin walls because they full up spaces

 Companion cells accompanies the sieve plate hence they provide energy to more substance
 They are living and have dense active cytoplasm. These have a nuclear and a lot of
mitochondrion .
Uptake of water by roots
 Water moves across the root by pathways similar to these in the leaf i.e apoplast, symplast
& vacuolar pathway
 The water potential gradient is maintained in two ways ;
1) By water moving up the xylem ,setting up tension in the xylem & lowering the water
potential in its sap
2)the xylem sap has a lower (more –ve )solute potential than the dilute solution
Symplast and vacuolar pathway
 Symplast from cytoplasm to cytoplasm, vascular pathway from vacuole to vacuole

 As water moves up the xylem in the root ,it is replaced by water from neighboring cells
(parenchyma) e.g cell A
91
 As water leaves cell A the water potential of a cell A lowers & the water enters from cell B
by osmosis
 The water potential of a cell B then dorses & water enters it from the cell C & soon across
the root of the pulterous layer
 The soil solution has a higher water potential cells of the pulferous layer which include the
root hair, waters the root to the pulferous layer
Water movement up xylem vessels
 The removal of water from the top of the xylem vessels reduces hydrostatic
pressure(pressure exerted by liquids)
 At the top of xylem hydrostatic pressure is lower than pressure at the bottom
 Pressure differences causes water to move up xylem vessels
 Water in xylem is under tension , hence xylem walls are lignified to stop them from
collapsing
Mass flow
 This is the movement of water up xylem

 All water molecules move together(due to cohesion forces) that attract water molecule
together + adhesive between them +xylem walls ) as a body of liquid
NB the cohesion & adhesion help to keep water in a xylem vessel moving as a continuous column
Set backs
 Air bubbles (air lock) which form in the column

 Wercome by the use of pits present in the lignified side walls of the xylem vessel
 Air backs + other blockages break water column
 Difference in presence between water at top of water at bottom can not be transmitted
through air lock hence water steps moving upwards …* small diameter of xylem vessels
helps to prevent such from occurring
Root pressure
(i) water pressure at the top of the xylem vessel to reduced by transpiration; this causes
water to flow up the vessel
ii)this increases pressure differences from top to bottom by raising water pressure at the base
of vessel
 How; active secretion of solutes eg mineral ions in the water the xylem vessels in the
roots ,this requires energy
 Pressure of solutes lowers the water from the cells. This in flow of water increase the water
pressure at the base of xylem vessel
92
Role of root pressure
 Help water to move the xylem vessel

 Water transport in plants in largely passive process tilled by transpiration from leaves
 Water simply moves a continuous water potential gradient from air
Apoplast pathway
 Most water travel from cell to cell via cell wall which is made up of cellulose fibres between
which are filled spaces. As the water evaporates into the substomal air space from the wall
of one cell ,it creates tension which pulls in water from spaces in the walls of surrounding
cells. The pull is transmitted through the plant by the cohesion forces between the water
molecules which due to hydrogen bonding are particularly strong
Symplast pathway
 Some water is lost to the sub stomal air spaces from the cytoplasm of the cell surrounding it
. The major potential of this cytoplasm is thereby made more –ve. The plasmodesmata
which link the cytoplasm of one to that of the next. Water may pass along plasmodesma
from adjacent cells with a higher (less –ve)water potential. This loss of water makes the
water potential of this second cell which I have a higher water potential
 In this water potential gradient is established between the substomatal space & the space
& the xylem vessels of the leaf
 The symplast pathway carriers less water than the apoplast pathway.
Vacuole pathway
 A little water passes by osmosis from the vacuole of one cell to the next , through the cell
wall ,membrane & cytoplasm of adjacent cells.In the same way s symplast pathway ,a water
potential gradient exist between the xylem & substomal air space .It along gradient that the
water passes
 NB The apoplast pathway is due to cohesion and adhesion tension & is independent of a
water potential gradient
 The vacuole and symplast pathways are independent on a water potential gradient
TRANSPIRATION
 is the loss water by the stomata of leaves into the atmosphere through cuticle
 stomata –transpiration
 lenti cells crack of buck by evaporation
Factors affecting transpiration
(i)External(environmental factors)
 HUMIDITY
 The humidity/ vapour pressure of the air affect the water potential gradient between the
atmosphere within the leaf of that out .When the external air has high humidity , the
gradient is reduced or less water is transpired .Low humidity high the rate of transpiration
93
 LIGHT
 The stoma of most plants open in and close in the dark .The mechanisms are an increase in
volume of a guide causes increased bowing of the cell owing to the greatest expansion
occurring in the outer wall. When this occurs in two guard cells of stoma .The stomal
aperture enlarges .An increase in light intensity increase in transpiration rate and vice versa
 TEMPERATURE
 A change in temp affects both the kinetic movement of water molecules and relative
humidity of air. A rise in temp increase the kinetic E* of water molecules and so increase
rate of evaporation of water. At the same time it lowers the relative humidity of yhe
air .Both changes increase the rate of transpiration .A fall in temp has the reverse effect of
reducing the amount of water transpired.
 WIND SPEED
 In the absence of any movement , the water vapour which diffuses from stomata
accumulates near the leaf surface . This reduces the water potential gradient between the
most atmosphere in the stomata and the drier air at outside .The transpiration rate is
reduced .Any movement of tends to dispose the humid layer at the surface this increase the
transpiration rate .The faster the wind speed the more rapidly the moist air is removed and
the greater the rate of transpiration.
 WATER AVAILABILITY
 A reductionin the availability of water to the plant as a result of a dry soil means there is a
reduced water potential gradient between the soil and leaf
(ii) INTERNAL FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION(PLANT FACTORS)
 Leaf area as a proportion of water loss occurs through the cuticle , the greater the total area
of a plant the greater the rate of transpiration regardless of the number of stomata present.
In addition any reduction in leaf area invetable involves a reduction in the total number of
the stomata e.g. thin prime leaves.
 Cuticle- the cuticle is the wax coloring over the leaf surface which reduces water loss .The
thicker the cuticle ,the lower the rate of cuticular transpiration
 Density of stomata-the greater the number of stomata for a given area the higher the rate of
transpiration rate stomal rate of aboxial epidermis of plant may vary
 Distribution of stomata-in most plants the leaves are positioned at the
adoxial(upper)surface towards the light .The upper surface are subjected to greater temps
rises than lower ones owing warming effect of the sun. Transpiration is there for potentially
greater from upper side
XEROPHITIC PLANTS
 These are plants that grow in areas which have unfavorable water balance and adapted to
the conditions.
Adaptations of Xerophitic plants
1. Thick cuticle
2. Reduces cuticula transpiration by forming a wax barrier preventing water loss
3. Rolling of leaves
4. Moist air is trapped within the leaf preventing diffusion out through the stomata which
are confined to the inner surface
5. Protective hairs on the leaf(pubescence)
6. Moist air is trapped in the hair layer ,increasing the length of the diffusion path so
reducing transpiration
7. Depression of stomata
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Lengthens the diffusion path by trapping still moist air above the stomata so reducing the
transpiration
 Small and circular leaves
To reduce transpiration rate .The shape also gives structural turgidity to prevent wilting
 Orientation of leaves
The positions are constantly change(of the leaves)so that the sun strikes them
obliquely.This reduces their temp and hence the transpiration rate
 A more positive water potential
The cells accumulates salts which makes their water potential positive. This makes it
difficult for water to be drawn from them
 Succulent leaves and stems
For water storage
 Nocturnal opening of stomata
The more efficient use of CO2 by C4 plants allows them to keep stomata closed during much
of the day so reducing transpiration
 Shallow and extensive root systems
Allow efficient absorption of water over a wide area when the uppers are moistened by rain
TRANSLOCATION
MASS FLOW
 Photosynthesing cells in the leaf have a lower potential due to accumulation of the sucrose
synthesized
 Water enters the cells froms the xylem increasing their pressure potential.in the roots,
sucrose is either being utilized as a respiratory substrate / is being converted to starch for
storage
 The sucrose content of these cells is therefore low giving them a higher water potential and
low pressure potential
 Therefore, the gradient of pressure potential btwn the cells .the source of sucrose(the
leaves) point of utilization the sink (the root /other tissue)
 The two are linked by the phloem and as result liquid flows to other tissue along sieve tube
elements
 Movement of phloem up and down is by directional.The mvmnt in xylem is upward i.e
unidirectional, in translocation there is organic phloem and inorganic xylem.Sucrose moves
to the growing zones and is dependent on conc
 Root –growing zone meristematic zone
Diagram of loading of sucrose into phloem
95
 H+ can move back in companion cells down their conc gradient thru a protein
which act as carrier for both H+ and sucrose at same tym
 Sucrose carried thru this co-transporter molecule.
DIAGRAM FOR MASS FLOW IN PHLOEM AND THE LABELLING
(a) With reference to Fig. 4.1,

(i) name an example of a source and a sink? [1]
(ii) name cells C and D. [2]
(b) With reference to Fig. 4.1, explain how sucrose travels from,
96
(i) the source to cell C
(ii) cell C to the sink [4]
(c) Explain why multicellular plants require transport systems for substances, such as water
and sucrose. [2]
Solutions
(a) (i) source = leaf/mesophyll/palisade/spongy qualified
sink = flower/fruit/seed/stem/bud/root/tuber/storageorgan/young
leaf/meristem/pollen/nectary/AW ; [1]
(ii) C sieve, (tube) element/cell,
D companion/transfer, cell ; [1]
(b) source to cell C

- correct ref (sucrose) loaded ;
-H+ pumped out, sucrose moves in through co-transporter ;
-role of companion cells in moving sucrose into sieve tube element ;
- -sucrose diffuses down concentration gradient (anywhere) ;
- -ref to plasmodesmata ; [max. 2]
cell C to sink
-water enters by osmosis/water moves down its Ψ gradient ;
-hydrostatic pressure builds up ;
-(idea that sucrose) unloaded/used at sink ;
-water follows by osmosis ;
-idea there is a difference in pressure/pressure gradient (between source and
sink) ;mass flow ; [max.
2]
Qn. Various hypotheses for the mechanism of transport in phloem have been suggested.
One hypothesis proposes that movement between sources and sinks occurs entirely
passively by the process of mass flow.
The diagram below shows a physical model to illustrate the principle of mass flow.
97
tube w ater
source sink
sugar rigid partially perm eable w ater

solution m em branes
(i) Give an example in plants of:
a source ..........................................................................................................
a sink ...............................................................................................................
[2]
Q1
98
[3]
99
2 (a) (i) Name structures A to C. [3]
(ii) State the name given to the region labelled D that separates the two sieve tube
elements. [1]
(iii) Name one assimilate that is transported in the phloem. [1]
(b) Explain how the structure of sieve tube elements helps the translocation of substances in the
phloem. [3]
(c) Describe the role of companion cells in translocation in the phloem. [2]
100
101
Qn 4
102
TRANSPORT IN MAMMALS
Arteries
-Arteries transport swiftly and at high pressure to the tissues. Arteries are made up of three layers
which are:-
(i) An inner endothelium

-(Lining tissue) made up of a layer of flatting cells fitting together. This layer is very smooth,
minimizing friction with the moving blood.
(ii) Tunica media
-Contain smooth muscle and elastic fibre.
(iii) Tunica extern
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-Contain elastic fibre and collagen fibre.
-Arteries have narrow lumen maintaining high pressure facilitate faster movement of blood.
-Elastic walls to allow for expansion when pressure increases.
-Blood moves in pulse, rapidly and in pulses. Transport blood from the heart.
-It carries oxygenated blood except in pulmonary artery.
Veins
 Have thin muscular wall with little elastic tissue.

 Large lumen relative to diameter. Unable to constrict and not permeable. Have valves
throughout to prevent backflow of blood.
 Transport blood to heart and is under low pressure (1KPa). No pulses and blood flows
slowly. Deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein.
Capillary
 Routes by which water, dissolved substances and white blood cells can enter or leave.
 Have no muscles or elastic tissue. Large lumen relative to diameter. Permeable and unable
to constrict. Link arteries to vein. Blood flows slowly and no pulses. Have gaps to allow
leakage of blood components. Pressure is 4-1KPa.
104
Haemoglobin
 Most efficient respiratory pigment is a protein with 4 polypeptide chains, making the globin
part of the molecule.
 Each of the chains, making the chain is associated with atoms that form a haem group with
an iron at its centre. Each of the iron bonds with oxygen molecule to form oxyhaemoglobin.
When oxygen combine with one haem group then haemoglobin changes shape making it
easier for it to bind with another oxygen molecules, and so on until 4 oxygen molecules have
been bonded.
The haemoglobin dissociation curve
 Haemoglobin is less likely to combine with oxygen if the oxygen concentration is low. As
light increases in oxygen concentration cause a huge increase in a % saturation of
haemoglobin.
 A high oxygen concentration most of the haemoglobin molecules are combined with 4
oxygen molecules, as oxygen concentration decreases one oxygen molecule may leave hence
making it easier for the other oxygen molecules to leave since the haemoglobin changes
shape.
 Haemoglobin is more likely to bind oxygen at low oxygen concentration.
105
Carbon dioxide transport and the Bohr Effect
 There are three ways in which carbon dioxide are carried from tissue to lungs.
(i) As hydrogen carbonate ions
 Carbon dioxide produced by respiring cells diffuses into the plasma in capillaries and into
red blood cells.
 Inside the red blood cells, carbonic anhydrate catalyses the reaction.
Carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid
 Carbonic acid is weak and therefore dissociates to produce hydrogen ions.
Carbonic acid hydrogen ion + hydrogen carbonate ions
 Haemoglobin react with hydrogen ion to form haemoglobin acid. Haemoglobin therefore
acts a buffer as it removes hydrogen ion from solution preventing an increase in acidity. As
the haemoglobin combines with hydrogen ion it releases some of the oxygen it carries. With
carbon dioxide present, the haemoglobin is less saturated with oxygen at any given
concentration. This is called the Bohr Effect.
106
Myoglobin
 Is a dark red pigment found in muscle cells.

 Each myoglobin is made up of 1 polypeptide chain and can combine with one oxygen
molecule to form oxymyoglobin.
 Once combine the oxymyoglobin is stable and will not release oxygen unless the partial
pressure of oxygen around is very low.
 It therefore acts as storage device for oxygen. At the normal partial pressures of oxygen in a
respiring muscle cells, some of the oxygen is picked up by the myoglobin from the
haemoglobin. Only to release it when the oxygen concentration in the muscle drops very
low.
Myoglobin Haemoglobin
Fetal haemoglobin
 Fetal haemoglobin is more likely to combine with oxygen and therefore has a higher affinity
for oxygen than the adult haemoglobin.
 A fetus obtains all its oxygen through the placenta from its mother blood where it is being
carried at oxyhaemoglobin.
 The difference in affinity means that enough oxygen will leave the mothers haemoglobin
and combine with the fetus to supply the fetus with all its oxygen requirements.
107
Qn (a) Oxygen is carried around the bodies of mammals, bound reversibly to the
pigment haemoglobin. The pigment is found in both adult and fetal red blood
cells.
The graph below shows the dissociation curves for maternal and fetal
oxyhaemoglobin.
100
80
fetal
60
saturation of m aternal
h aem oglobin
w ith oxygen / %
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
partial pressure of oxygen / kPa
(i) State the difference in the percentage saturation of haemoglobin with

oxygen between the fetal and the maternal blood at an oxygen partial
pressure of 3 kPa. [1]
108
(ii) Explain why the difference between the two curves is essential for the
survival of the fetus . [4]
(b) After birth, the adult form of haemoglobin gradually replaces the fetal form of
haemoglobin.
Suggest why this is necessary. [2]

[Total 7 marks]
The cardiac cycle
 Is the complete sequence of contraction and relaxation of the heart muscle.

 The cycle can be divided into two stages, the systole and diastole.
 During systole the muscle contract and diastole relaxes.
 As the heart muscle contract it squeeze the blood in the chambers inward, decreasing the
volume and increase the pressure which forces the blood out towards region where
pressure is lower.
 The muscle then relaxes allowing the volume of the chamber to increase again and pressure
drops. Blood then flows in from regions where pressure is higher.
 There are four stage which are
 Arterial diastole
 Arterial systole
 Ventricular systole
 Ventricular diastole.
109
Initiation and control of cardiac
 Cardiac muscle is known to be myogenic meaning that they naturally contract and relax.
The heart has a Sino atria node (SAN) which stimulate the contraction of heart found in the
right atrium. The SAN initiates the heart beat but the rate at which it beats can be varied by
stimulation from the automatic nervous system.
 The muscle cells of the SAN set the rhythm for all other cardiac muscles cells.
 They have an inbuut rhythm of contraction which is slightly faster than the rest of the heart
muscle.
 Each time they contract they set up an excitation wave and the wave of polarization which
speeds out rapidly over the whole of the atrial walls. The cardiac muscles in the arterial wall
respond to the excitation wave contracting at the same rhythm as SAN thus all the muscle in
both atria contracts almost simultaneously.
 There is a delay before the excitation wave can pass from the atria to the ventricles the
delay is caused by a bond of fibres (non conducting fibre) which do not conduct the
excitation wane.
 These transmit the excitation wave very rapidly down to the base of septum, from where it
spreads outwards and upwards through the ventricle walls. As it does so it causes the
cardiac muscle in these walls to contract from the bottom up, so squeezing blood upward
into the arteries.
110
Regulation of cardiac output
 If an increased volume of blood returns to the heart in the veins, the heart pumps fast and
harder to push out.
 The incoming blood stretches the muscles of the heart cell and the muscles responding by
contracting harder than usual increasing the stroke volume.
 The SAN is therefore directly faster than usual, slightly increasing the heart rate therefore
cardiac output is increased.
 The heart has 2 nerves running into the VAGUS (Doras sympathetic and sympathetic).
 The VAGUS nerves bring impulses from the brain to the SAN and AVN while the sympathetic
nerve brings impulses to many areas of the muscle wall in the heart.
 If action arrives on a sympathetic, nerve, they speed up the heart rate and increase stroke
volume.
 The parasympathetic (VEGUS) slows down the heart for decrease stroke volume.
 Blood pressure inside the aorta and also in the walls of the carotid arteries are nerve
endings sensitive to stretching i.e. the baroreceptor of the stretch receptors. if blood
pressure rises, the artery walls are stretched stimulating the nerve ending, which send
impulses to the brain which sends impulses to the vagus nerve to the heart. This slows the
heart rate and stokes volume which can help to reduce pressure.
111
 Low blood pressure has the opposite effect. The baroreceptors are not stretched and do not
send impulses to the brain.
 The cardiac vascular centre in the brain the sends massages along the sympathetic nerve
which increases cardiac output and thus blood pressure. Massages are also sending to
muscles in the atria walls which contrast a narrow the atrioles vasoconstriction so
increasing blood pressure.
 Increased blood flow into heart stretches cardiac muscle fibers and they respond by
contracting more strongly during systole. Therefore increased volume of blood is pumped
out. This gives direct relationship between degree of stretching of cardiac muscle and
power of cardiac contraction.
112
113
114
Endocrine control
 Stress need for action. Adrenalin is produced, causes increase in heart rate and stroke
volume hence cardiac output increased.
 Thyroxin increase metabolism and therefore, there is need to pump blood faster to the
respiring tissue to supply sufficient oxygen for the tissue metabolically.
 Active hence there is an increase in cardiac output.
Change in blood composition
High pH decelerates heart rate
Low pH accelerates heart rate
(High carbon dioxide levels as in the case during active exercise)
Low temperature decelerates (because there is vasoconstriction)
High temperature accelerates due to vasodilatation.
Qn. Carbon dioxide is produced in tissues as a waste product of respiration.
–
The majority of carbon dioxide is carried as hydrogencarbonate ions (HCO 3 ) in the
plasma.
–
The figure below shows the chemical pathway in which carbon dioxide is converted into HCO 3 in a
red blood cell.
red blood cell
capillary
w all
C O 2 + H 2O
C O 2 in X
tissue
Y
H C O 3 – in
Z + H C O 3–
plasm a
Identify the following:
115
enzyme X ......................................................................................................
substance Y ......................................................................................................
ion Z .......................................................................................................
[Total 3 marks]
QN. Below is a simple diagram of a mammalian heart and associated blood vessels as seen
in front (ventral) view.
P Q
A B
D C
Y
right left
116
(a) (i) Draw arrows on the diagram to show the direction of blood flow through
the left side of the heart.
[1]
(ii) State the name of vessel X and valve Y.
vessel X .................................................................................................
valve Y ...................................................................................................
[2]
(iii) Explain why there are valves at P and Q. [2]
(b) The maximum thickness of the external wall of each of the four chambers was
measured. The measurements made are shown below.
2 mm 9 mm 16mm 2 mm
(i) From the list of measurements, select the one most likely to correspond to
each of the chambers, A, C and D. Write your answers in the table.
chamber thickness/mm
[3]
(ii) Explain the differences in the wall thickness of chambers A, C and D.

