11086CHO6

ENERGY AND PowER

WORK,

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The terms 'work', 'energy' and power are frequent-

in everyday language. A tarmer ploughing the
construction worker carrying bricks, a student stuc-
6.1 Introduction
a competitive examination, an artist painting a be-
6.2 Notions of work and kinetic landscape, all are said to be working. In physics, ho
energy: The work-energy the word Work' covers a definite and precise me.
theorem
Somebody who has the capacity to work for 14-16 h
6.3 Work
day is said to have a large stamina or energy. We ad
6.4 Kinetic energy
long distance runner for her stamina or energy. Ene
6.5 Work done by a variable
thus our capacity to dowork. n Physics too, the term'e
force
6.6 The work-energy theorem for
in
is related to work this sense. but as said above the
a variable force work itself is defined much more precisely. The word
is used in everyday life with different shades of meani
6.7 The concept of potential karate or boxing we talk of 'powerful punches. Thes
energy delivered at a great speed. This shade of meaning is cl
6.8 The conservation of
the meaning of the word
mechanical energy 'power used in physics. We
find that there is at best a loose correlation betwee
6.9 The potential energy of a physical definitions and the physiological pictures
spring terms generate in our minds. The aim of this
6.10Various forms of energy the chapten
law of conservation of energy develop an understanding of these three physical quant
Before we proceed to this task, we need to devel
6.11 Power mathematical prerequisite, namely the scalar
6.12 Collisions vectorS.
product c=
Summary 6.1.1 The Scalar Product
Points to ponder
We have learnt about vectors and their in
Exercises use Chapt-
Additional exercises Physical quantities like displacement, velocity, accelera=
force etc. are vectors. We have also learnt how vectors
Appendix 6.1
added or subtracted. We now need to know how vectors
multiplied. There are two ways of multiplying vectors w
we shall come across one
: way known as the scalar prod
gives a scalar from two vectors and the other known as
vector product produces a new vector from two vectors
shall look at the vector product in Chapter 7. Here
we
up the scalar product of two vectors. The scalar produc
dot product of any two vectors A and B, denoted as AB
 RGY AND P O W E R J15
NERG
E
B 1 s
d e i i e da s

(6.1a)
A A+A,j+ A,k
AB-ABCOs the two vectors as B-Bi+Bj+B,k
between
i st l ea n
dde
A. B and cos 0 are
their scalar product is
Since

6.1 [a). and B is a scalar

7 1i nF i s FIg. oduct of A
i h e d o tp r o d u c t

direction AB-(4,i+A,j+ A,k)-{B,i+ B,j+ B,k)

and
ach vector, A. B, has a
not have a
/ scalar produ duct does =
A,B +A, B, +A,B, (6.1b)
lheir
From the definition of scalar product and

We
have
(Eq. 6.1b) we have:
(6.
la). (1) A.A = A,A, + A,A, + A,A,
Eq.
, AB A(Bcos 0)

B(A cos 6) Or, A-A+A3+A (6.1c)

the projection of B onto
6is since AA= IA | IAl cos 0 =
AA.
co
etrically. B c os

A cos 0 is the projection of A

1) A B =0, if A and B are perpendicular
i (b)and
So, A:B is the product of
Fig. 6.1 (c). of Balong Example 6.1 Find the angle between force
mitude ofA and the component
it is the product
of the F (3i+4j-5k)unit and displacement
e rnatively, B.
and the component of A along
miludeof B Also find the
d (5i+4j+3k)unit.
(6. la)
shows that the scalar product
atation law: projection of F on d.
commutative

NS the Answer F-d = F.d, + F,d, + F_d,

A-B B A 3 (5) + 4 (4) +-5) (3)
the distributive
obeys = 16 unit
alar product = 16 unit
Hence F.d
= Fd cos8
A- (B+C) = A-B +A.C
Now F F =F = F2 + F +F
ther. A- (A B)A(A-B) = 9 + 16+25

ere Ais a real number. 50 unit

are left to
of the above equations
proofs
as an exercise.
and d-d1 = d= d+d +d
= 25+16 +9
unit vectors i, j,k we have = 50 unit

ii=jj=kk=1 COS 6 5 0 50
16 16=0.32,
50
ij=j.k=k.i =0 8 cosl 0.32
Rn two vectors

B cos 0 K

(a) b)
A B cos 6. (b) B cos 6 is the projection
and B is scalar: A B =

la) The scalarproduct of tuwo vectors A a

QfB onto A (c) A cos 6 is the projection ofA onto B.

 l16
AND KINETIC
6.2 NOTIONS OF WORK to be proportional to
ENERGY: THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM the
but is otherwise ed of he
motion under a drop of mass 1.00 gletermine
The following relation for rectilinear
encountered .00 km. falling
It hits the from
constant acceleration a has been ground with
in Chapter 3, 50.0 ms' (a) What i_ the
workdee
(6.2) gravitational force ? What is the
- u = 2 as
where u and v are the initial and final speeds
by the unknown resistive force
and s the distance traversed. Multiplying both
Answer (a) The change in kinetie
sides by m/2, we have drop is energ
= mas = Fs
m - mu' (6.2a) K-m-o
where the last step follows from Newton's Second
Law. We can generalise Eq. (6.2) to three x10x50x 50
dimensions by employing vectors = 1.25J

-u=2 a.d where we have assumed that the drop is in

at rest.
Here a and d are acceleration and displacement
Assuming that g is a constant with a
vectors of the object respectively.
10 m/s, the work done by the gravitational
Once again multiplyingboth sides by m/2, we obtain
is,
= m ad =F.d
m mu (6.2b) W=mgh
= 103 x10x103

The above equation provides a motivation for = 10.0 J

the definitions of work and kinetic energy. The (b) From the work-energy theorem
left side of the equation is the difference in the
quantity half the mass times the square of the AK Wg +W,
speed' from its initial value to its final value. We where W is the work done by the resistive fc
call each of these quantities the 'kinetic energy', on the raindrop. Thus
denoted by K. The right side is a product of the W =AK-W
displacement and the component of the force = 1.25-10
along the displacement. This quantity is called - 8.75J
work' and is denoted by W. Eq. (6.2b) is then
is negative.