[3]
(c) In this question, one mark is available for the quality of written communication.
Describe how the heart beat is initiated and how the contractions of the four
chambers are coordinated.
(Allow one and a half lined pages).

[7]
[Total 18 marks]
117
Regulation and control.
Homeostasis.
 It is the maintenance of a constant body environment.
Control mechanism of feedback.
 Reference point-the set level where the system operates.

 Detector –signals the extent of any deviation from the reference point.
 Controller.- coordinates the information from various detectors and sends out instructions
which will correct the deviation.
 Effector.- brings about the necessary change needed to return the system to the reference
point
 Feedback loop- informs the detector of any in the system as a result of action by the effector.
Input detector effector output
Feedback loop
Negative feedback.
 The detectors pick up the connected change and this causes them to send impulses to the
controller which bin turn sends an impulse to the effector instructing it to stop correcting the
changes. This causes the system to be turned off.
Positive feedback.
 It is when a disturbance occurs in a system which set in motion events which will increase the
disturbance even further.E.g. During labor, oxytocin is secreted causing contractions to
increase.
118
Homeostatic functions of the liver.
Functions of the liver.

 Carbohydrate metabolism
 Detoxification.
 Deamination, transamination.
 Fat metabolism(β oxidation)
 Storage of blood /protein / vitamin and minerals
 Breakdown of red blood cells.
 Breakdown of hormones and their production.
 Production of heat / bile / plasma protein.
 Cholesterol production.
Carbohydrate metabolism.
119
 The liver can add glucose to the blood by :
 Breaking down glycogen ( glycogenolysis)
 Converting protein into glucose (glyconeogenesis)
 It can also remove glucose from the blood by converting it into glycogen.(glycogenesis)
 Within the pancreas are islets of Langerhans and there r=are two types of cells within the
islets of Langerhans which are α-cells and β-cells. α cells produce glycogen and β -cells
produce insulin.
 The blood capillaries from the intestines unite to form the liver. Insulin from the pancreas
causes excess glucose to be converted to glycogen-6-phosphateand ultimately glycogen in
the liver stores.
 Should the level of glucose fall to below normal in the hepatic portal vein, the liver
reconverts some of its stored glycogen to glucose with the involvement of the
phosphorylase enzyme in the liver which is activated by glycogen.
 If he glycogen is exhausted in the liver the level of blood glucose is detected by the
hypothalamus which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce adrenocortiotrophic
hormones (ACTH) which causes the adrenal glands to release the glycotycoid hormones e.g.
cortisol.
 These cause the liver to convert amino acids and glycerol into glucose.
Summary of carbohydrates metabolism.
INTESTINES
Excess glucose glycogen glycogen glucose
LIVER
INSULIN (β-cells) GLUCAGON (α-cells)
Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
Lipid metabolism.
 Lipid entering the liver may either be broken down or modified for transport to storage
areas elsewhere in the body.
120
 Excess carbohydrates are converted to fat, cholesterol and phospholipids are removed from
the blood or breaking them down, synthesizing them to produce globulins to transport lipid.
Deamination.
 The body is unable to store absorbed amino acids and those not immediately required for
glyconeogenesis are delaminated.
 This is the removal of an amino group (NH3) with the simultaneous oxidation of the
remainder of the molecule to form a carbohydrate which is utilized in respiration.
 The amino group is removed along with the hydrogen atom so that the nitrogenous product
of deamination is ammonia.
R R
2NH2 C COOH + O2 2C COOH + 2 NH3
H amino acidoxygen O ammonia
 Since ammonia is toxic it is converted to urea.
2NH3 + CO2 NH2
C O + H2O
NH2
AMMONIA UREA WATER
Breakdown of erythrocytes/ haemoglobin

 Erythrocytes have a life span of 120days and by this stage they are affected and are
broken down by activity of phagocytic macrophage cells to the reticulo-endothelial
system of the liver spleen and bone marrow.
 The haemoglobin is reduced into its constituent amino acids and enters the liver’s
amino acid pool to be used according to demand.
 The iron is removed from haem and the remaining pyrole rings form a green
pigment biliverctin.
 This is converted to bilirubin which is yellow and a component of bile.
 The accumulation of bilirubin in the blood produces a yellowing of the skin.
Transmission of action potential along a myelinated neuron
121
Active ion transport.
 A model of the sodium and potassium pump a special protein in the membrane activated by
reaction with ATP postulates flip-flop movements transferring sodium ions out across the
the membrane and potassium in.
Facilitated diffusion: diffusion occurs because of the concentration differences generated by active
transport of `ions and cause the membrane to be permeable to Na and K more, K diffuse out than Na
does in.
 The inside of the cell is negative with respect to the exterior and the membrane is said to be
polarized
 The potential difference s the resting potential.
 The K+ are actively transported into the cell i.e. 2K+ into the cell to every 3Na+ transported
out.
 The cytoplasm has a high concentration of potassium ions and a low concentration of
sodium ions.
122
 These gradients are known as electrochemical gradients.
 Because of their electrochemical gradients, sodium ions tend to diffuse back and potassium
ions tend to diffuse out.
 The channel proteins through which diffusion occurs are much more permeable to
potassium ions than sodium ions.
 Due to this and that immobilized very charged protein ions retained inside the cell , the
outside of the cell, contains many more positive ions from inside compared to outside.
 Resting potential does not usually change but change when there is a stimuli and an
impulse is promoted
 The ATP used in setting uop the resting potential provides the energy for the generation of
an impulse.
The impulse
 An impulse or action potential is and local reversal of the resting potential, arising when an
axon is stimulated.
 During an action potential, the membrane potential falls until the inside of the membrane
becomes positively charged with respect to the exterior.
 It changes from about -70mV to + 40Mv at the point of stimulation.
 At the first point the membrane is said to be depolarized.
 The change in potential across a membrane come about causing one of the Na+ and K+
channels to have a voltage sensitive gate.
 The channel open and close with respect to the change in the membrane potential
difference.
 When the gates are closed, there is little ion movement but when open, ions flow through by
diffusion.
 One type of gated channel protein is permeable to Na+ and the other to K= ions.
 During resting potential all gates close.
 As stimulus depolarizes a neuron’s plasma membrane by causing a local increase in
permeability of the membrane, to sodium ions.
 This local depolarization opens the gated sodium channels allowing a large number of
sodium ions to flow down their electrochemical diffusion gradient.
 This causes the interior to be progressively more positive with respect to the outside and
sodium gates are almost instantly closed.
 The gated potassium channels open and potassium flow ions flow out from their
electrochemical diffusion gradient.
 The interior of the membrane starts to become less positive again and the process i.e.
establishing the resting potential.
 The impulse in form of this reversal of charges runs the length of the neuron fibre as a wave
of depolarization.
 The impulse is propagated ( self generated ) by the effect of sodium ions entering .they
create an area of positive charge causing a local current to be set up with the positively
charged region .the impulse lusts for 2milliseconds at each K+ along the fibre before the
resting potential is negatively established.
123
1. During the resting potential, sodium channels and potassium channels are closed
2. Sodium channels open and Na+ rush in.
3. Interior of the membrane becomes increasingly more positively charged with respect to the
outside.
4. Equally suddenly, sodium channels close and K+ channels open causing K+ to flow out.
5. Interior of the membrane now starts to become less negative again.
6. Slight overshoot (more –ve) than the resting potential (hyper polarization)
7. Na+/K= pump working with facilitated diffusion and resting potential is reestablished.
Transmission of nerve impulse
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 Once action potential has been set up, it moves rapidly from one end of the neuron to the
other.
 Two factors are important in determining the speed of conduction.
 Diameter of the axon: the greater the diameter the faster the speed of transmission.
 The myelin sheath: Mylenated neurons conduct impulses faster than non
myelinated ones.
 The myelinated sheath which is produced by the Schwann cells is not continuous along the
axon but is absent I points called nodes (salutatory conduction) increasing the speed with
which they are transmitted.
Transmission of
action potential
along a myelinated
neuron
 The arrival of an
impulse at the
synaptic knob
opens the
calcium
channels in the
presynaptic
membrane
briefly and
calcium ions flow
in from the
synaptic
depth.
 The calcium induces a few residues containing transmitter substance to fuse with the
presynaptic membrane and release their contents in the synaptic depth.
 Once released, the transmitter diffuses across the synaptic depth where t binds with a
receptor protein on the membrane of the post synaptic neuron .The receptor protein
controls a channel in the membrane which when open allows more types of (Na+ & K+) to
pass.
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 When the transmitter substance binds to the receptor it causes the opening of Na+ and Na+
flows in,(an excitatory synapse).The entry of Na+ depolarizes the post synaptic
membrane .If depolarization reaches the threshold level < an action potential is generated
in the post synaptic neuron and travels down the axon to the next synapse or to an end
plate.
 The action of the neurotransmitter does not persist , renewal of neurotransmitter substance
from the synaptic debt (by enzyme action) prevents the continuous firing of the post
synaptic neuron e.g. enzyme choline sterase hydrolyses ACH to choline and ethanoic acid
which are:
Hormones; chemical messenger with following properties.
 Travel in blood.
 Has effect on site other than manufacture called target site / cell.
 Fit precisely into receptor (protein) molecule sites in their target cells through lock & key
hypothesis mechanism.
 Hormones are specific to a particular target.
 Small soluble organic molecules (steroids).
 Effective I low concentration.
126
127
Mechanism of hormone action.
 Presence of specific metabolic e.g. excess glucose; triggers the release of insulin form
pancreas lowering blood glucose level.
 Presence of another hormone in the blood.
 Stimulation by neurons (from automatic nervous system) e.g. adrenalin.
 Release from cells of adrenal medulla by the arrival of nerve impulses (especially in
situation of anxiety, stress and danger.
Qn. Fig. 2.1 shows the changes in membrane potential in an axon during the passage of a single
impulse.
(a) Outline how the resting potential from A to B is maintained. [3]

(b) Describe how the changes in the membrane bring about depolarization from B to C. [3]
(c) Explain how the membrane is repolarised from C to D.
[3]
(d) State three differences between nervous and hormonal communication in mammals.[3]
Solution
(a) 1 reference to Na+/K+ pump;

2 active process/ATP used;
3 Na+ (pumped) out and K+ (pumped) in;
4 high Na+ outside and high K+ inside axon;
5 membrane slightly more leaky to K+/more K+ leaks out than Na+ leaks in/
reference to some K+ channels open;
6 inside more negative than outside; 3 max
(b) 1 reference stimulation;
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2 opening of Na+ channels;
3 Na+ diffuses in (across axon membrane);
4 inside more positive than outside/outside more negative than inside;
potential across the membrane changes; 3 max
(c) 1 reference to closing Na+ channels;
2 opening of K+ channels;
3 K+ diffuses out (across axon membrane);
4 (charge on the K+) restores the membrane/resting potential;
5 reference to slight overshoot/hyperpolarisation;
6 reference K+ channels close; 3 max
(d) 1 electrical vs chemical;
2 (impulses) along nerve cells vs (hormones) through blood;
3 rapid vs slow;
4 response immediate vs relatively slow;
5 responses short lived vs long lived; 3 max
Effects of insulin concentrations.
Shortage -excess- hyper hycaemia
 Comma fainting
 Kidney failure hunger
 Blindness sweating
 Loss of weight irritability
 Tiredness double vision
 Breakdown of muscle tissue convulsions
(1) Describe the role of glucagon in regulating blood glucose. [6]

 when blood glucose levels low ;
 glucagon released from alpha cells (in pancreas) ;
 (acts on) liver (cells) ;
 breakdown of glycogen to glucose ;
 use of fatty acids in respiration ; R fats
 production of glucose from other compounds / fats / amino acids /
 gluconeogenesis ;
 liver releases glucose into blood ;
 glucose levels rise / return to normal ;
 switching off glucagon secretion ;
 antagonistic to insulin ;
Pancreas as an endocrine gland
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130
 The bulk of the cells in the pancreas produce digestive enzymes which are discharged
through the pancreative duct into the duodenum. There however the islets of langerhans
which are endocrine glands
 These consist of the α- cells producing glycogen and β-cells producing insulin.
 Insulin is released in response to rise in blood glucose level and its effect in lowering blood
glucose levels failure to produce insulin causes insulin dependent diabetes.
 If blood glucose levels rise the kidney is unable to reabsorb it leading to diabetes mellitus.
 Glucagon is secreted in response to fall in blood glucose level stimulates the liver to
glycogen to glucose and enhances metabolism of fatty acids from adipose tissue.
Regulation of blood glucose levels.
 Responses to excess glucose.

 In the liver excess glucose is absorbed and converted to glycogen , if rate of glucose
intake exceeds the rate of oxidation or conversion glycogen , glucose level may
temporarily rise (hyperglycemia)
 The raised glucose levels triggers the excretion of insulin by β-cells which promote
uptake of glucose by cells e.g. muscle cells where it is stored as glycogen.
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 The liver continues to take up glucose but converts it to fat/ respires it.
 When glucose level fall back to normal (threshold) insulin production is switched off.
 Circulating insulin is metabolized and removed at the kidneys.
Response to glucose deficiency.
 Hypoglycemia – fall of glucose levels in blood.

 This triggers the secretion of glucagon by α-cells. Glucagon and other hormones e.g.
adrenalin stimulates the conversion of glycogen, amino acids to glucose in the cells all over
the body and liver cells , hormones the cell membrane and glucose regulation.
Insulin.
 Once it’s bound to its receptors , makes cells more permeable to glucose by increasing the
number of glucose pump protein molecules active in plasma membrane .It also enhances
the rate at which glucose is respired. it also activates the main enzyme responsible for the
conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogen sythetase) , hence glucose levels are
maintained at threshold.
Glucagon.
 Once bound to its receptors it stimulates the enzyme responsible for glycogen breakdown
(glycogen phosphorylase).
 It also the conversion of lipids and amino acids to glucose in the liver. The liver quickly
therefore becomes a net exporter of glucose and the glucose levels rise.
 A kidney contains nephrons which are tubular in nature and each nephron begins as a
hollow shaped renal capsule (Bowman’s capsule) in the outer part or cortex of the kidney.
 Next to the Bowman’s capsule is the proximal convoluted tubule which leads to the loop of
Henle.
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 The loop leads to the distal convoluted tubule and finally into the collecting duct.
 Several nephrons feed into the same collecting duct and all the collecting ducts eventually
drain into the pelvis of the kidney from where the urine flows into the ureter.
 An Afferent arteriole brings blood towards renal capsule dividing to form a network of
capillaries n the glomerulus in the hallow of the capsule.
 The blood leaves the capillaries in the efferent arteriole divides to form capillaries which
run alongside at around the nephron before joining together to form venules which carry
blood into the renal vein.
The nephron
 There are two types of nephrons differing in both their position in the kidney and in the
length of the loop of Henle.
 Cortical nephrons occur largely in the cortex have short loops of Henle , just reaching the
medulla.
 Juxtamedulary nephrons are in the cortex close to the junction with the medulla. They have
long loops of Henle that extend deep into the medulla.
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 The renal capsule consist of a bind ending tube which invaginates to form the Bowman’s
capsule enclosing the glomerulus which consist of capillaries originating from the Afferent
arterioles and rejoining to form the Efferent arteriole.
 The capillary walls are made of a single layer of endothelial cells with openings and are
present up against a basement membrane which completely envelopes each capillary
forming the only continuous structure separating the blood in the capillary the lumen of
Bowman’s capsule .
 The inner layer of the B’s capsule is composed of podocytes and these resemble starfish in
having arms (primary processes) which gives off structures resembling tube feet secondary
or foot process.
 The foot support te basement membranes and capillary beneath it and gaps between the
foot process- slit pores facilitate process filtration.
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Proximal convoluted tubule.
 Comprises of a single layer of epithelial cells with numerous microvilli forming a brush
border and is the longest region of the nephrons.
 The base of each cell is convoluted where its adjacent to a capillary and are numerous
intercellular spaces and have a large # of mitochondria, providing ATP for active transport.
 Amino acids, glucose & ion diffuse into cells of the proximal convoluted tubule and these
are actively transported into the intercellular spaces from where they diffuse into the
surrounding capillaries.
 The active uptake of Na+ and anions e.g. a rise of osmotic pressure causing the H2O
entrance by osmosis. Proteins of small molecular mass which may have been forced out of
the blood in the B’s capsule are taken up by pinocytosis therefore the tabular filtrate is
isotonic with blood in the surrounding capillaries.
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Loop of Henle.
 It is made up of two regions, the descending narrow limb readily permeable to water and an
ascending wide limb for less water permeability.
 Na+ and Cl- are pumped out of the ascending limb creating a high solute concentration in
the interstitial region since the descending limb is permeable to water and is carried away
in the blood via the Vesa Recta.
 As glomerula filtrate enters the descending loop it progressively loses water and so
becomes more concentrated. It reaches its max concentration at the tip of the loop because
as it moves up the ascending limb, ions are removed making it less concentrated.
 Water too is drawn from the collecting duct. Urine is progressively more concentrated as it
moves out of the nephrons. The water which is drawn out passes into the blood of the Vesa
Recta which both slow flowing and freely permeable which aids the uptake of water.
Qn. Explain the role of the Kidney in Osmoregulation. (7)
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Ecology
Is the study of organism with in their environment, including the way in which organisms interact
with each other & the non living part of the environment
Terms used in ecology.
1. Habitant
 The place where organism live e.g. a pond.
 The term habitant is often used to mean the kind of place in which a particular species of
organism can live, such as the range of pH of the water & the range of dissolved oxygen
concentration in which it is found.
2. Population
 Refers to all the organism of one species that live in the same place at the same time, make
up a population on that species.
 A population is a breeding group or it includes all the individuals of that species which can
interbreed with each other.
 The population of dark weed is made up of the entire dark weed found in the pond.
 A group of organisms of one species occupying defined area & usually isolated to some
degree from other similar to groups.
3. Community
 All organisms of every species in a habitant. Communities may remain fairly stable over a
period of time or may be in a progress of gradual change (succession).
 Eventually, succession may result in the formation of a stable community known as climax
community.
 Any group of organism belonging to a number of different species that co- exist in the same
habitant/ area & interact through trophic & spatial relations.
4. Ecosystem.
 The biotic community & its abiotic environment.
 It is a self contained unit.
 A community of organisms & their physical environment interact as an ecological unity.
5. Niche
 Is a place which is occupied by particular organisms in an environment &its role in that
environment?
 With in an ecosystem each species of organisms plays a particular role.
 The term niche is used to describe this role.
 An organism niche has many aspects.
 It includes what the organism eats, how it captures its food, what eat it, the secretory
material produces & so on behavior.
 Within a community, each species has a niche which differs in at least some ways from the
niches of all the other species in the same community. They will be competition for
available resources.
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Flow of energy
 Living cells require energy for many purposes which are locomotion , growth& e.t.c
 The immediate source of energy is almost ATP which is produced for respiration.
 Respiration transfers energy from other organic molecules such as glucose to ATP
molecules.
 The energy in these organic molecules can be thought as organic chemical energy.
 There are 3 types of chains.
 A food chain is a sequence of series of organisms feeding on one another.
Grazing food chain
-this is based on living plants
Grass cow lion decomposition.
 Produces of the first level, they receive max energy which is able to sustain a large number
of organisms.
 They are autotrophic organism, e.g. grass , leaves
 Primary consumers : food directly on producers , these are herbivores
 Secondary consumers: feed on herbivores usually carnivores.
 Tertiary consumers: can be omnivores, herbivores or carnivores.
 Decomposers: they feed on susprofitic organisms
Detrital food chain
This is based on dead plants materials
Grass earth worms shrew.
Food web
Is a group of interconnected food chains because there are sustaining organisms which do not
depend on one type after food?
Parasitic food chain
Rose bush aphids spider insect bird lawks.
 At each stage in the food chin energy containing materials are transformed.
 The stage of the food chain is reorganized as feeding levels or trophic levels.
 Most food chain with other chains, since most organisms are the prey of more than one
predator.
 Only a small portion of the energy containing materials obtained by a consumer as it feed
becomes built into the organism itself.
 This is partly because most of the food is undigested & partly because most of the
remainder is used to provide energy for processes e.g. movement, digestion, excretion &
reproduction.
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 More energy is lost & the last receive a small amount of energy.
 Shorter food chain – more energy is required by the last feeding level.
Qn. Describe how energy flows in an ecosystem. [8]
-source of energy, the sun
-sun to plants/producers
-conversion of light to chemical energy
-from plants/ producers to primary consumers
-examples of a food chain
-secondary to tertiary consumers
-loss of energy at each tropic level/loss as heat/ respiration /excretion/egestion to the atmosphere
-dead and waste material to decomposers/destritus feeders to the atmosphere
-unidirectional flow of energy.
The carbon cycle.
 The main carbon source for living organism is the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere /
dissolved in surface waters.
 Plants, algae & blue/ green take carbon dioxide from the air & Inco-operate the carbon atom
into carbohydrates & later other organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis.
 This conservation of carbon dioxide is photosynthesis & counter balance release of carbon
dioxide in respiration is an important mechanism helping to maintain the balance of natural
carbon cycle.
 However , not all carbon dioxide fixed is retained into the atmosphere by respiration in
anaerobic environment such as water logged soils at the bottom of still waters with poor
illumination decomposition is very slow & organic mater accumulate .
 These accumulating pit deposit & organic sediments may in the very long term generate
new fossil fuel deposits
 Combustion of any of these carbon containing materials, trees or other plants, pit or fossil
fuel releases the carbon dioxide in the air.
 In oceans, the main removal mechanism taking carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, either
directly from the water or by respiration.
 However, as in temesha ecosystems, some carbon dioxide is locked away for a longer time
such as when marine organism from carbonate iron rocks such as limestone.
 Another factor contributing to the rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide has been the
clearance of forests.
 A net users of carbon dioxide , trees make a major contribution to the reduction of
atmospheric carbon dioxide especially in tropical rain forest , where wet , hot conditions
through out the year favor , rapid photosynthesis.
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 When these organism die, their shells fall to the sea bed,.
 Huge deposits of such shells built up over 1000 of years forming limestone rocks.
 Earth movement may carry theses rocks deep into the earth from where the carbon atoms
have been returned to the atmosphere volcanic eruption which release carbon dioxide.
 Alternatively, the rocks may be lifted above sea level where they become exposed to air,
rain which to slightly acidic react with the carbon dioxide in limestone rocks& releases
carbon dioxide.
The Nitrogen cycle.
 Nitrogen in the atmosphere is very insert & it takes place a lot of energy to split it, the bonds
in the molecule so that it can form other compounds such as nitrates & nitrites.
 Nitrogen is an essential component of biological molecules such as protein & DNA
 The only organism capable of splitting nitrogen are few bacteria & algae .they use it form
nitrites & nitrates, a process known s nitrification
 This is the major way in which nitrogen enters the biotic component of the ecosystem.
Nitrogen fixation.
 Is energy consuming process (endothermic reaction) because the two nitrogen atoms of
the nitrogen molecules must be separated?
 Nitrogen fixers achieve this by using the enzyme nitrogenase & energy from ATP.
 Non enzymatic separation requires the much greater energy of industrial process / of
ionizing radiation
 There is no counter balancing removal mechanism taking industrial / fixed nitrogen back to
the atmospheric reserver pool.
 A regulation n small amount of nitrogen ( 5- 10 %) is formed by ionizing events in the
atmosphere , the resulting nitrogen oxides dissolve in the rain forming nitrites
 The legumes such as clover, soya beans & peas are probably the greatest natural sources of
fixed nitrogen.
 Their roots possess character swellings called nodules which caused by colonies of nitrogen
fixing bacteria living within the soils.
 The relationship is mutualistic because the plant gain fixed nitrogen in the form of ammonia
from the bacteria & in return the bacteria gains energy and certain nutrients such as
carbohydrates from the plant.
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 Legumes can contribute as much as 100 times more fixed nitrogen than free living bacteria.
 All nitrogen fixers Inco-operate nitrogen into ammonia but this is immediately used to
make organic compounds mainly proteins.
Qn. Describe the role played by microorganisms in the Nitrogen cycle [6]
Emphasis should have been placed on specific organisms and the part they play in the Nitrogen cycle.
The following points are expected:
-saphrophytic bacteria/ fungi feed on dead organisms or waste/ decompose dead organisms or
waste
-releasing ammonium compounds /ammonia

141
-nitrifying bacteria/ nitrosomonas
-oxidize ammonia or ammonium compounds to nitrates.
-oxidation of nitrates to nitrates by free-living bacteria/ nitrobacter/ nitrococcus
-nitrigen fixing bacteria/ rhizobium/ mutualistic bluegreen bacteria/ nostoc/ free- living green
bacteria/ Azotobacter/ clostridium
-convert (gaseous) nitrogen into ammonia/nitrates
-denitrificans
-converts nitrates (in the soil)into gaseous nitrogen.
Pyramid of numbers.
It presents the number of organisms in each trophic level.
Inverted pyramid of numbers
 The producer is a single plant e.g. sycamore which is affected by parasites such as
caterpillars which are parasitized by protozoa.
Pyramids of biomass.
 Fresh mass of all the organism in that trophic level is called biomass.
 We can have inverted pyramids in specific seasons.
 At certain times of the year the biomass of the timing herbivores that floats in lakes oceans
may exceed the biomass of tiny photosynthetic phytoplankton on which they feed.
142
Pyramid of energy.
 There is energy loss at each feeding level such that there is no inverted pyramid of energy.
 Some of the energy is lost through respiration & excretion & egestion.
How fossil fuels may affect the environment
 Almost all air pollutants are gases from burning of fossil fuel.
Smoke
 Is tiny particles of sooth (carbon) suspended in the air, which are produced from fossil fuels,
particularly coal & oil.
It has a number of harmful effects.
1. When breathed in, smoke may blacken the alveoli, causing damage to their delicate
epithelical lining, it also aggravates respiratory aliments e.g. bronchitis.
2. While it remains suspended in the air, it can reduce the light intensity at ground level. This
may lower the overall rate of photosynthesis.
143
3. Deposits of smoke / more particularly soot may coat plant leaves, reducing photosynthesis
by preventing the light penetrating, by blocking the stomata.
4. Smoke, soot & ash become deposited on clothes, cars & buildings. These are costly to clan.
Sulphur dioxide
 It may increase soil fertility in areas where sulphates are deficient / even help to control
diseases such as black spot of roses by acting as a fungicides , it’s affect concentration are
largely harmful.
1. It causes irritation of the respiratory system & damage to the epithelical lining the alveoli; it
can also irritate the conjunctiva of the eye.
2. It reduces the growth of many plants e.g. barley, wheat, lettuce, while other such as lichens
may be killed, sulphur is soluble in water. The sulphurous & sulphuric acid. The rainfall
therefore has a low pH & is known as acid rain, lakes in the region affected by acid rain are
extremely acidic & many species with in them have been killed.
Carbon dioxide
 Carbon dioxide is transparent to incoming short wave radiation from the sun but absorbs
strongly long wave radiation which the air re- radiates into space therefore traps going
radiation warming the lower atmosphere which in turn radiates energy back to the surface
of the earth .
 The rise in temperature i.e. so called green house effect will cause the expansion of the
oceans & gradual melting of the polar ice caps, with consequent rise in sea level.
 This would in turn cause flooding in low lying land, upon which it happens, many of the
world’s capital cities lie.
Carbon monoxide.
 (Co) occurs in exhaust emission from cars & other vehicles.

 It is poisonous on account of having an affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen.
 Upon combining with hemoglobin it forms a stable compound which is prevents oxygen
combining with it.
 Continued inhalation leads to death as all hemoglobin combine with carbon monoxide,
leaving non transport oxygen.
 In small concentration it may cause headaches.
Nitrogen oxides
 Nitrogen oxides e.g. nitrogen dioxide are produced by the burning of fuels in car engines &
emitted as exhaust.
 In themselves, they are poisonous, but importantly, they contribute to the formation of the
photochemical smog.
 Under certain climatic conditions pollutants become trapped close to the ground.
 The action of sunlight on the nitrogen oxides in these pollutants cause them to be converted
to peroxacyl nitrate (PAN).
144
 The compounds are much more dangerous causing much more damage to vegetation & eye
lung irritation in man.
Lead
 Most lead in the air is emitted from car exhaust.

 Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is added to petrol as anti knock agent to help it to burn more evenly
in car engine.
 The lead absorbed by the lung could have the following adverse effects.
1. Digestive problem e.g. intestinal colic.
2. Impering the functions of the kidney.
3. Nervous problem including convulsion.
4. Brain damage & mental retardation in children.
 Anti knock agent which do not contain lead exist & in some countries legislation permits
only this time.
 They are however, most expensive & cause an increase in the actual cost of petrol.
Methods of controlling air pollution.
1. Use of non lead & anti knock & the removal of pollution such as sulphur before smoke is
emitted from the chimney by passing the smoke through a spray of water at which much of
the sulphur dissolves.
2. Use of electric cars is a further means of limiting air pollution.
3. Using catalytic converters to make sure that there is complete combustion.
4. Using other forms of fuel which do produce the gases e.g. methane
How deforestation may affect the environment.
1. There is lost of traditionally harvested products such as timber, poles fire wood, twine,
fruits, honey game animals & herbs that at one time supplied local people with their need.
2. The demand for soft wood for building, pulp wood & tropical hard wood is rising
globally .long term suppliers are threatened.
3. If forest canopy is removed, the tropical soil surface backs hard in the intense heat;
4. More rapid run off
5. rainfall cannot easily penetrate the surface runoff.
6. More rapid runoff of water results in soil erosion. This can remove the topsoil & leave the
ground unsuitable for growing crops.
7. It can also lead to silting of reservoirs which reduces their useful life , whilst habbers
8. Deforestation increase global warming carbon dioxide which may have long term effect on
the global climate (green effect).
9. This may result in seasonal drift & flooding in some area.
10. Reduces transpiration
11. Leads to less rainfall, atmospheric moisture/ droughts/ desertification
12. Forest have species rich & diverse wild life communities , their destruction will lead to
enumerable extinctions of little known forms of life with the consequent loss of genetic
variety & potential resources.
145
Measures
1. Practicing re- forestation & afforestation.

2. Using other sources of fuel instead of wood e.g. nuclear fuel, wind & water.
3. Electrify rural areas.
Qn. Discuss the Conservation of the African elephant, L. Africana and African cyclotis, with
regard to population numbers, reasons of concern, measures introduced and international
co-operation. [8]
On population
-no serious predators except man
-poaching main problem
-dropped (from +1.0 million to +500 000)
Reasons for concern
-elephant compete with man for land used in agriculture/forestry/settlement/ destruction of

vegetation by elephants
-elephant killed for ivory
-mostly males for bigger tasks
Measures introduced
-ban elephant poaching
-sustainable management programme
-culling
-ref to camfire
-ban on illegal trade of elephant products (by CITES)
International co-operation
-ref CITES difficult for all countries to agree on total ban/ culling measures/ sale and marketing of
animal products
-ref to tourism and conservation agreements between countries.
Endangered species – any species whose numbers have become so low that they are unlikely to be
maintained by normal rates of reproduction and are in danger of becoming extinct.
Biodiversity
146
 The biodiversity of the planet is the result of evolution. In any ecosystem, there is a huge
interdependence between species and it is clear that biodiversity is essential to maintain
ecological balance and stability.
 Another part of biodiversity is the extent of genetic diversity with species and populations.
Such genetic diversity is also essential for the stability and survival of a species.
The Need to maintain Biodiversity
 Biodiversity is in decline – mostly as a result of a variety of man’s activities. It is now well
understood that it is important to try and halt this decline – indeed, conservation measures
are needed, not only to halt the decline, but to try and restore as much biodiversity as
possible.
 The need to maintain biodiversity may be considered in terms of biological reasons or
reasons from a human perspective :
Biological reasons
 As mentioned above, it is essential that biodiversity is maintained if ecosystems (and the
whole planet) are to remain ecologically balanced and stable.
 In addition, evolution has resulted in diverse gene pools within populations – the
maintenance of these gene pools and the genetic diversity of species is extremely important
if species are to be prevented from becoming extinct.
Human reasons
 Other species of animals and plants provide an important resource for humans.
 These may be
i. For use in agriculture, either as potential food supplies or to be crossed with
ii. existing agricultural species to improve features, such as yield, hardiness or
iii. disease resistance.
iv. To provide possible medicines
v. To encourage tourism in some countries - ecotourism
vi. From an ethical point of view, if human activity has been largely responsible for the decline
in biodiversity, then humans have an obligation to reverse this decline. Equally, it is
important to try and maintain the current level of biodiversity for future generations.
Reasons why species have become endangered

• In African ecology, the elephant is regarded as a keystone species. In 1930 there were
estimated to be 5 – 10 million African elephants. By 1979 the number was reduced to 1.3
million and when it was officially added to the endangered list in 1989, the numbers had
fallen to around 600,000 - less than 10% of its numbers earlier in the twentieth century.
• A number of factors contributed to this dramatic decline in numbers:
Habitat loss – elephants eat a great deal and need a large amount of habitat.
• During the twentieth century, the human population of Africa has increased massively and,
as a result, humans and elephants have become competitors for living space. The forest and
savannah habitats of the elephant have been reduced as humans have used timber for fuel
and building and land for growing crops and grazing livestock.
• When humans and elephants live in close proximity, various problems arise – elephants
raid crops and, on occasion, will rampage through villages. Farmers and other residents
regard them as something of a pest and shoot them.
147
Hunting – this has been a major cause of the decline in elephant numbers.
• Elephants became prized trophies for big-game hunters and, more recently, they have been
killed for their ivory tusks. Ivory is easily caved and regarded as a beautiful material
• most of the ivory carving in the world takes place in Japan and other countries in Asia. At
one stage, ivory was more expensive than gold – indeed, it became known as ‘white gold’.
• Hunting continues for the global ‘bushmeat’ trade
• (see http://www.bushmeat.org/IMAP/species/L_africana.htm ).
Poaching – it is no longer legal to hunt elephants in most African countries. However, the high
prices paid for ivory meant that elephants continued to be killed by poachers.
• At its peak, the poachers became highly organised, using automatic weapons, vehicles and
even planes to herd and kill huge numbers at a time. The biggest elephants were usually
targeted (because they have the largest tusks) which meant that it was generally the adults
that were killed, leaving young elephants without any adults to learn from. As a result,
• the social structure of the elephant populations broke down and many of the elephant
groups left were leaderless juveniles.
African elephants - summary

• IUCN Red list status = vulnerable
• CITES Listing Appendix I except Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and
Zimbabwe, Appendix II
• Habitat loss – competition between humans and elephants for space, trees
and grazing leading to loss and fragmentation of the elephant habitat
• Hunting and poaching – for trophies, ivory, protection of villages and for
Bushmeat
Methods of protecting endangered species

• There are a variety of ways in which attempts are being made to protect endangered
species and prevent them becoming extinct.
• The extent to which these attempts are successful is somewhat variable.
Zoos
• One way of protecting endangered species of animals is to capture some from the wild and
place them in captivity.
• In this way, it is possible to make sure that they are well fed, protected from predators and
disease and isolated from other potential problems which might be encountered in their
natural habitat.
• If such animals are simply placed in zoos, the zoo is really acting as an ‘ark’ and little is
actually being achieved in terms of maintaining or increasing populations in the wild.
• If the animals will breed in captivity, then it is possible to maintain or even increase
numbers.
• If such captive-bred individuals can be returned to their natural habitat, then it might be
possible to increase numbers in the wild, thereby preventing the endangered from
becoming extinct.
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Captive breeding has a number of advantages:
• it is possible to monitor the health of the mother and the development of the
• fetus during the pregnancy.
• sperm and eggs can be obtained from the captive individuals
• these can be stored in a frozen form
• it allows the possibility of artificial insemination
• also in-vitro fertilisation
• fertilised embryos may be implanted in surrogate mothers (which might even
• be of different species)
• there is the possibility of international co-operation and the transfer of breeding individuals
between different zoos
• it allows the keeping of breeding records and the genetic relatedness of captive individuals
Although some species of animals have been bred successfully in captivity and released back into
the wild, with other species this has not been straightforward and a number of problems have been
encountered. It has been found that some species simply do not breed successfully in captivity,
whilst, in some cases, there have been problems in releasing animals that have bred in captivity.
Captive Breeding
There are a number of reasons why animals do not always breed successfully when in captivity:
1 They are no longer living in their natural habitat
2 The conditions experienced in captivity can cause stress and behavioural changes
3 The stress can disrupt normal reproductive cycles and breeding behaviour
4 They often have little choice of mate and may reject the chosen mate
Release of captive-bred individuals into the wild

Problems which reduce the success rate of releasing captive-bred individuals
include :
1. Habitat destruction (usually as a result of man’s activities) might mean that there is very
little suitable habitat available in which to release the animals
2. Having been in captivity, animals might not find it easy to move around in their natural
habitat
3. It may not be easy for them to find enough food – especially if they have been used to being
fed in captivity
4. They may not be able to communicate with other members of their species in the wild and
may not integrate into social groups
5. They may be susceptible to diseases in the wild Some of these problems are being overcome
by making sure that conditions within zoos are as close to the natural habitat of the species
as possible. Contact with humans is kept to an absolute minimum and individuals can be
‘acclimatised’ in cages before they are actually released into their natural habitat.
Botanic gardens
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• Endangered species of plants can be grown in botanic gardens. Clearly, it ispossible to
create ideal growing conditions – either outdoors or in glasshouses, when it is possible to
control very carefully the growing conditions.
• This applies to the availability of light, nutrients, water and the atmospheric conditions.
Within such botanic gardens,
• it is also possible to propagate endangered species
– either by growing from seed or by some means of vegetative propagation, such as cuttings.
Techniques of tissue culture also allow large numbers to be produced very quickly.
• This allows the possibility of re-introducing endangered species of plants into their natural
habitat.
Seed banks
• Many plants produce seeds which are very long-lived and large numbers can be stored in a
relatively small space. Such a collection of seeds is referred to as a seed bank. The life span
of such seeds can be extended if they are kept in carefully controlled conditions – especially
in an atmosphere of low oxygen levels, moisture and temperature.
• Given that the seeds will contain all the genetic material of any given species, italso means
that the gene pool of that species is being maintained.
• Clearly, if the seeds of endangered species are stored in this way, such seeds can be
germinated at any time and plants can be grown in Botanic gardens or restored to the wild.
• Some species produce seeds which have a limited longevity (e.g. cocoa, rubber,coconut) –
keeping their seeds in seed banks is not possible. Such plants would need to be maintained
in botanic gardens.
http://www-saps.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/osmos/os24.htm http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/msbp/
National Parks (and other protected areas)

• Many countries have designated areas, such as National Parks, which are set up to conserve
rare / endangered species and maintain important habitats.
• Often, legislation is passed to ensure that such areas are protected under the law.
• The ways in which National Parks protect their resident species include :
1. Wardens, rangers and volunteers can be used to patrol the parks
2. Access by humans can be restricted – often footpaths are created and maintained to avoid
interference with wildlife habitats
3. Agricultural activities can be strictly controlled – traditional farming methods can be encouraged
4. Industrial activities and mining can be limited and controlled
5. The building of roads, dwellings and other developments can be strictly controlled
6. Visitor Centres can be established to educate the general public in the importance of
conservation within the Park – and elsewhere
7. Wildlife can be protected directly e.g. 24 hour surveillance of nests /breeding sites
In addition to National Parks (which usually occupy large areas of land), different countries can also
create other categories of conservation areas if they contain species or habitats which need some
form of protection
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http://www.wcmc.org.uk/protected_areas/data/sample/iucn_cat.htm
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DIVERSITY OF ORGANISMS
CLASSIFICATION
 -Grouping things together on the bases of features they have in common.

 -the science of classification is called texchomy and is divided into two branches
(i) Nomendature: Naming of organisms
(ii) Systematics: Grouping of organisms
 -Biological nomandature is based on the binomial system

 -Each organism has two names- Latin names
*A generic (genus) name beginning with a capital letter and a specific name (Species) with a lower
case letter
 Italics of wed to indicate Latin names or they can be underlined.
Taxonomy Hierarchy
1) Kingdoms (5) dissimilar increases King
2) Phylum Philip
3) Class Came
4) Order Over
5) Family For
6) Genus Great
7) Species Soup
Increasing seminaries
N.B* Features that a unique on a certain group are called diagnostic features
SPECIES
 Is a group of closely related organisms capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring?

 Each species possesses its own distinct structural behavioral and ecodogical xtics.
 As we progress up with the taxonomy hierarchy the number of similarities between
members of each group decreases.
Artificial vs. Natural Classification
 An 11 classification is based on one or a few easily observable xtenstics
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 Artificial classification doesn’t take into account important natural relationships e.g. all
small organisms at can only be viewed by a microscope are called microorganisms+, fresh
H20 organisms marine e.t.c
 A natural classification tries to use natural relationships between organisms
 It considers more evidence an artificial including internal as well as external feature.
 Uses similarities of embryology, morphology, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, cell
structure and behavior
 Most classification that are used today are natural and phylogenetic
Phylogenetic Vs Phonetic Classification
 Is based on evolutionary relationships.

 In the system organisms belong to the same group are believed to have a common ancestor
 A phylogeny is shown by means of a family tree (family tree)
PHENETIC
 Based on the observable xtics (phonetic similarity) and cell xtics observed are of equal
importants.
Specimen Identification and Key
A key
 Is a convenient way / method of enabling a biologist (like me) to identify on organism

 The observable feature of an organism (specimen) are listed and compared with the
diagnostic feature of a particular group.
DICHOTOMOUS KEY
 Made up of pairs of statements, called lead numbered 1, 2, 3 e.t.c

 Each lead deals with a particular observable xtics the pairs of statements should be
contrasting / opposite and mutually exclusive
 Xtics should be readily observable morphology features and may be qualitative e.g. shape of
abdomen and color or quantitative, such as number of hairs, legs etc
After each statement there is a number referring to the next lead to is considered if the statement
matches the statement.
Hepatica and Liver warts
Rhizoids are unicellular
*Exam question: To what extent do bryophytes are adapted to life on land
Five Kingdoms
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Living Organisms
Prokaryote Protoctistae Fungi Planate Animaua
(Monera) Piotistae
-Prokaryote -they are unicellular -they are heterotrophic Haplodiploid

multicellular
-Bacteria -they are protozoa -they are haploid and -they are autotrophy motile i.e.
there
-Autotrophic/ -Algae dikaryotic i.e. they are -retains embryo is

locomotion
Heterotypic Ancestors of plants a binucleate within female -

digestion
-they are motile and animals without cilia and sex organ -No cell walls
Or non motile -can photosynthesis euralayotic -they possess
-No member bnd -others are motile -(saprophytic) chlorophyll
Organisms usually corella -spore formation eukaryotic
0,5-10N/m Ambia -Parasitic
-unicellular
-No true nucleus
PLANT KINGDOM
 they are eukaryotic celled

 they are multicellular
 they are sexually reproducing
 Life history involves an alternation of a haploid phase gametophytes with a diploid phase
called (saprophytes).
 they are autotrophic
Alternation of Generations
 A gametophyte produces gametes through mitosis

 Saprophytes through meiosis
 Gametophyte is a flattered structure which can be a thallus or leafy
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 ‘’leaves’’ in three along the stem
Alternation of Generations
GAMETOPHYTE (n)
Sexual stage
Spores mitosis mitosis
Gamete (n) gamete fertilisation
Spare mother cells
2n zygote
Saprophyte
2n (asexual)
PHYLUM BRYOPHTA (bryophytes)
Diagnostic Features
 Alternation of generations in which the gametophyte generation is dominant, they are

primitive
 No vascular tissue
 Body is a thallus
 No ‘’true’’ roots, stem or leaves, Gametophytes anchored by rhizoids
 Saprophyte is attached to the gametophyte and depends on it for nutrition.
 Depends on H2O for fertilization
 Leave main in dumpy shaped places
Two classes of bryophytes
-1st class Hepatica or liverworts i.e. mosses
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Filicinophyta
 Alternation of generation
 Saprophyte is dominant
 Gametophyte is reduced to a small simple piothallus
 *Saprophyte has the roots, leaves, stems with vascular tissue
 leaves are relatively large and are called fiends
 Three classes of them
(i)Lycopsida (club mosses)
 Leaves relatively small and spirally arranged around the stem i.e. (mircophyllous)
 Hamospicious and heterotopous forms
(ii)Sphenoid (horsetail)
(iii)Heropsida (ferms)
 have microphyllus e.g. bracken leaves relatively large and fords

 they are spiral arranged and homosprous around the stem
 Sporangia in clusters called sori e.g. dryoptens filix-mas and ptendium, Also depend on H2O
for fetilisation
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Seed Bearing Plants
*General xtics
 Saprophyte dominant, gametophyte severely reduced-they are heterosporous ie

microspores and megaspores
 H20 is not needed for sexual reproduction
 Complex vascular tissue in roots, stems and leaves
 Two phallus ie phylum coniferephyta (conifers)
(i) Phylum Coniferophyta
 Produces cones on which sporangia, spaces and leaves develop

 seeds are not closed naked ovules
 no fruit since no ovary
 needles like leaves (to think of pine tree) examples pinus sylventis
Phylum Angiospermatophta
 a angiosperms
 produces flowers in which sporangia and seed develop
 seeds are enclosed in an ovary
 after fertilization ovary develops into a fruit
 Two class 1 dicotyledons
2 monocotyledones
1. Dicotyledeons
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 Embryo has two cotyledeons
 net like veins (reticulate venetions)
 ring of vesicular bundles
 primary root persist as tap root
 flowers mainly in fours and fives
 often insect pollinated
E.g.: Prasedus vulgains (beans) Querculus robur oak
Monocotyledeons
 Parallel venetron
 vascular bundle scattered
 Many groups of xylem
 Adventiteus roots from the base of the stem (fibrous root system)
 Embryo has one cotyledone
 No distinct sepals and petals
Eg zeamays Zea mays
Hierarchy
Kingdom - Plantae
Phylum - Angiospermatophyta
Class - Monocotyledone
Oleler - Poales
Family - Glass
Genus - Zea
Species - Mays
158
159
160
KINGDOM ALIMALIA
Phylum Cnideria
 e.g. they are diploblastic (two layers of cells) ectoderm, endoderm

 Show radial symmetry
 “They have mouth but no anus”
 Exhibit polymorphism e.g. polyps and medusa
 asexual reproduction
 e.g. they are accelomate, reproduction is by budding
 e.g. Hydra, Anrelia, (jelly fish), marine animals
Phylum Platyhelminthes
 Flat worms
 Reproduction
 Triploblatic
 Bilateral symmetry
 e.g. they are accelomate
 Have an unsegmented body
 They are daso-ventrally flattened
 Mouth with no anus e.eg. planaric, fasciola, taenia, schistoma
Phylum Nematoda
 ie nematodes or round worms, have narrow bodies

 they are trioblastic and bilateral symmetry
 Pseudocoielomate
 Sepsarate sexes
 round with pointed ends
 thay are also unsegmented
 Have a mouth and anus
 Eg :Ascans Lumbricades
 Phlyum Annelida
 they are tripioblastic
 they are coelamates
 Bileteral symmetry
 they are metametric segmentation
 They are piostamium
 No distinct head
 Eg lumbricus terrstns (earth worm)
Phylum Arthiopoda
 Jointed open and lages

 Triploblastic coelomate
 Metametric segmentation
161
 Classes: 5 classes eg Crustacea (crabs)
 open circulatory system Insecta insects
 Archmida Scorpions
 Example of athropoda magraytona
Phylum Mollasca
 Dosart vesciral humlp (like imba yehozhwa)

 Gelly fish, snails, helix aspesa
Explain to what extent does bryophytes, conferophytes and angiospermatophyta are

adapted to life on land
 To a lesser extend bryophyte are adapted to life on land since

 they form spores
 they have rhizoids in place of roots for anchourage.
 However to a greater extent they are not the since
 they depend on H2O for nutrition ie minerals ions,
 since there is no roots which can scarange for minerals down below.’
 They lack roots, hence they have a limited upward growth
 and they are easily desiccated
Ferns;
 to a greater extent they are adapted to life on land since

 they have true roots for anchourage
 and vascular tissue which suggest adaptation to life on land.
 Gametophyte is reduced since this one depend on H20 showing at strong
sporophyte depended which shows at they reiy on land.
 However to a lesser extent they still depend on H2O for fertilization
Angiospermatophyta and cornferephyta are adapted to life on land
 xylem prvides mechanical support

 Roots for absorbtion,stems and leaves
Seed Bearing
 the gametephyte generation is much reduced and is always protected inside saprophyte
which is adaptation to life on land
 Fertilization is not dependent on H2O, by wind and insects However, true roots enable H2O
in the soil to be reached
 Plants are protected by waxy cuticle to prevent desiccation
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Phylum Mollasca
 Xistic features eg Helix (garden snail)

 Unsegmented bilaterally symmetrical
 Body divided into head,ventral muscular foot
 Dorsal visceral hump
 Heart and open haemocoelic system
 Respiratory pigment usually haemocyanin
 Soft bodied animals
Phylum Echinodemata
 Triobloblastic coelomate
 Water vascular system is a part of the coelam and all marine
 Adults shows pentanerous 5 (Star fish) symmetry
 Sexies are separate and have atube
 Tube feet
 Calcareous-exoskeleton e.g. Starfish
Phylum Chordata
 Tribloblastic coelamate
 Limlos formed from fiam may earn one body segment
 Postannal tail
 Closed bid system
 *e.g cat, iron, human being, panthera leo
 Spinal cord homo sapian sapian
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BIODIVERSITY MULTIPLE CHOICE REVISION QUESTIONS
Q1
Q2
164
Q3
A. Angiospermophyta B. Bryophyta
C. Coniferophyta D. Filicinophyta
Q4
Q5
165
Q6
Q7
Q8
166
Q9
Q10
Q11
167
Q12
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of all chordates?
A. notochord B. vertebrae
C. pharyngeal slits D. postanal tail
168
Explain the advantages of treating diabetics with human insulin produced by genetic
engineering. [6]
 constant/reliable supply all year round/unlimited supply;

 less risk of contamination/infection;
 identical to insulin produced in the body;
 less/no risk of allergic reaction;
 does not stimulate the immune system;
 fewer side effects;
 can be produced without the killing of animals/ethical reason;
 cheaper/easier to extract and purify;
 more available/large amount;
 more rapid response;
Describe the use of recombinant DNA technology in the synthesis of human insulin by
bacteria [9]
 mRNA coding for insulin/isolate gene for human insulin;
 from beta cells of islets of Langerhans/pancreas;
 reference to reverse transcriptase;
 to cDNA;
 reference PCR/DNA polymerase/double strand;
 reference sticky ends/AW;
 use of vector/virus/plasmid;
 reference endonuclease/restriction enzymes;
 to cut plasmid;
 reference DNA ligase to join DNA;
 inserted into suitable host cell/E.coli/bacteria;
 reference method of insertion;
 identification of modified bacteria;
 reference growth/culture of engineered bacteria in fermenters;
169
HUMAN HEALTH DISEASES
The term healthy is difficult to define
 World Health Organisation (WHO) defines healthy as a state of complete physical, mental
and social well being?
 It is more than just the absence of diseases
 Ability to undertake physical and mental task not daily
 Includes personnel behavior
 Linked to happiness and fulfilling life
 Reference to balanced diet
 Ability to combat disease
 Adequate exercise which turns to reduce stress relaxes the mind
 Exercise reduces risk of injury
 Access to proper shelter and good living conditions
To sustain a healthy lifestyle person needs:
 A balanced and varied diet
 Take exercise
 Proper shelter
 Enough sleep
DISEASES
The term Disease is equally difficult to define
 A disease is disorder or malfunction of the body which leads to a departure to good healthy
 Some disease are described as multifunctional if they have many causes
 An acute disease has a sudden onset with rapid changes
 Chronic diseases has effects of long term which continue for months or years
170
Qn
[3]
CATERGORIES OF DISEASES
1. Physical Disease
 Permanent or temporary damage to dry the part of the body

 E.g. leprosy, multiple sclerosis
2. Infectious diseases
 Are caused by pathogens which invades the body

 e.g. STI’s, infuenca, malaria,HIV, measles
3. Non-infectious Diseases
 Any cause other than inversion by an organism/pathogen

 eg stoke,sickle cell, anemia
4. Deficiency diseases
 Poor diet /lack of a particular nutrient in diet

 eg kwashiorkor, marasmus, scuroy, rickets, night blindness
5. Inherited diseases
 Inherited genetic fault

 eg hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, down syndrome
6. Degenerative diseases
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 A gradual decline in the body functions especially due to senescence
 eg C.H.D (coronary heart diseases) cancer, huntington’s (mental disorder)
7. Mental diseases
 Caused by diseases to the mind which may or may not have a physical cause.
 A disease that affects a person’s mind : Thoughts, emotions, memory and personal and
social behaviour May have physical symptoms
 They are two groups viz-ar-viz
1. Nueroses (mild mental diseases) eg claustiophobia, agoraphobia
2. Psychoses severe disorders that prevent people from functioning in a normal way eg manic
depression , schizophienia
8. Social diseases
 Social behavior may predeposing one into developing certain diseases e.g drug abuse
 Social features such as standards of housing , scinilation , pollution contribute to the of
diseases such as are classified as social diseases
 e.g alcoholism,self inflicted disease HIV AIDS
Self inflicted diseases
 With full damage of the body by person own actions or behavior eg attempted suicides,
circumsition,lung cancer, liver cirrhrosis, T.B,HIV
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173
EPIDEMIOLOGY
 Global distribution of diseases

 Study patterns of diseases and various factors that affect the spread of diseases
 Mobility- No of people who are ill
 Mortality Rate- Number of people who have died with a diseases
 Such data are usually expressed as per 10 000 population aged between 35-64
1. Incidents
 The number of people new diseases occurring per week ,per month ,per year
2. Prevalence
 Number of people in population with a disease within any given week,month,year
3. Mortality
 Number of people who have died of a certain disease per month, week, year
 A disease which is always present in a population is described as endemic eg TB
 An epidemic is a disease which suddenly spreads rapidly to affect many people
 Pandemic is a disease which spreads over very large area such as constituent or
whole world eg AIDS and TB
GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF DISEASES
MEASLES TB
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Pevelant in poor countrie Overcrowding
Poor health delievery system Religious beliefs
Overcrowding Access to health facilities
Lack of resources e.g financial resource, to Poor diet
conduct immunization
Religious beliefs Lack of knowledge
Access to health facilities TB is high in HIV prone areas because its an
opportunistic infection
Lack of knowledge
HIV
 No awareness campaigns
 Poverty promotes prostitution , risk sexual behavior
 Lack of entertainment
 Lack of knowledge in terms of safe sex
 Religious beliefs, promotes polygamy
CHD
 Fat deposition genetic factors

 Smoking
 Stress-HBP-STROKE
 Obesity
 HBP(hypertension)
 Nicotine in smoke cause the reduction in size of lumen of the arteries
 CHD are group of diseases that affects the arteries
175
 They are two approaches to help people with CHD
1. Coronary by pass surgery
2. heart transplant
*It is more prevalent in developed countries because:
 Affluence/lifestyle
 Sedentary living/ less exercise
 Obesity
 Eat junk food
 Excessive smoking
Assignment
Questions
1. Healthy is more than just the absence of disease discuss[8]

2. With reference to named dieases dicuss the problem of classifying diseases into different
catergories [4]
3. Discuss the factor that influence the difference in prevalent of disease in developing and
developed countries [4]
DIET
 A balanced diet is one which provides an adequate supply of energy and nutrients needed
for maintaince of the body and for good health
176
 Nutrients that are supplied in large quantities in our diet are called macro nutrients and
those that are needed in smaller quantities eg vitamins and minerals are called micro
nutrients
Components of balanced diet
 Carbohydrates
 Vitamins
 Fats
 Mineral salts
 Proteins
 Roughage and water
 Some nutrients components that can be made by anything else by ourselves and have to be
provided in our diet are
1. Essential amino acids

2. Essential fatty acids
3. Vitamins(Vital amino acids)
Function of Essential Amino acids Function of Essential Fatty Acids

Used to make non-essential acids eg Manufacture of phospholipids which form
phenylalanine is converted to tyrosine, part of the structure of membrane
methylonine is converted to cysteine
Protein sythesis Involved in transport, break down and
excretion of cholesterd
Renewal aging cells and organelles even Linolenic ssociated with atherosclerosis/
when growth is finished reduces rise of
Essential Fatty Acids- fatty acids are included in the diet cannot be made in the body
Functions of Essential Fatty acids
1. Heart attack
 Needed to make non-essential fatty acids
2. Fatty acids
 Used to manufacture prostaglandins
 Needed for development and proper functioning of the retina/brain
Essential amino acids are amino acids which must be included in the diet / cannot be made by the
body/ is too slowl to meet demand
177
178
Functions of Essential Amino Acids
Vitamin A
 Formation of mucous membranes

 Needed for growth
 Formation of retina
Dietary reference Values (DRVs)
179
 DRVs describe the required energy and nutrient intakes in a population
 They follow a normal distribution .
 The estimated average requirement is the population average (EAR)
 The refrence nutrient intake (LRM) provides enough only for a very small proportion of
population
 These values provides useful standards for analyzing dietery surverys and for planning
diets for groups of people
 They are two groups of DRVs:
 Those for enegy and nutrients required per ady and safe intakes
 These are mainly for micro nutrients
 The DRV for energy is EAR , the DRV for protein and most of the micro nutrients are EARs,
RNIs, LRNs.
 Safe intakes are DRVs for two Vitamins ie E& K& several minerals eg flucride
 EAR for energy is given by the formula
 EAR= BMR x PAL
PAL = overall energy used per 24 hrs
BMR in 24 hrs
 Key BMR = Basal Metabolic Rate
PAL = Physical Activity Level
Uses of DRVs
 Provides guide to the adequacy to the individual diet

180
 They are useful information in accessing dietary survey data
 Useful for dieticians for planning meals institutions eg hospitals, schools , military bases, prisons etc
 They help in formulating government food policies
ADVANTAGES OF DRVs DISADVANTAGES OF DRVs

Selling point
Government policy
Basic metabolic rate (BMI)
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182
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
IN HUMANS
 The gaseous exchange system links the circulatory system with the atmosphere
 Adapted to;
 Clean and warm the air that enters
 Maximize surface area for diffusion
 Minimize the distance for diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Lungs are the sites of gaseous exchange where the huge surface area for exchange is due to the
alveoli where the actual gaseous exchange take place
 They are in the chest cavity surrounded by an air tight space between pleural membrane
 Lungs are ventilated with air via trachea and two bronchiole which subdivides extensively
forming bronchioles
 Cartilage keeps these passages open.
 Small bronchioles are surrounded by smooth muscle which contract or relax adjusting the
diameter
 As the air flow through the nose it is warmed and mastered
 Suspended matter carried in the air e.g. bacteria ,dust ,virus are trapped in the hairs inside the
nose and mucous lining the nasal passages
 The mucous is produced by goblet cells of the ciliated epithelium
 The continual beating of cilia the cap pet of mucous upwards where it is usually swallowed
 Macrophages (phagocytes) patrol the surface of air ways scavenging for bacteria and dust
particles
Alveoli
 Are the sites of gaseous exchange

 Have very thin epithelial lining
 Are surrounded by dense capillary network
 Its walls contain elastic fibers which stretches and recoil during breathingin and out
respectively
 The elasticity also allows alveoli to expand according to the volume of air breathed in
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Breathing and Exercise
Vital Capacity
 Is the maximium vlume of air that can be breathed in and then out by lungs
 In young man it is approximately = 4,6 dm3 4,6litres
 In young women = 3,1 dm3 3,1 litres
 ‘’Total Volume’’ Ticlal Volume
 Is the volume of air brerthed in and then out during a single breath
 = 0,5 dm3 of 500cm3
 Residual Volume
 Is the amount of air which in the alveoli and air ways when breathing our =2,5 dm3
 The effect of exercise on breathing is measured by calculating ventilation rate
 This tpis the total volume of air moved into the lungs in one minute and is expressed as dm3 per
minute
 Ventilation rate = total volume x Breathing rate
EFFECTS OF EXERCISE IN THE BODY
Short term Effects

 Increased heart beat
 Increased cardiac output
 Increased breathing rate / ventilation
Benefits of Exercise
 *Cadiovascular fitness
 Decreasing in resting heart rate
 Increase in heart size
 Decrease in blood pressure
 Increase in number and size of mitochondria
 Increase in muscle size
 Improved resistance to infection
 Reduced risk of CHD and stroke
 Improvement in balance, coordination and flexibility
 Losing weight
 Increase in vital capacity ,myoglobin storage in muscles etc
Smoking and Disease
Chronic Bronchitis
 *Tar;
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 Inhibits the cleaning action of lungs
 Stimulates goblets cells to produce more mucous
 Mucous accumulates in the bronchioles
 Dirty and bacteria and virus collect and cause ‘’smokers cough’’
 Mucous glands in the trachea and bronchiole enlarge
 Cilia are destroyed
 Epithelia replaced by scar tissues
 Smooth muscle becomes thicker
 Air ways are blocked by mucous
 Bronchitis usually leads to developed of emphysema.
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Solution
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Solution
Emphysema
 Inflammation in the lungs as a result of chronic bronchitis
 Phagocytes migrate to the inflamed areas from the blood
 They release elastase enzyme which digest protein of connective tissue
 Bronchioles , alveoli lose their elasticity and collapse during inhalation ,exhalation ,trapping air in
the alveoli which often burst
 Large spaces appear were they burst reducing the surface area for gaseous exchange
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 Breathing becomes difficult
 Suffers experience a shortness of breath
 As lung function deteriorates , wheezing occurs
 If no treatment or assistance ensures death
Lung Cancer
 Tobacco smoke contains several chemicals that are carcinogenic
 These cause malignant humours to develop
 As cancer develops metastasis may occur leading to secondary tumours developing in other areas
eg brain, heart
 The main system of the lung is coughing out blood
 The risk of developing lung cancer increases if smokers inhale start young
 25% of smokers die of lung cancer
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DRUGS
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 The term drug is difficult to define
 It might be thought to be ‘’ chemical substance’’ taken in
 to the body or applied to the skin that alter physical or mental function of the body
 Drugs that alter or cause changes in mental state and behavior are called Psychoactive drugs e.g.
LSD, heroin cannabis, alcohol, nicotine
Socially Acceptable and illicit drugs
 Some drugs are widely accepted in all societies because of their medical importance
 These include pain killers, e.g. aspirin , pain ease, brufen, paracete, cafemol, disprin, antibodies
 These are usually available over ‘’counter’’ i.e. they don’t need prescription
 Others are available on prescription or healthy professional
 Others are however illegal because legislation prohibits or use without prescription
 Illicit drugs are considered socially unacceptable due to their harmful effects and addictive
tendencies.
 Socially acceptable drugs are usually determined also by cultural attitudes, however it is difficult to
distinguish between acceptable use and misuse
Exam question; Explain how would you judge whether the drug is socially acceptable or not
DRUG ABUSE
 Can be regarded as misuse or wrong use of a drug for the purposes not intended during the
manufacture production of that drug
 Drug misuse occurs when drugs are taken in hazardous circumstances which are likely to lead
harming the user
Drug Tolerance
 Is the progressive decrease in response to a drug as the body adapts to its presence
 Adaptation may take the form of an increase in receptor sites at synapse or increased rate in
metabolism of the drug
 As tolerance develops an increasing amount of the drug is to be take into achieve the same effects
 Usually it leads to addiction i.e. dependency
Drug Dependence
 Dependence occur when a user experience disturbed physical and or mental functions when a drug
is not taken for some time
 Physical dependence is when a drug is needed for metabolism
 When the drug is no longer taken severe physical withdrawal symptom may occur ensure
 Psychological dependence occurs there is a craving or compulsive desire for the pleasurable effects
of the drug feeling experienced as a result of a drug i.e. getting ‘’HIGH’’ is called Euphoria
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HEROIN
 Is an opiate
 A depressant drug
 Heroin is derived chemically from morphine
 Both are pain killers for terminally ill
 Heroin mimic the activities of enkephalins thus decreasing pain
 Heroin can be smoked, sniffed or injected
 When it is injected the user experience a warm ‘’rush’’ and feels contented and very peaceful-euphoria
Effects of Heroin
 Stomach cramps
 Sweating
 Fever
 Headache
 Nausea
 Running nose and eyes
 Diarrhea
 Dilated pupils
 Insomnia
 Weakness
ALCOHOL
Ethanol
 Ethanol is a small molecule and is soluble in both H2O and fats

 Man have an enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, this lowers OH level in stomach
 Women lack or have smaller quantities
 Oh enters the liver and is metabolized
 It is oxidized to provide energy and to synthesis fatty acids\
Short term effects of OH
 Increases bid OH ‘BAC’

 Depresses brain functions deteriorate
 Decreases coordination, imp erred judgment
 Awkward pasture on walking/ movement/ staggering
 Blurred speech and slurred speech
Long term effect of OH
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 Alcoholic liver diseases/ cirrhosis, hepatitis
 Jaundice may worsen or develop
 Liver function deteriate
 Liver cells hardens
 Malfunction of the brain/ long term deterioration
 Brain cells shrink due to OH induced dehydration
 Loss of short term memory
 Steep disturbed with action of R.E.M(rapid eye movement)
 Karsakoff’s psychosis i.e. loss of memory/ Dementia confusion
 Wernicke’s encephalopathy
 Disturbance of speech
 Degeneration of nerves
 Difficult in movement
 Death
Social Consequences of alcohol abuse
 Jealousy
 Selfishness, anger
 Violence i.e. aggressive behavior
 Grandiose behavior, Neglect of personal appearance.
 Frequency changes of job, Neglect of food intake and families
 Drink and driving crime
INFECTIOUS DIESEASES
CHOLERA
Causes
 Caused by bacterium Vibrio cholera.
 Food borne and water borne.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

 Diarrhea with extras rise water stool.
 Headache, dehydration, drying of skin
vomiting.
 Weakness
Treatment and Prevention

 Oral sugar and salt solution.
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Global Distribution
 Asia, Latin, America, Africa
 Poor sanitary facilities
 Poor healthy delivery systems
 Overcrowding
 Low living standards (poor hygiene)
 Is diagnosed through microscopical analysis of faeces.
Prevention
 Improve hygiene
 Use of heated water
 Warm food
 Covering food
 Seek treatment early
MALARIA
Causes
 Plasmodium vivax and P. falaparum
 Vector mosquito(ANOPHELES)
Signs and Symptoms
 Heading, dizziness
 Nausea, fever, weakness in joints and ankles
 Jaundice
 Large swollen spleen
 Anemia
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Prevention and Treatment
 Chloroquine drug regimes e.g., malaquine, coathermeta

 Fansider
Prevention
 Use of mosquito coils

 Burning of cow dung
 Diagnosed by microscopical examination

TB
Causative agent
 Mycobacterium tuberculosis and mycobacterium bovis

 Spreads through airborne droplets and unpasturised milk
Signs and Symptoms
 Persistent coughing
 Racking cough
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 Coughing blood
 Chest pains
 Shortness of breath, fever, sweating, weight loss i.e. (emaciation)
Treatment and Prevention
 Use the antibodies i.e. drug regimes

 Direct observation treatment start course programme (DOTS)
 This is where by health water responsible family members make sure that patience take
their medicine regularly for six –eight months to prevent TB from becoming resistant
 The emergency of multiple drug resistant forms of TB MBR-TB)
 The emergency of multiple drug resistant has obstructed the TB control programme
 Immunization, vaccination schedule of BCG have been under taken to protect people from
contracting TB
 Another effective method of control is the dual approach of milk pasteurizations and TB
testing of cattle
 Contract tracing-contracts and screened for symptoms of TB infection
GLOBAL DISRRIBUTION
 Generally TB is worldwide but shows greater incidents and prevalence in areas there ir
poor housing, homeless, overcrowded
 Areas such as sub Saharan Africa, some parts of Asia TB prevalence incidence is high due to
the high HIV AIDS prevalence in such areas
 TB is an opportunistic infection
 High in countries with poor diet
 Poor healthy delivery system
 Passage, it can be resistant and if not
HIV AIDS
Causative Agent
 HIV
 AIDS – a set of diseases caused by the destruction of the immune system as a result of HIV infection
METHOD OF TRANSMITION
 Transmitted in certain body fluids i.e. blood, semen, virginal secretions and breast milk, via the
placenta
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
 Flue like symptoms

 Severe weight loss
 Opportunistic infections
 Diarrhea, mental diseases
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TREATMENT AND PREVENTION
 Anti-retroviral drugs therapy (ART)

 Abstinence
 Circumcision opportunistic infections
 Diarrhea, mental diseases
 Use of condoms
 Sticking to one faithful partner
Global distribution
 Generally word wide

 More prevalent in poor countries
 Poverty= religious beliefs
IMMUNITY
 Is the protection against disease provided by the body defency system

 They are two types of immunity
1. Non-specific immunity
2. Specific immunity
 Specific immunity is divided into two i.e. cell mediated and humoral
Defense Mechanisms
 Natural Barriers – Skins, Mucous Linings and Blood Clotting.

 The human body is an ideal incubator for micro organisms. Many live in or on our bodies
(commensals) causing no harm and benefiting. Pathogens are disease causing micro
organisms and enter in two ways, either through the skin or natural opening.
 The skin is an effective barrier due to its thin continuous keratinized layer.
 Micro organisms can be washed off easily and skin can flake off which helps to prevent a
buildup of bacteria.
 Lysozyme in the eyes breaks down bacterial cell walls.
 Invasion only occurs when skin is broken.
Non-specific Immunity
 Skin- Acts as a physical barrier preventing the entry of pathogens

 Mucous lining-Found in stomach lining, respiratory tract epithelium contain antiseptic
agents
 Stomach contains HCL which prevents growth of pathogens, involves phagocytes
Specific Immunity
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 Lymphoid tissue in lymph nodes ,gut, trachea, lungs
 Involves lymphocytes,(T cells and B cells),antibodies and humoral
 Specific to a particular pathogen
 They are two groups of cells
1. Phagocyte
2. Lymphocyte
Stem Cells
Phagocyte
 A continually produced by bone marrow through life time
 They are stored there and leave in blood to be distributed around the body
 They are scavengers and involved in non-specific response
 Neutrophils 60% the white blood cells
 Their number increase rapidly during an infection
 Macrophages circulate in blood and pass into organs e.g. lungs ,liver, spleen, kidney and lymph
nodes
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Lymphocytes
 Are produced before birth and leave the bone marrow to fill the lymphoid system
 They are not phagocytic but secrete antibodies and hormone like cytokines
 They are two types of lymphoid
1. 33T. lymphocyte (T.cells)
2. B. lymphocyte (B.cells)
 Immature T.cells migrate from bone marrow to mature in the thymus gland
 B-cells mature in the bone marrow but leaving to spread through lymphatic system
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 Each cell is genetically programmed to express just one type of specific receptor from it cell
surface
 For every antigen that enters the body they are mature is cells with receptors that will
recognize it
 B cells produce antibodies with specific to particular antigens and some remain as memory
cells
 T cells express specific surface receptors called T cell receptors
 They are divided into two groups
1. T Helper cells that have CD4 receptors ‘’CD4 receptors’’
2. T Cyto-toxic cells CT that have ‘’CD8 receptors’’
Immunity
Active (production of antibodies by the body) Passive (acquires of

antibodies from another source)
Natural Artificial Natural Artificial
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Infection Vaccination Breast feeding Serum
(a) accept first answer that stands in each 4 max

section
active
catch measles / become infected / gain
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antigen;
vaccination; NOT injection(s)
immune response;
memory cells / immunological memory;
max 3
passive
antibodies from mother;
across placenta / in milk / ref to breast
feeding;
antibodies injected;
temporary; max 3
(b) very infectious / spreads easily; 2 max
ref overcrowded conditions;
affects infants, before they can be
vaccinated;
infants often need several boosters;
difficult to reach all infants in time;
difficult to achieve herd immunity;
AVP;; (e.g. risks associated with vaccine,
refusals, ref to cost qualified, shifting
populations, migration, only 95%
effective)
NOT ref to mutation
(c) 1 smallpox virus, was stable / did not mutate;

2 same vaccine was used for whole
3 programme / did not need to be changed;
4 vaccine was live;
5 one ‘shot’ was enough to give life-long
6 immunity / no boosters required;
7 heat stable / freeze dried, vaccine;
8 suitable for, hot countries / isolated areas /
9 rural areas;
10 bifurcated / steel, needle;
11 herd / mass, vaccination / immunity;
12 prevented spread through population;
13 ring vaccination / ref to contact tracing;
14 prevented spread from isolated infected
15 people;
16 few / no, symptomless carriers;
17 no animal reservoir / only in humans;
many people became vaccinators / AW;
ref to surveillance / infected people easy to
identify;
Cell Maturation in the Thymus
 Phagocytosis the thymus
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 During an infection neutrophilis collect at the site of infection
 They are attracted by chemicals released by bacteria and those released by host cells eg
histamine released by mast cells
 This amount of phagocyte is called chemotaxis
 Receptor proteins on neutrophil cell surface bind to the surface compounds on the bacteria
in which bacteria are killed by highly toxic radicals e.g. NO and O2
 Proteases , nucleases and other enzymes digest the rest of the cell
Stages in order
 Attraction
 Recognition and attachment
 Endocytosis
Stages of Phagocytosis
SPECIFIC IMMUNITY
 The specific immunity improves and enhances the activity of the non-specific immunity
 During initial infection some bacteria are ingested by macrophages
 These don’t completely degrade the immunity but cut up surface
 Molecules from bacteria cell wall
 These are later presented as antigens in the grooves within MHC (major His to compatibility
complex) proteins
 This process is known as antigen presentation and the cells that carry out this process e.g.
macrophages are called Antigen presenting cells (APCS)
 During the initial stage of infection there is a small number of T cells with appropriate
receptors
 These are then activated with APCs to divide by mitosis to form a clone
 The clone of The cells secrete cytokines to activate B cells which also have surface receptors
complementary in shape to the antigen presented
 These B cells also divide into clone
 During antigen presentation APC is select the T and B cells which have membrane receptors
that are complementary in shape with to the antigens that they have exposed- this is
known as clonal selection
 As bacteria have many surface antigens APCS will activate many different T and B cells to
give polyclonal response to the infection
 Clonal Expansion by mitosis is necessary to produce large number of lymphocytes which
are able to destroy the pathogen
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HUMORAL & CELL MEDIATED RESPONSE
 Immunity is the action of antibodies released in blood and lymph to act against pathogens
that occupy spaces within the body between cells
 Cyto toxic T cells and macrophages remove pathogens by destroying infected host cells
 T cells activates macrophages and T cells to kill the pathogen such virus, some fungi,
plasmodium, mycobacterium, by secreting/ releasing cytokines- this cell-mediated
response
 There are two systems of immunity in mammals, cell-mediated immune response and
humoral immune response. Both use lymphocytes produced from stem cells in the bone
marrow.
Humoral immune response
 Uses B-lymphocytes produced in the bone marrow, where they also mature.
 There are many different types of B-lymphocytes.
 When a foreign antigen enters the blood it combines with a few B-lymphocytes which then
divide rapidly through mitosis forming a clone of plasma cells. These then produce mainly
antibodies but also memory cells. The memory cells can live for large periods of time,
sometime even for life.
Cell-mediated immune response
 Uses T-lymphocytes which are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus
gland.
 Once matured T-lymphocytes circulate the body in the blood until it meets an antigen it has
the receptor site for. It is then stimulated to divide by mitosis many times forming clones.
 Three types of T-lymphocyte:
o Killer cells – cause lysis of target cells, will destroy virus infected or cancer cells.
o Helper cells – activate B-lymphocytes to produce antibodies.
o Suppressor cells – turn off immune response, e.g. turning off antibody production.
DEFENCY AGAINST VIRUSES
 Soon after inversion by viruses host cells express dusky viral proteins on their cell surface
membranes
 These viral antigen stimulate clonal selection and expansion of T and B cells however the
antibodies produced by B cells are only effective for short time because viruses are not or
don’t stay in blood for long
 T cells stimulate TC cells with receptors specific to the antigens of the invading bacteria to
divide and form clones
 T clone Patel the body searching for viral antigens , they then destroy the infected cells by
injecting toxic chemicals
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 T cells and other cells also secrete the cytokine interpheron which inhabits viral replication
Antibodies and Long term Immunity
 Are globular glycol proteins forming the group of plasma proteins called immunoglobulins
 The basic antibody molecule consists of four polypeptide chains, two long/ heavier chains
and two short/ lighter chains
 The chains are held together by disulphide bridges
 Each molecule has two identical antigen binding sites formed by both light and heavy
chains
 The sequence of amino acids in these regions make a specific three dimensional shape
which binds to one antigen
 The hinge region give the flexibility for antibody to bind around the antigen
 Antitoxins are special groups of antibodies at neutralize the toxins produced by bacteria
 They are different classes of antibodies which have different functions
Functions of antibodies
 Neutralize toxins
 Prevent entry of virus or toxins into cells
 Immobilize bacteria by attaching to flagella
 Agglutinate bacteria by sticking them together into clumps
 Coat bacteria identifying then for Phagocytosis
 They puncture holes on bacteria so that H2O enters by osmosis rupturing the cell
 Inhibits bacteria adhering to host cells
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Antibody molecule
 In Immunological memory
 When antigen is presented for the Pt time , clonnal selection and expansion both take some
time
 Once B cells have differentiated into plasma cells they produce the large antibody
 This is primary response and it lasts several days or weeks
 And the concentration of the antibody decreases as plasma cells stop secreting them,
however memory B cells are left in the body
 If the antigen is reintroduced a few weeks later there is a mark rapid response with a high
concentration of antibody produced. This is secondary response and it occurs more quickly
because body is learned to produce the antibodies
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ACTIVE IMMUNITY & PASSIVE IMMUNITY
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Active Immunity
 Is the production of antibodies and active T cells during a primary immune response to an
antigen that has been acquired naturally by infection or artificially by vaccination
 It gives permanent immunity
Passive Immunity
 Is the introduction of antibodies from another source human or animal

 They can be acquired naturally in breast milk or across the placenta or artificially when
injected to provide immediate protection
VACCINATION
 A vaccine is a preparation containing antigenic material which may be a whole live

microorganism, a dead one a harmless version, a harmless form of a toxin (toxoid) or
surface antigens
 Vaccination tries to maximize the natural immunity offered by infection
 Some vaccines are highly effective and one injection may offer lifetime’s protection
 Less effective one’s need booster injections to stimulate secondary responses
QUESTION; why is it not possible to eradicate small pox and measles and malaria
 Religious beliefs
 Poor response to that vaccine
 Resistance of other people
 Economic and financial problems
 Others are antigenic concealment in host cell
N.B. small pox was eradicated by programmes of surveillance, contact tracing and ‘’ring’’
vaccination
 it was made possible by the use of an effective ‘’life’’ vaccine

 as they was only ne strain of the small pox only one vaccine was needed
 measles , common in developing countries and affects mostly infants
 it is difficult to achieve a wide coverage of vaccination since malnourished children do not
respond well
 Vaccines work by injecting small amounts antigens from a disease into the body. This
triggers an immune response and antibodies are produced. This is the primary response to
an intrusion.
 there was a second intrusion with these antigens it would be vastly quicker due to the
memory cells and the mammal might not even show any symptoms.
 Below is a diagram showing the differences in response time between primary and
secondary response.
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 As you can see from the graph when a new pathogen is introduced into a human it
takes a while before antibodies are produced to combat the pathogen. But once the
pathogen has been combated the first time (primary response) if it enters the same
human again the immune system reacts a lot quicker and produces more antibodies
(secondary response)
Not all vaccination programs are completely successful in eradicating a disease. One that was, is the
smallpox vaccine.
Eradication of smallpox
This disease was caused by the variola virus. 12-30% of sufferers died while many who recovered
were often blinded. In 1967, WHO (the World Health Organisation) vaccinated more than 80% of
the worlds population who were at risk and when a case was reported all possible contacts in the
area were vaccinated (ring vaccination).
Eradication in rural areas proved a challenge, but the last case occurred in Somalia in 1977 and in
1980, WHO declared the world free of smallpox.
Reasons for the success of the vaccine included:
1. The variola virus did not mutate and change its antigens.
2. It was made from a live harmless strain of a similar virus, so it mimicked a natural infection,
multiplying and continually presenting the immune system with a large dose of antigens.
3. It could be freeze-dried and kept for six months aiding distribution.
4. Infected people were easy to identify.
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5. It was easy to administer and the disease did not linger in the body.
6. Smallpox does not infect animals.
Less successful vaccination programs have included those against measles, tuberculosis, malaria
and cholera.
This disease offers the promise of eradication if worldwide surveillance was followed-up by
vaccination.
However, so far it has failed because:
1. A poor response to the vaccine has been shown by some children, who need boosters.
2. High birth rates and shifting populations make following-up cases difficult.
3. Migrants and refugees may spread the disease.
4. Measles is highly infective and 95% immunity of a population is required to prevent transmission.
5. The vaccine only has a 95% success rate.
Tuberculosis
This disease was once thought to have been eradicated, but is actually showing a resurgence.
The reasons include:
1. Some TB bacteria are resistant to drugs used to treat them because they can mutate.
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2. AIDS can allow TB to infect an individual due to their compromised immune system.
3. Poor housing and homelessness lowers peoples' natural resistance.
4. There have been breakdowns in the TB control program.
5. It is actually caused by two different bacteria with two different antigens, which can live inside
human cells, making them hard to fight.
6. It can be carried in cattle.
Malaria
This is a disease caused by Plasmodium, a protoctist (eukaryotic) that has hundreds or even
thousands of different antigens. It also has three different stages in its life cycle, meaning that
developing a vaccine is incredibly challenging and has not yet been achieved.
Cholera
This disease is caused by Vibrio cholerae, which can live in the intestines where antibodies -
produced by vaccines that are injected - cannot get to it. An oral vaccine is in development.
These are drugs used to treat or cure infections and to be effective they must kill or disable the
pathogen, leaving host cells unharmed. Most antibiotics are used to treat bacterial and fungal
infections, there are very few that are effective against viruses. A few antibiotics are synthetic but
most are derived from living organisms. They work by either interfering with the growth or
metabolism of the bacteria or fungi. They may inhibit the synthesis of the cell wall, translation or
transcription of proteins, interfere with membrane function or enzyme action.
Antibiotics need to be carefully chosen. This is done by screening them against the strain of
bacterium or fungus obtained from the sufferer. The samples obtained are grown on agar plates
and antibiotic discs placed on to the plate. The disc with the greatest diameter of inhibition zone, is
the most effective. Broad spectrum antibiotics are effective against a wide range of bacteria,
while narrow spectrum antibiotics affect only a few.
Penicillins are well known antibiotics, which work by preventing the synthesis of peptidoglycan
polymer cross links in the cell walls of bacteria. They are only effective when the organism is
making new cell walls, i.e. growing. Many bacteria are now resistant to penicillin as they have
penicillinases (enzymes which destroy penicillin). Resistance to antibiotics, is coded for by small
rings of DNA found in bacteria, called plasmids.
Some bacteria may contain up to five plasmids, each conferring resistance to a different antibiotic.
DNA and therefore plasmids can be passed between members of the same species of bacteria
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during conjugation, or sexual reproduction. Specialised tubes or pili join one bacterium to another
during conjugation.
Resistance to antibiotics is increasing and has a great impact on the treatment of a disease because
it prolongs illness and increases mortality. Hospitals try and keep some antibiotics as a last resort
and drug companies are continually looking for new ones.
These are a result of an overreaction of the immune system to a harmless antigen, as in asthma,
hay fever and eczema.
They are caused by allergens - for example, pollen, dust, particles of animal skin, dustmites and
their faeces.
1. When these allergens are inhaled, the immune system recognises them as foreign and B cells
produce antibodies. These antibodies coat the surface of mast cells, which line the airways,
sensitising the body to the allergen.
2. When the allergen is encountered for a second time, it binds to the antibodies on the mast cells and
stimulates them to release histamine. This enables white blood cells and fluid to leak from
capillaries resulting in inflammation.
In hay fever, the inflammation occurs in the eyes, nose and throat but is not fatal and only usually
occurs from May until September.
Asthma can be much more severe and over one thousand people in the UK die from it every year.
During an attack, fluid and mucus collects in the airways, blocking the smaller ones. Muscles in the
trachea, bronchi and bronchiole walls contract, and breathing becomes difficult. A vaccine, which
will desensitise sufferers is in development, as one in seven children have asthma it could make a
huge difference to lots of peoples lives.
The second line of defence is also a non-specific response (i.e. the response is the same for any
pathogen).
It is a 3-pronged attack on any microbes that have survived the first line of defence...
Attack no 1: Inflammation
(Yes, this is good!)
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Inflammation happens because cells damaged by invading pathogens and particular white blood
cells release 'alarm' chemicals which makes blood vessels enlarge (vasodilate) and the capillaries
more 'leaky'.
This means that:
1. More blood is coming to the site of the infection, bringing with it more white blood cells of the
immune system
2. 2. Then, the white blood cells are let out of the blood capillaries and into the affected tissue.
This extra blood makes the area red (as more blood means that the area looks red)
andswollen (more blood and liquid leaving the blood and entering the tissue fluid surrounding the
body cells).
The area will also become hot (as the extra blood is also carrying heat with it) and painful(because
the tissues will be swollen with the blood).
Attack no 2: Phagocytes and lymphocytes
Inflammation attracts white blood cells to the area.
The three types of white blood cell you need to know for your exam
are neutrophils,macrophages (these are both phagocytes, which are engulfing cells),
and lymphocytes.
The phagocytes (for example a neutrophil), having squeezed through the capillary wall and into the
infected tissue, engulf and digest offending bacteria as shown in the following diagram...
The stages of Phagocytosis
1. The bacteria will be attracted to the membrane of the neutrophil.
2. Phagocytosis. The neutrophil will engulf the bacteria.
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3. Once in the neutrophil, lysosomes (vesicles containing digestive enzymes) will form and make
their way towards the phagosome containing the bacteria.
4. The lysosomes will fuse with the phagosome.
5. Now the bacteria will be killed and digested by enzymes.
The lymphocytes will also kill bacteria. However, some bacteria may escape by having a protective
cell wall or capsule.
(Note: A good example to remember of a bacterium with a capsule is the bacterium that
causes tuberculosis.)
As revolting as pus may be, it is in fact a sign that your immune system is doing what it is designed
to do.
Pus is millions of dead immune cells that have previously migrated to the site of the infection and
engulfed the pathogens.
Attack no 3: Macrophages and Interferon
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Other than direct 'hand-to-hand' combat, some killing is done at a distance.
Macrophages make proteins that act in two ways:
1. They can punch holes in the bacteria and parasites so that they die.
2. Or the proteins can stick to the outside of the bacteria to make them more appealing for the
phagocytes to eat!
If a virus or an intracellular parasite (one that lives inside a cell) has invaded a cell, the cell will
make a chemical called interferon. Interferon ultimately prevents that cell from making molecules
that the pathogen would need to survive.
Although the second line of defence is very powerful, it does have a some weaknesses:
1. It can't deal completely with any one particular micro-organism (some pathogens will nearly
always survive this attack).
2. It can not remember past infections.
This is why a third line of defence is needed (the next Learn-it is about the third line of defence).
Immunological memory
Plasma cells and most of T cells die after only a few days. However, the memory B cells and a few
memory T cells survive.
Each plasma cell and T cell will only be programmed to only respond to the one antigen that they
have already encountered. So they wait in the lymph nodes in case re-infection occurs, in which
case they are ready to attack.
This way, although the first infection was dealt with in a few days to a few weeks by theprimary
response, the secondary response to re-infection is much quicker and much more powerful.
Because of this clever system, even if you are re-infected, you may not even know about it because
no symptoms show! The infecting organism does not have the chance to cause disease. This is why
many diseases can only infect you once.
This is not infallible though. There are some diseases that come in a variety of guises, for example
the common cold and influenza (flu).
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Although each time you get a cold you have a similar set of symptoms, each new cold is in fact
caused by a slightly different virus with slightly different antigens.
This is not the worst of it though. Unfortunately, viruses have a relatively high mutation rate, which
may alter their antigens. Even a slight change may mean that your memory cells do not recognise a
disease you have had before.
This means then, that your response to it will be as slow as it was the first time.
Artifical immunity - vaccines
In the past, to become immune to a disease you would have had to have contracted the disease at
least once.
Nowadays, this need not be the case. Immunity can be artificially induced. This is achieved by
injecting a vaccine so that you will form the necessary memory cells without much (if any)
suffering.
This vaccine is, in fact, small quantities of the antigen attached to the offending organism.
To reduce the risk involved when taking the vaccine, the disease itself may have been artificially
weakened.
This weakening is achieved by taking the disease cell and altering it (as in polio, smallpox and
measles vaccines), killing it (as in whooping cough and typhoid vaccines), or by using altered toxins
(as in the tetanus vaccine).
Your body will mount an attack and overcome this weakened strain of the disease quickly and
easily - and memory cells will be created in the process.
This way, if you ever encounter the real disease, the memory cells are ready to be quickly
stimulated and your immune system can destroy the disease before you even notice it!
Natural immunity
If the activation of the immune system occurs naturally during an infection, this is termed natural
immunity. Because in response to the antigens, Band T cells have gone into action and a memory
has been produced, it is also termed active immunity. Vaccination would also be termed a form of
active immunity.
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However, passive immunity, which is not long term, is also a possibility. Antibodies from a mother
may cross the placenta during pregnancy and remain in the infant for several months. Colostrum,
the first breast milk produced for four or five days after giving birth, may also contain antibodies.
These two examples could also be termed natural immunity.
Passive artificial immunity is used in the treatment of tetanus, which kills quickly, before a natural
active response can occur. An injection of antitoxin is given which contains human antibodies taken
from blood donors who have recently been vaccinated against tetanus. An immediate but
temporary response is the result, because the antibodies would be identified as foreign and
removed from the patient's body.
Defense System
 Skin is composed of dead cells containing the indigestible protein keratin

 Sebum produced by the skin lowers the pH to inhibit growth of pathogens
 Lysozymes in salvia, sweat and tears are anti-bacterial enzymes
 Many ingested bacteria in the stomach are destroyed by acid (HCl)
 A sticky substance, mucus, traps pathogens in the respiratory tract
 Cilia moves away mucus towards the throat to protect gas exchange surfaces
 The immune system targets foreign materials and pathogens
Inflammatory response
 Histamine is released into the wound by white cells

 This increases vasodilation and increases vascular permeability
 Vasodilation increases the local blood flow → area becomes red, warm
 Increased permeability allows escape of tissue fluid into the tissues
 Tissue fluid contains plasma proteins (antibodies) and may cause swelling
Phagocytosis
 White cells (phagocytes) contain digestive enzymes within lysosomes

o Neutrophils primarily engulf bacteria
o Macrophages engulf larger particles; including old and infected red blood cells
 Found in blood, lymph systems and tissues
 Squeeze through gaps in the walls of venules to enter tissues
 This allows them to move faster to tissues infected with pathogens
 Phagocytes are attracted by chemotaxis

 Opsonisation by antibodies (bacteria becomes coated with antibody)
 As a result, binding between bacteria and phagocytes is improved
 Phagocytes form pseudopodia around the particle
 This positions the particle into a phagocytic vacuole (also called phagosome)
 Lysosome fuses with the phagosome
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 Intracellular killing by digestive enzymes from the lysosome
 Pus if formed at the site of infection if no extensive vasculature is present
Antigen
 Molecule that stimulates an immune response

 Usually proteins (polysaccharides, nucleic acid, lipids can also act as antigens) and other
inorganic molecules important forself-recognition
 Self-antigen
o Only found on the host's own cells and does not trigger an immune response
o As these are proteins, their structure depends on the amino acid sequence
o The gene for this sequence is highly polymorphic, having several alleles at each loci
o There is great genetic variability between individuals
o Thus, Antigen is different in other people → would cause an immune response
o There is only 1:4 change that siblings will possess an identical antigen
 Non-self-antigen
o Found on cells entering the body (e.g. bacteria, viruses, another person's cell)
o Will cause an immune response
Antibody (immunoglobin protein)
 Secreted by B-lymphocytes and produced in response to a specific (foreign) non-self

antigen
 B-lymphocyte's receptor site matches the non-self-antigen
 Each antibody is produced by one type of B-lymphocyte for only one type of antigen
 An antibody is Y-shaped
o The two ends of the Y are called the Fab fragments
o The other end is called the Fc fragment
o Fab fragment is responsible for the antigen-binding properties
o Fc fragment is the effector component and triggers the immune response
 B cells divide and form memory cells and antibody-secreting plasma cells:
o Agglutination makes pathogens clump together
o Antitoxins neutralise toxins produced by bacteria
o Lysis digests bacterial membrane, killing the bacterium
o Opsonisation coats pathogen in protein that identifies them as foreign cells
Types of Immune Response
 Lymphocytes undergo maturating before birth, producing different types of lymphocytes

 Humoral response - B lymphocytes
o Produce and release antibodies into blood plasma
o Produce antibodies from B plasma cells
o Recognize foreign antigen directly
 Cellular response - T lymphocytes
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o Bind to antigen carrying cells and destroy them and/or activate the humoral
response
o Recognize foreign antigens displayed on the surface of normal body cells
 Primary response produces memory cells which remain in the circulation
 Secondary response new invasion by same antigen at a lower state. Immediate recognition
and distraction by memory cells -faster and larger response usually prevents harm
B-Lymphocytes: The Humoral Response
 Response for pathogens not entering our cells (e.g. bacterium)

 Each B-lymphocyte recognizes only one specific antigen / need T-helper cell to be activated
 Maturation / B-cells develop to give many different variants / specific immune system
responds to
 any type of pathogen entering the body
 Primary response:
o Pathogen is ingested by macrophages / macrophage displays the pathogens surface
non-self antigen on its surface (antigen presentation)
o It then joins with specific T-helper cells and B lymphocytes that have membrane
receptors and are complementary in shape to the non-self antigen
o T-helper cells will release cytokines to activate selected B-cell/lymphocyte
 Secretes antibodies of the same type into the blood
 Divided by mitosis to produce a clone
 Cells grow to form plasma cells producing masses of free antibodies
o Some of the cells remain in the blood as memory cells.
 Secondary response = new invasion by same antigen at lower state. Immediate recognition
and distraction - faster, larger response usually prevents harm. Antibodies are produced
more rapidly and in larger amounts
T-Lymphocytes: Cell-Mediated Response
 Virus enter cell and more difficult to remove

 No antibodies involved / work directly on the infected cell by destroying it
 Special proteins called Major Histocompability Complex (MHC) are present on all human
cells
 Non-self antigen interacts with MHC as human cell becomes infected by a pathogen
 Specific T-lymphocyte recognises specific non-self antigen only with a chemical marker next
to it (MHC)
 Activated T-lymphocytes multiply by mitosis and enter circulation
 Cells differentiate into different types of cell
o Cytotoxic T-Cells destroy pathogens and infected cells by enzyme action, and secrete
chemicals which attract and stimulate phagocytes
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o Helper T-Cells stimulate the activity of the cytotoxic T-Cells and B-lymphocytes by
releasing chemicals (cytokines andinterleukins). Destroyed by HIV
o Suppressor T-Cells switch off the T and B cell responses when infection clears
o Memory T-Cells Some activated T-Cells remain in the circulation and can respond
quickly when same pathogen enters body again
IMG 3-12-3
Table 3-12-3: Different types of immunity
Passive (Given-
Active (Antibodies made Antibodies, short term
by the human immune acting)
system, long term acting
due to memory cells)
Natural - Response to disease - Acquired antibodies

- Rejecting transplant (via placenta, breast
milk)
Artificial(immunisation) - Vaccination - Injection of
(Injection of the antigen antibodies from an
in a weakened form) artificial source, e.g.
anti venom against
snake biter
Differences - Antibody in response - Antibodies provided
to antigen - No memory cells
- Production of memory - Short lasting
cells
- Long lasting
How vaccines produce responses by the immune system
Artificial active immunity
 Vaccine containing dead pathogens. Antigen is still recognised and an immune response
made
o Salk polio vaccine (Polio vaccine is injected)
o Influenza
o Whooping cough
 Vaccine containing a toxin
o Diphteria
o Tetanus
 Vaccine containing an attenuated (modified or weakened) organism which is alive but has
been modified so that it is not harmful
o Sabin polio vaccine (Taken orally, often sugar pumps)
 Purified antigen - genetically engineered vaccine
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o Hepatitis B (A gene coding for a surface protein of the hepatitis B virus has been
inserted into yeast cells which produce the protein when grown in fermenters)
AQA Immunity Booklet Answers
Pathogens A pathogen is a disease causing organism.
Examples include bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites.
Non Specific Defence Our body can defend itself against pathogens in a non specific way. This
includes the following methods:
(i)Hydrochloric Acid: Denatures the enzymes of most pathogens that enter the stomach.
(ii)Epithelial Mucus: Epithelial layers inside the body produce mucus that pathogens stick to. (ii)
The skin: Physical barrier that pathogens find it difficult to penetrate. If a pathogen manages to
make it through these defence mechanisms, it is unlikely to escape the phagocytes, a type of white
blood cell that can undergo the pathogen destroying process known as phagocytosis.
The following steps happen when a phagocyte comes into contact with a pathogen.
(i)The phagocyte is attracted to the pathogen by chemo-attractants.
(ii)The phagocyte binds to the pathogen.
(iii)The pathogen is engulfed by the phagocyte and is isolated in a phagosome.
(iv) Lysosomes within the phagocyte migrate towards the phagosome.
(v) The lysosomes release their lytic enzymes into the phagosome, where they digest the pathogen.
(vi)The breakdown products of the pathogen are released by exocytosis or are displayed on the
surface of the phagocyte
Exam Question 1
Immunity
When an antigen is recognised by a type of white blood cell known as a lymphocyte, the resulting
process is known as immunity, the ability of our body to protect itself from a disease that we have
already experienced.
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There are two interlinked types of immunity; Cell mediated immunity and humoural immunity.
Cell Mediated Immunity
T lymphocytes are important in cell mediated immunity. Known simply as T-cells, they respond to
foreign antigens that are attached to pathogens or the body’s own cells.
The following diagram explains how a T helper cell becomes activated:
When activated, the T helper cell divides rapidly by mitosis, forming clones of itself with identical
receptors.
The cloned T cells then: develop into memory cells that enable a rapid response to future infections
of the same pathogen (
ii) stimulate b lymphocyte production (important in humoural immunity)
(iii) kill infected cells by making a protein that causes lysis of the cell’s surface membrane.
Humoural Immunity
Another type of white blood cell, the B-lymphocyte or B cell for short, is responsible for humoural
immunity.
When an antigen is encountered by a B cell, the following steps take place, leading to the production
of memory cells and antibodies:
(i) The surface antigens of the invading pathogen are taken up by B Cells.
(ii) These antigens are then presented on the B cell’s surface.
(iii) T helper cells attach to these processed antigens, activating B cells to divide by mitosis into
clones known as plasma cells.
(iv) These plasma cells produce antibodies that are complimentary to the antigen. These antibodies
attach to antigens on the pathogen and destroy them. This is the primary response and as it takes
time, the individual will suffer from symptoms of the disease.
(vi) Some B cells develop into memory cells. These cells divide rapidly and turn into antibody
producing plasma cells when our body is infected later by the same pathogen. This is the secondary
response and the pathogen is destroyed before it can cause any symptoms.
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Antibodies Antibodies are released by B cells in response to a specific antigen. They are a protein
made of four chains.
The two longest chains are called heavy chains. The two short chains are called light chains.
The antigen binding site is at the top of the Y shape and is also known as the variable region
because it is different on different antibodies.
The rest of the Y shape is called the constant region because it is exactly the same for every
antibody.
Monoclonal Antibodies are antibodies that are produced from a single clone of B cells. They can be
made in the laboratory using the following method:
Vaccination Passive immunity is produced by introducing antibodies from an outside source (e.g.
monoclonal antibodies). This immunity is short lived. Active immunity is produced by stimulating
the body to produce its own antibodies (e.g. vaccination). This is long-lasting. Vaccination involves
the introduction into the body of a vaccine containing a dead or attenuated pathogen or a toxin. The
antigens are recognised by the body and an immune response occurs. Memory cells are made
during this process which remain dormant in the body, ready to divide rapidly when they come into
contact with the same antigen. If you vaccinate every member of the population against a disease
you should be able to eradicate it. Here are a few reasons why vaccination does not eliminate a
disease (a) The pathogen may mutate frequently so that its antigens change. This is called antigenic
variability. The influenza virus and cholera bacterium is capable of doing this. The body will not
have memory cells for the new antigens and so is not immune. (b) There is often many different
varieties or strains of a particular pathogen each with their own unique shape of antigen. There is
around 100 strains of the common cold virus for example. (c) Certain pathogens hide from the
immune system e.g. inside cells or within the intestines. (d) Some people object to vaccination for
religious or ethical reasons. Exam Question 3
IMMUNITY
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BIOLOGY EXAM TIPS
General advice
• Use your syllabus all the time while you are revising and preparing for the examination papers.
You must know which topics you will be tested on.
• Make sure you have all the equipment you will need for the exam in a clear, plastic container. You
need two pens, pencils (preferably HB or B), a clean eraser, a ruler (which measures in mm), a
pencil sharpener and a calculator.
Answering questions
• The questions are designed to test your knowledge and understanding and your ability to apply
the skills you have gained during the course. When you are writing your answers remember that
another person has to be able to read them.
○ Do not waste time by writing out the question before you start to answer.
○ Keep your handwriting clear and legible.
○ Keep your answers on the lines on the question paper. Do not write in the left hand or right-hand
margins of the paper.
○ If you wish to change an answer, cross out your first answer and rewrite. Do not write over what
you have already written.
○ If you have to cross out something, put a line through it; do not scribble over it.
○ If you run out of space, use white space on another part of the exam paper for a continuation
answer; do not try to squeeze in your answer by using very small writing.
○ If you have to use a different space for a rewritten answer or to continue an answer, put a note to
tell the Examiner where it is, e.g. “see page 5” or “see back page”.
○ Always try to write accurately using the correct biological terms. This often helps you to gain
marks.
○ If you want to use the word “it” or “they” – think “what is it?” or “what are they?” and then phrase
your answer more precisely.
○ If you want to use the word “affect” or “effect” – remember to write “how they affect” or “what
effect do they have?”
Example 1
Question
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive disease that develops in many
smokers. COPD refers to two conditions:
• chronic bronchitis
• emphysema.
(i) State two ways in which the lung tissue of someone with emphysema differs from the lung tissue
of someone with healthy lungs [2]
Correct answer for two marks
1 There are fewer alveoli than in a healthy lung.
2 The surface area for gas exchange is much smaller.
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From the wording of the question it is clear that the answers refer to the lung tissue of emphysema.
Ambiguous answers for no marks
1 There are many air spaces.
2 There is less diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
3 There are fewer capillaries.
Both types of lung tissue have many air spaces. The technical term alveoli should be used as in the
correct answers. Even though the third answer is correct, it will not be marked as the question asks for
two ways.
Do not write the first answer that comes into your head. You are unlikely to think of exactly the
correct phraseology or have all the necessary detail to answer the question. Plan what you intend to
write before you start writing.
○ Remember to read the question carefully, plan an answer, write the answer clearly, re-read the
question, re-read your answer and then make any additions or corrections clearly. Always re-read
your answers to check them against the question.
○ During your course you will probably have seen many mark schemes from past papers. Do not
learn them. If you write out a mark scheme that you have learnt, it is unlikely to gain you many
marks and often none at all, as it is very unlikely to be relevant to the exact question you were
supposed to be answering
○ Be prepared for questions on aspects of practical biology; they can appear on all the papers, not
just Papers 3
Terms
• These are the technical words used in biology. Many of them are given in the syllabus. These
terms will be used in questions. You will get more marks if you can use them correctly in your
examination. Ask your teacher if you are unsure of the meanings of the biological terms used in the
syllabus and in any textbook you are using. You will notice that many terms are defined in the
syllabus, so that is a good place to start when making your own dictionary. Many of the definitions
in the 'Definitions' section of the syllabus are quite long. It would be a good idea to write more
concise definitions for yourself and use them to start your own biological dictionary using your
class notes, web sites and the glossaries from the back of text books.
○ Try to use the correct spelling. If you cannot remember how to spell a word, write it down as best
you can. The examiners will probably recognise what word you mean; if the spelling is too far out or
ambiguous, then they cannot allow you a mark.
○ Some biological terms have very similar spelling. Make sure you write clearly and always try to
spell as accurately as you can.
○ Do not try to mix the spellings of two words when you are not sure which of them is the correct
answer. For example, you might write “meitosis” when you are not sure whether the answer is
mitosis or meiosis. This answer will not get a mark.
Writing in your own words

• You often have to write two or more sentences to answer a question.
○ Use short sentences. If you write long sentences you can become confused and your meaning
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is lost. You might also write something contradictory. It is hard for the examiner to find correct
statements in a muddled answer.
○ You are often asked to write down something you have learned. Make sure you have learnt the
meanings of the common terms used in biology, e.g. active transport, osmosis, photosynthesis and
respiration.
○ During your course take every opportunity to read and write as much as you can to improve the
way you express yourself.
What you should look for in a question

The number of marks
• Always look to see how many marks are available for each question.
° In Paper 1 there is one mark for each question.
° The number of marks is printed on the examination papers for Papers 2, 3, 4 and 5. The mark
available for each part question ((a), (b), (c)(i), etc.) is printed in square brackets, e.g. [2]. The
number of marks helps you decide how much to write. The total number of marks for each question
is printed at the end of the last part question, e.g. [Total: 12].
° The number of marks is a guide to how long to spend on each part of a question.
° Do not waste time and write a long answer for a question which has one or two marks. You will
not get any extra marks even if your answer is full of many correct and relevant statements.
° If there are two or more marks do not write the same thing in two different ways, e.g. “The leaf is
very large. The leaf has a large surface area”. Notice that the second sentence is more accurate and
is preferable to the first one.
The instructions
• These are called command words and tell you what to do.
○ You can find all the command words in the Glossary of terms used in science papers in the
'Appendix' section of the syllabus.
○ If a question asks you to 'name' or 'state' two things only the first two will be marked. Use the
numbered lines for your answers if they are given on the question paper. If you write more than
two and the first is correct, the second one is wrong, and the third one correct, you will only get one
mark (see Example 1).
○ Some questions have two commands in the question, for example 'predict and explain'. This
means that you have to say what you think will happen AND then say why you think it will happen.
Usually the word and is printed in bold type to help you. See the section below for a tip about
answering questions that have two command terms and require an extended answer.
○ The table below has a list of terms used in biology papers to tell you what to do in an answer.
Make sure you know what you should do in response to each command word.
Example 2
Question
A learner investigated the effect of increasing the concentration of sucrose on the rate of activity of
sucrase. The results are shown in Fig. 4.1.
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The graph in Fig. 4.1 shows that as the substrate concentration increases the rate of activity of sucrose
increases to a constant level.
Describe and explain the results shown in Fig. 4.1.
It is quite easy to forget that there are two parts to this question. Before writing your answer it is a
good idea to write description at the beginning of the first of the answer lines and then explanation
about half way down. You could write these in pencil and rub them out when you have finished your
answer.
Alternatively, you may choose to write a description of the first part of the graph (activity increases)
and then explain it followed by a description and explanation of the plateau on the graph. That is also
a perfectly acceptable way to answer the question.
What the question is about

• Make sure you know which part of the syllabus is being tested.
○ Read the whole of a question carefully including all the stimulus material and parts (a), (b), (c) (i)
and (c) (ii), etc. before you begin to answer. Some of the parts may have similar answers so you
need to work out the differences between them. If you write exactly the same thing in different
parts of the same question, the answer cannot be correct for both parts.
○ There is often stimulus material for each question. This might be a photograph, diagram, drawing,
flow chart, table of data, graph or just some text. Read all of this information carefully and study any
pictures, tables or graphs that are included. All of it is relevant to the questions.
○ The stimulus material is often about something you have not studied. Do not panic. There will be
enough information in the question for you to work out an answer. You are being tested on your
ability to apply your knowledge to new information.
○ All the different parts of a question may be about the same topic, e.g. cells from section A or blood
from section G, but you should be prepared for questions that test different topics, e.g. the structure
and function of white blood cells (phagocytes and lymphocytes) involving sections of A, G and J.
○ Look for clues in the wording of the questions.
○ If you are only given a Latin name or a name you do not recognise, e.g. impala, look to see if you
are told anything about it. If in a question on section K you are told that impala are herbivores, then
you know they eat plants.
○ Answer each question as far as you can. Do not spend a long time staring at a question.
○ If you do not know the answer or how to work it out, then leave it and come back to it later. It is
best to put a mark by the side of the question so you can find it easily. An asterisk (*) is a good idea
or a large question mark against the letter of the part question. Not all part questions have answer
lines. You may not realise that you have left out a part question when you check through your script
towards the end of the examination.
○ Try not to leave blanks. Always check through your script towards the end of the examination.
When you come back to a question you may remember what to write as an answer to a question
that you left out earlier in the exam.
○ Do not waste time by writing about things unrelated to the question.
Example 3
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It helps to highlight the main features of a question. You cannot use a highlighter pen, so the best thing
todo is to underline or circle key words in the questions.
Command words
• You can find out more about command terms in the Glossary of terms towards the end of the
syllabus.
These notes should help you respond to each of the command words.
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The style of questions
We use a great variety of different styles of questions. If you answer plenty of past papers during
your course you will gain lots of practice at these. Here are some:
• Putting ticks and crosses in a table to make comparisons. For example, comparing the properties
of different biological molecules.
• Completing tables of information by writing in single words, numbers or short phrases, e.g. what
happens to the four valves in the heart during different phases of the cardiac cycle.
• Completing a passage of text with the missing terms.
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• Writing definitions – make these as concise as you can; there is no need to use any examples
unless asked.
• Making a list – answers should also be concise; detail is not required.
• Matching pairs from two lists, e.g. matching the names for the stages of mitosis with descriptions
of what happens inside a cell during this type of nuclear division.
• Putting stages of a process into the correct sequence, e.g. the stages of protein synthesis.
• Labelling a diagram – label lines may already be on the diagram or you may have to add them
yourself.
• Completing a genetic diagram (Paper 2).
• Describing and/or explaining data from a table or a graph.
• Explaining aspects of an investigation, e.g. a learner investigation that you might have carried out
or a piece of research that has been adapted from a scientific paper.
• Adding information to a flow chart.
• Writing a flow chart from information that you are given, e.g. drawing a food web from written
descriptions of the feeding relationships in a community.
Use information given in the question

• Questions may ask you to “Use examples from...” or “Use only the information in ....” or “With
reference to Fig. 6.2”. If you read instructions like these, find out what you are expected to use as
examples or take information from. You will not get any marks if you use examples from
somewhere else. The information can be given to you in different ways:
○ a diagram, such as a food web, a set of apparatus or a biological structure;
○ a graph, which could be a line graph, a bar chart or a histogram – always check the headings and
units carefully;
○ a table – always read the headings of the columns and/or rows carefully and look for any units.
Interpret tables and graphs

• The stimulus material may be in the form of a table, line graph, bar chart or histogram.
• Always read the introductory text very carefully before you study the table or graph. Underline
key points in the information that you are given. In Papers 2 and 3, there may be quite a bit of
introductory text explaining how the information was collected.
Tables
• Look at the column and row headings in a table and make sure you understand them. If you have
read the introduction carefully, then you will.
• Find the units that have been used. Make sure that you use the units if you give any figures in your
answer.
• Use a ruler to help read the table. Align the ruler with the first column. This should be the
independent variable and should increase in steps. Now put the ruler to the right of the next
column and look at the figures in this second column that should be the dependent variable. Look
for a pattern or trend in the figures. Identify the pattern or trend first before thinking of an
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explanation. Move the ruler across to the right of the third column if there is one and continue in
the same way. It may help to sketch a little graph on the exam paper to help you identify any
pattern or trend.
Line graphs
• Look carefully at the x-axis which is the independent variable and make sure you understand
what has been changed. Look carefully at the y-axis which is the dependent variable. Both variables
should be described in the introduction to the question.
• Put your ruler against the y -axis and move it gradually across the graph from left to right. Follow
the pattern or trend of the line (or each line if there is more than one). Mark on the graph where
something significant happens. For example, the line might show that the dependent variable
becomes constant (gives a horizontal line).
• Use your ruler when taking figures from the graph. If the graph is plotted on a grid, then the
examiners may allow ± one small square or half a small square in taking your readings. If you use a
ruler and rule lines on the graph, you should take exact readings.
Bar charts and histograms

• Look carefully at the x-axis and the y-axis to see what has been plotted. Again, it is a good idea to
move a ruler across the bar graph or histogram from left to right to help you concentrate on one
aspect at a time. You can identify the highest and lowest figures and see if there is any pattern.
• You should make yourself some notes about the table, graph or histogram before answering the
questions.
Calculations
• If you are asked to do a calculation:
○ You may have to find the figures from a table or graph.
○ Write out all the working for your calculation. If you make a mistake and give the wrong answer,
you may well be awarded marks for showing how to do the calculation.
○ Make sure that you show the units in the calculation.
○ Make sure you include the units if they are not given on the answer line.
○ Always express your answer in the same way as other figures provided, e.g. in a table. If the other
figures are 5.6 and 4.6, then your answer should be given to one decimal place, e.g. 2.0 and 7.0, not
2 and 7.
○ Round up or down the result on your calculator – do not copy all the figures after the decimal
point.
Make comparisons
• If you are asked to compare two things make sure you make it clear which thing you are writing
about.
○ The question may ask you to compare two structures or two processes that you have learnt
about. Sometimes you may be expected to do this on answer lines in which case you must make
clear the items that you are comparing (see Example 4).
239
○ You may be given a table to complete. This may be blank and you have to fill it in, or it may
already have some entries and you complete it.
○ If you are given lines to make the comparison, it is perfectly acceptable to draw a table for your
answer.
Extended writing
• You are required to write longer answers to questions that have four or more marks. There are
more of these questions in Paper 2 than in the other papers. You do not have to write your whole
answer in prose. You can use labelled and annotated diagrams, flow charts, lists and bullet points.
However you present your material, you should write enough to make your meaning clear.
The rest of these tips concern the individual papers

Paper 1
• You have about one minute to read and answer each question. Each question may test one topic or
several topics from different parts of the syllabus.
• Some questions test what you know and understand.
• Some questions test if you can apply what you have learnt to understand new data. These
questions will often have a diagram, graph or table to use.
• Some of the choices can be very similar; read carefully and underline words that make each choice
distinct from the other three.
• Try to decide what the question is testing as you are reading it. The sequence of questions usually
follows the sequence of topics in the syllabus. Therefore you can expect the early questions to ask
about Section A on cells and those at the end will be on Sections J and K about immunity and
ecology.
• Do not try to find a pattern in the order of your answers (e.g. A, B, C, D, A, B....)
○ The same letter could be the correct answer for several questions in a row.
○ Letter A might be the correct answers for more questions than B, C or D. Or there could be fewer
correct answers shown by letter D than any of the others.
○ Do not let what you have chosen for the previous questions influence which letter you choose.
• Some questions may ask about aspects of practical work, for example about different variables:
independent, dependent and controlled.
• It is important to understand how to use terminology, e.g. how to apply water potential
terminology to problems on cells and osmosis.
Paper 2
• This paper has a mix of short answers questions and those requiring slightly longer answers.
There is no essay.
• Longer answers will need four or five sentences with two or three different ideas. Always look at
the number of marks for each part question to help you decide how much to write.
• Look at the number of command words: ask yourself ‘do you have to do one or two things?’. See
Example 2.
• Use the lines given. Stick to the point and do not write too much.
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• Only give the number of answers that are asked. Use the numbered lines and give one answer per
line.
• There will only be a few parts of questions that need extended writing. These will have four [4] or
five [5] marks. These questions will often be related to some information you are given. You will
need to write four or five sentences in a sequence that makes sense. You can think of it as “telling a
story with a beginning, a middle and an end”. Remember to refer to any information you are given.
Paper 4
General tips
Success at Paper 4 requires you to do plenty of practical work during your course and have several
attempts at past paper questions to find out how to complete everything in the time available.
During the practical exam you will have to make some decisions; if you practise plenty of past
questions you will find out what sort of decisions to expect. As you revise, make sure you know
exactly how to carry out the practical procedures described in the syllabus. You will be assessed on
your skills at:
• manipulating apparatus to collect results and make observations

• data presentation
• analysis of results and observations
• evaluation of procedures and data.
You should make decisions, such as:
• identifying variables
• standardising the control variables
• how to change the independent variable
• choose the number of measurements to take
• decide the intervals between the values of the independent variable
• choosing a control experiment
• identifying any risks and stating appropriate precautions.
During the examination

• Read through the questions carefully, looking to see how many marks are given for each question.
• Read the instructions to the end; do not start a practical procedure without reading carefully all
the steps involved.
• As you read, check that you have the apparatus and materials described. If not alert the
supervisor.
• Think about the apparatus that you will use for each step and imagine using it in your mind.
• Make sure that you have a sharp pencil to use for making drawings and for drawing graphs and
charts. Do not draw in ink because you cannot make changes as you can when using a pencil.
• Make sure you have a good, clean eraser for rubbing out your pencil lines if necessary. Do not
press too hard when using a pencil for making drawings, graphs or charts. Sometimes it is hard for
an examiner to tell which is your final line.
Following the instructions
241
• Follow the instructions for practical methods exactly. If you make a change in the method you can
alter the results.
• Do not take short cuts.
• Always label test-tubes and other containers to help you remember which is which.
• If you are told to “Wash the apparatus thoroughly after each use” make sure you do. If there is
anything left in the apparatus the next stage may not work.
It is a good idea to put a tick by the side of each instruction when you have completed it. This helps
you to find the right place in the instructions, so that you do not leave out a step or repeat a step
when it is not required.
• Keep your exam paper on a part of the bench which you can keep dry. Do not pour liquids or use
syringes or pipettes over your exam paper. If you keep your exam paper away from the ‘wet’ part of
your bench you are unlikely to spill anything on it.
Recording your measurements and observations

You are expected to make observations and record them.
• You can record your observations:
○ as statements in writing
○ in tables
○ by using drawings
○ by constructing tally charts.
You will take readings from different apparatus. You must make the measurements as accurately
and reliably as you can. Numerical readings will normally be collected and presented in a table.
• Follow the instructions below about drawing tables.
• Make clear descriptions of colours and colour changes; refer to ‘blue’, ‘orange’ and ‘purple’ when
describing reagents used in biochemical tests. You may want to refer to slight differences, so use
words like ‘pale’ and ‘dark’.
• Make your measurements as accurate and reliable as possible.
• Accurate results are close to the actual or ‘true’ values; reliable results are those that are
repeatable.
• If you can take repeat readings, then do so. There is not always enough time to do this.
• You can process your observations by:
○ carrying out calculations, e.g. percentages and percentage changes
○ plotting graphs – line graphs, bar charts and histograms.
• Use all the space available on the paper for your observations.
• Do not write an explanation until the question asks for one.
• Use a sharp HB or B pencil. It can be rubbed out easily if you need to correct a mistake. Use a good
eraser so that is clear to the examiner which is your final line.
• Do not forget to include headings for the columns and the rows in tables.
Drawings
These will be from microscope slides or photographs.
• Read the question carefully, the drawing may have to be an accurate size e.g. twice the original.
242
• Make each drawing as big as the space allows without writing over the text of the question and
making sure that you leave enough space for labels and annotations, if asked for.
• Use a ruler for labelling lines.
• Draw and label in pencil.
• Use one clear continuous outline not an artistic drawing. Do not shade.
• Observe details carefully, such as the relative number of chloroplasts in different cells and the
thickness of cell walls in different cells in a vascular bundle. Show these accurately on your
drawing.
A plan diagram shows the distribution of tissues in a section. It also shows the proportions of the
different tissues. Although called a low power plan diagram you may use high power to identify the
different tissues and to be sure you are putting the boundaries of those tissues in the right place.
You should not draw any cells in a lower power plan diagram.
When you make a plan diagram, follow these simple rules:
• make the drawing fill most of the space provided; leave space around the drawing for labels and
annotations (if required by the question)
• use a sharp HB or B pencil (never use a pen)
• use thin, single, unbroken lines (often called ‘clear and continuous lines’)
• show the outlines of the tissues
• make the proportions of tissues in the diagram the same as in the section
• do not include drawings of cells
• do not use any shading or colouring.
Add labels and annotations (notes) to your drawing only if you are asked for these in the question.
Use a pencil and a ruler to draw straight lines from the drawing to your labels and notes. Write
labels and notes in pencil in case you make a mistake and need to change them. You may leave your
labels and notes in pencil –do not write over them in ink.
High power drawings should show a small number of cells and they should be drawn a reasonable
size so you can show any detail inside them. When you make a high power drawing, follow these
simple rules:
• make the drawing fill most of the space provided; leave space around the drawing for labels and
annotations (if required by the question)
• use a sharp HB or B pencil (never use a pen)
• use clear, continuous lines (see above)
• draw only what is asked in the question, e.g. three cell types or one named cell and all cells
adjoining it
• show the outlines of the cells
• the proportions of the cells in the drawing must be the same as in the section you are drawing
• plant cell walls should be shown as double lines with a middle lamella between the cells; the
proportions of cell walls should be drawn carefully.
• show any details of the contents of cells – draw what you see not what you know should be
present; for example, in plant cells you may see nuclei, chloroplasts and vacuoles
• do not use any shading or colouring.
243
Taking measurements of specimens and photographs
Using an eyepiece graticule
An eyepiece graticule is a scale that fits inside the eyepiece on your microscope. It allows you to
take measurements of the specimens you view with the microscope. You can measure simply in
graticule units, but you may be asked to make an actual measurement which involves calibrating
the graticule using a stage micrometer. This is done by lining up the graticule with the divisions on
the micrometer.
• Make your measurements as accurate as you can. You will probably be able to measure to the
nearest division on the graticule.
• You may be asked to take several measurements and then calculate a mean.
Taking measurements from photographs

You may have to measure an object on a photograph and calculate the actual size of a structure or
the magnification of an image.
• Always measure photographs in millimetres, not centimetres.
• If you have to use your measurements in a calculation, write neatly and show your working. The
person marking your paper might be able to give you marks for knowing what to do even if you
make a mistake or do not finish the calculation.
Presenting data and observations

Tables
Before you start to draw a table, decide what you wish to record. Decide on how many columns and
how many rows you will need. Make sure you have read all the instructions before you draw the
table outline.
Follow these rules:
• use the space provided, do not make the table too small
• leave some space to the right of the table in case you decide you need to add one or more columns
• make the table ready to take observations or readings so that you can write them directly into the
table rather than on another page and then copy them into the table (tables need to show all the
raw data you collect)
• draw the table outlines in pencil
• rule lines between the columns and rows
• rule lines around the whole table
• write brief, but informative headings for each column
• columns headed with physical quantities should have appropriate SI units
• when two or more columns are used to present data, the first column should be the independent
variable; the second and subsequent columns should contain the dependent variables
• entries in the body of the table should be brief – they should be single words, short descriptive
phrases or numbers
• data should be recorded in the table in the order in which it is collected – this is because the
table is prepared before the data collection. For example, if the instructions state that results from
the highest temperature or highest pH is to be recorded first then these go at the top of their
respective columns. It is more usual to arrange the values of the independent variable in ascending
244
order (e.g. from 0 to 100) so that patterns are easier to follow and that is how data in tables for
Papers 1, 2, 3 and 4 is usually presented
• numbers written into the body of the table do not have units (units only appear in the column
headings).
You may have to process your results by calculating rates of reaction, changes in length, percentage
changes or means of repeat readings. These processed results can appear in the same table with the
raw data that you have collected or can be in a separate table with the independent variable. The
solidus or slash (/) meaning ‘per’ should not be used in units. For example, if you have to include
concentrations as in a table you do not write g per 100 cm3 as g/100 cm3. It should always be
written out in full using ‘per’ or, better, as g 100 cm–3. The negative exponent, cm–3, means ‘per’.
Note that the solidus is used to separate what is measured from the unit in which it is measured.
You may notice that text books and examination papers use brackets around the units in tables.
This is also an accepted convention, but the solidus is the convention used in A LEVEL Biology.
Correct and incorrect ways of showing units in tables and graphs
A note on the uses of ticks and crosses in tables:

Do not use ticks and crosses in tables of results which should show observations, such as the
colours obtained in biochemical tests. Ticks and crosses may be used in tables of comparison if
there is a key to explain what they mean,
e.g. = present; x= absent.
You may want to show anomalous results in tables. If so circle them and put a note underneath the
table to explain that they are anomalous results. You may be asked to compare specimens viewed in
the microscope and/or in photographs. These comparisons must be organised into a table. Draw
your table so that it has a first column for the features that you have observed. You can then present
both similarities and differences:
245
Line graphs
Line graphs are used to show relationships in data which are not immediately apparent from tables.
The term graph applies to the whole representation. The term curve should be used to describe
both curves and straight lines which are used to show trends.
Follow these guidelines:
• use at least half the grid provided, do not make the graph too small
• draw the graph in pencil
• the independent variable should be plotted on the x-axis
• the dependent variable should be plotted on the y-axis
• each axis should be marked with an appropriate scale. The origin should be indicated with a 0.
The data should be examined critically to establish whether it is necessary to start the scale(s) at
zero. If not, you may have a displaced origin for one or both axes, but this must be made obvious by
labelling the displaced origin very clearly
• each axis should be scaled using multiples of 1, 2, 5 or 10 for each 20 mm square on the grid. This
makes it easy for you to plot and extract data. Never use multiples of 3
• each axis should be labelled clearly with the quantity and SI unit(s) or derived (calculated) units
as appropriate, e.g. time/s and concentration/g dm–3; the axes labels and units must be the same as
those in the table
• plotted points must be clearly marked and easily distinguishable from the grid lines on the graph.
Dots in circles ( ) or small, neatly drawn crosses (x) should be used; dots on their own should not.
If you need to plot three lines, vertical crosses (+) can also be used
• label each line carefully or use a key. Use a pencil for both lines; do not use a blue or black pen or
different colours
• in Paper 4 there are usually five or six results to plot.
After plotting the points you need to decide if any of them are anomalous. Ask yourself the question
‘do they fit the trend?’. But what is the trend? You should know something about the theory behind
the investigation so you should be aware of the likely trend. If you think one or more of the results
are anomalous, then it is a good idea to ring them. Put a circle on the graph away from the line and
put a key to state that the circled point(s) represent anomalous result(s). The next thing to decide is
how to present the curve.
246
• It may be obvious that the points lie on a straight line; for example, the effect of enzyme
concentration on the rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction. If you have a result for the origin (0, 0)
then that must be included and you can place a clear plastic ruler on the grid and draw a straight
line from the origin making sure that there is an even number of points on either side of the line. If
you do not have a result for the origin, then start the line at the first plotted point. Do not continue
the line past the last plotted point.
• You should only draw a smooth curve if you know that the intermediate values fall on the curve.
You may be expecting the relationship to be a smooth curve and if the points seem to fit on a curve
then draw one. Again decide whether the origin is a point and, if not, start at the first plotted point.
The curve should go through as many points as possible, but try to make sure there is an even
number of points on either side of the line. Do not continue past the last plotted point.
• In the practical examination you may only have five or six results. These are likely to be single
results rather than means of replicate results. Therefore you cannot be sure of the relationship and
should not draw a straight line or a curve as described above. You should draw straight lines
between the points. This indicates uncertainty about the results for values of the independent
variable between those plotted.
• If a graph shows more than one line or curve, then each should be labelled to show what it
represents
If you have times in minutes and seconds, never use minutes as the unit on a graph. It is very
difficult to use a scale with each small square representing 3 or 6 seconds. Always plot results in
seconds unless the unit for time is whole minutes.
Analysis, conclusions and evaluation

As part of analysis you should be able to:
• identify anomalous results. Anomalous results are those that do not fit the trend
• process your results to calculate means, percentages, changes in mass or length, calculate
percentage changes and rates of reactions
• find unknown quantities by using axis intercepts or estimating from colour standards using
known concentrations
• describe the pattern or trend in data
• make conclusions to consider whether experimental data supports hypotheses or not.
Processing results
You should be prepared to calculate:
• means
• percentages
• percentage changes
• rates of reaction by calculating 1/t or 1000/t; the unit used is s–1.
You should know how to use line graphs to:
• find an intercept – where a line you have drawn crosses a key value on the x-axis; for example,
finding the water potential of a tissue using percentage change in length of plant tissues
• find the rate of a reaction by calculating the gradient of a line you have drawn.
As part of evaluation you should be able to:
247
• identify systematic and random errors
• systematic errors are those that affect all the results in the same way
• random errors do not affect all the results in the same way
• identify the significant errors in your investigation
• estimate the uncertainty in measurements. The actual error is half the smallest division on the
apparatus you are using
• assess how effective you have been at standardising variables
• suggest improvements to the procedure you have followed
• suggest ways in which the investigation might be extended to answer a new question.
Estimating uncertainty in your results

You may have to estimate the uncertainty or error in your results. For particular apparatus, the
error is half the smallest graduation on the apparatus, e.g. if the smallest division is 1.0 cm3 then
the uncertainty would be ±0.5 cm3. So if you start your measuring at 0 the uncertainty applies
where you take your measurement –say at 6.3 cm3. So the result is expressed as 6.3 ± 0.5 cm3. BUT
if you have to start at a measurement other than 0 (for example when taking readings from a
burette) the uncertainty applies at both ends, so it is multiplied by two as there is an error at each
end, e.g. 7.5 ± 1.0 cm3. Similarly, if using a ruler then there would be an error at each end unless
you start at 0. The same applies to measuring a quantity in a syringe by sucking up from empty. The
error would be half the minimum measurement. But when you take two readings from the syringe
(say delivering 2.0 cm3 by moving the plunger from 6.5 cm3 to 4.5 cm3) the
uncertainty is multiplied by two.
Percentage error is calculated as the error expressed as a percentage of the actual reading. For
example if the reading is 7.5 ± 1.0 cm3, then the percentage error is 1.0/7.5 × 100 = 13.3%.
Conclusions
• Conclusions are brief statements supported with explanations using your knowledge from the
syllabus
• Use your own results for your conclusions.
Before planning what to write for a conclusion, turn back to the beginning of the question and read
the introduction. You may have forgotten what you were told about the investigation you have just
carried out. Think about the theory and apply it to the results you have obtained.
• Sometimes you are expected to make conclusions about some other data, not the data you have
collected.
• Do not write the conclusion you have learned from a class experiment or from theory.
• You should also consider the confidence that you have in your conclusions. For this it is a good
idea to consider whether:
○ the standardised variables have been kept constant
○ there were any other variables that were not standardised
○ there were any anomalous results
○ any replicate results were similar or not.
• If you are unsure about any aspect of the practical you have carried out, then you can say that you
do not have confidence in your conclusions and give a reason or reasons.
248
Suggesting improvements
You may be asked to suggest modifications or improvements that will increase the accuracy and
reliability of the results. As you carry out the practical procedure you should think critically about it
and make some notes. If asked to suggest improvements, then look back to these notes for ideas.
You can suggest:
• ways to improve the standardisation of variables, for example by using a thermostatically-
controlled water bath
• taking repeat readings (replicates) to assess the reliability of the data
• calculate mean results
• use a different way to measure the dependent variable so the results are more accurate
• use a different piece of apparatus to measure the dependent variable and reduce the percentage
error (see above)
You may also have to justify your suggested improvements. When you do this, make sure you
explain how they will improve the confidence you have in the data and therefore in the conclusion.
249

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A LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Micrometry: The measurement of microscopic objects.

 The use of microscopes in Biology is called microscopy.

Distinguish between resolution and magnification.

Magnification = 12/5 =x2, 4

Calculation of magnification and the conversion of units.

Step 3-we can now put the numbers in the equation.

Calculating magnification from a scale bar

Step 1– measure the scale bar. Here it is 24mm

Step2-substitute into the equation.

= length of scale Bar

Common stains used in light microscopy

Stain Use Colours produced

 Is like an up-side-down light microscope.

Comparison of a light microscope and an electron microscope

Electron microscope Light microscope

Qn. Describe what is meant by the term resolution. [2]

Select your answers from the list below.

10x 40x 100x 400x 1500x 25 000x 50 000x 500 000x

light microscope ................................... x

transmission electron microscope ................................... x

CELL STRUCTURE AND CELL FUNCTION

Ultra-structure of a typical animal cell

 Very small organelles consisting of a large subunit and a small subunit.

 Composed of a series of parallel membranes that are flattened fluid spaces.

 They are temporary membrane bound pockets of cell sap.

 Found as a pair near the nucleus.

Cilia and flagella

 Is a fluid filled space in the cytoplasm.

 Prokaryotes are organisms which are single celled e.g. bacteria.

Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Glycolipids and cholesterol

Fluid mosaic model membrane

Channel proteins and carrier proteins

small, non-polar substances

polar substances [Total 5 marks]

ii. They all contain several hydroxyl group .

 Monosaccharides are single sugar units.

Aidose and Ketoses

Open chain and closed chain

Alpha and Beta isomers

 Is a polymer of alpha glucose.

Structure Function related to structure

 Is a polymer of Beta glucose and has a structural role

 Contain the acidic group (-COOH).

 The tails are hydrophobic.

 Is the association of lipids and carbohydrates.

Structure Role in cell

Phospholipids Possessing a hydrophilic phosphoric head Major component of the cell

Glycolipid Possessing a carbohydrate component in Found as one of the component in

Bonds used in protein structure

 If a polypeptide contain non-polar R groups i.e. hydrophobic and is in aqueous environment,

 Each protein contain a characteristic of 3 dimension shape, its conformation.

 It is the number of sequence of amino acids.

 Highly complex protein consists of more than one polypeptide chain.

 Denaturation the loss of three dimensional shape of a protein molecule.

 Is a vital chemical constituent of living organisms

THE STRUCTURE AND PROPETIES OF WATER

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFINCE OF WATER

 WATER IS IMPOTANT FOR TWO MAIN REASONS :

1) IT IS VITAL FOR CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT OF LIVING CELLS.