K-K W (6.3) 6.3 WORK

where K and K, are respectively the initial and As seen earlier, work is related to force and
final kinetic energies of the object. Work refers displacement over which it acts. Conside
to the force and the displacement over which it constant force F acting on an object of mas
acts. Work is done by a force on the body over The object undergoes a displacement d in
a certain displacement. positive x-direction as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Equation (6.2) is also a special case of the
in
work-energy (WE) theorem : The change
kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the
work done on it by the net force. We shall 6.
force
generalise the above derivation to a varying
in a later section. 7777T77ATTTTTT7T(T77777
d
a
Example 6.2 It is well known that
of the Fig. 6.2 object undergoes a displacen
raindrop falls under the influence
downward gravitational force and the der the influence ofthe force F
opposingresistive force. The
latter is known
 KGYAND POWER
ER

b yt h e i
force is defined to be Table
Table
V
o r kd o n eb p
6.1
ponent
of the force in the Alternatlve Units of
duct
ofco Work/Energy in J
displacement and the
t h e
o n o ft h erg
roa is displacement. Thus
f t h i s

electron volt (eV) 10J

p i t u d eo
- e o s0 ) d = F . d (6.4) 1.610"J
calorle (cal)
is no displacennent, there 4.186J
there kilowatt hour (KWh)
if ven iftheforce is large. Thus, 3.6 10"J
hard agatnst a rigicd brick wal1,
onthe wall docs no work. Yet
ve alternatively contracting and Example 6.3 A cyclist comes to a skidding
ternal energy is being used up stop in 10m. During this
on the proress, 1the forre
et tircd. Th the meaning of work cycle due to the road is 200 N and
is
A:terent from its usage in everyday
d i l l
directly opposed to the motion. (al How
1S

S
much work does the roal do on
s 7 0
the rycle?
(b) How much work does the
cycle do on
d o n c
if the road ?
is
rk placement is zero as seen in the

(Nanple
above. A weightlifter holding a 150 Answer Work done on the
steadily on his shoulder for 30 s the work done by the
cycle by the road is
n0 work on he load during this time. stopping (frictional) force
on the cycle due to the road.
darCC is zero. A block moving on a smooth
(a) The stopping force and the
E
horizon
al table is not acted upon by a an angle of 180
dispacement make
(T rad) with each other.
horizonlalfo (sincethere is no friction), but
Thus, work done by the road.
a
nay undergo large displacement. W= Fd cose
dhe force and displacement are mutually
=
rTDendicular. This is so since, for 6= t/2rad 200 x 10x cos t
E 90). cos n/2) = 0. For the block moving on - 2000 J
smooth horizontal table, the gravitational It is this negative work that brings the cycle
force mg does no work since it acts at right to a halt in accordance with WE theorem.
angles to the displacement. If we assume that (b) From Newton's Third Law an equal and
the moon's orbits around the earth is opposite force acts on the road due to the
perfectly circular then the earth's cycle. Its magnitude is 200 N. However. the
gravitational force does no work. The moon's road undergoes no displacement. Thus.
instantaneous displacement is tangential work done by cycle on the road is zero.
while the earth's force is radially inwards and The lesson of Example 6.3 is that though the
Tn/2. force on a body A exerted by the body B is always
Work can be both positive and negative. If 0 is equal and opposite to that on B by A (Newton's
tween 0° and 90°, cos 0 in Eq. (6.4) is positive. Third Law); the work done on A by B is not
is between 90° and 180°, cos 6 is negative. necessarily equal and opposite to the work done
many examples the frictional force opposes on B by A.
placement and 6 = 180°. Then the work done
6.4 KINETIC ENERGY
iction is negative (cos 180°=1).
From Eq. (6.4) it is clear that work and energy As noted earlier, if an object of mass m has
ve the same dimensions, [MLT]. The SI unit velocity v, its kinetic energy K is
hese is joule (J), named after the famous British
'sicist James Prescott Joule (1811-1869). Since K =
v.v =

K and energy are so widely used as physical

m mu
2
(6.5)
epts, alternative units abound and some of Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity. The kinetic
ese are listed in Table 6.1. energy of an object is a measure of the work an
 I18
(K)
Table 6.2 Typical kinetic energies

Object Mass (kg)Speed (m s')KJ)

2000 6.3x10
Car 10
70 3.5x10
Running athlete
Sx102 200 10
Bullet
10m 10
Stone dropped from
Rain drop at terminal speed 3.5x10 14x10
s1026 500 10
Air molecule

This is illustrated in Fig. 6.3a

motion. This
can
do by the virtue of its
object successive rectangular areas in Flo
notion has been intuitively
knowm for a long time.
done as
stream get the total work
The kinetic energy of a fast flowing
corn. Sailing
has been used to grind
of the wind. Table WeFwax
ships employ the kinetic energy
for various
6.2 lists the kinetic energies where the summation is from the initial u
objects. x to the final position x

Example 6.4 In a ballistics demonstration If the displacements are allowed toappr

a police officer fires a
bullet of mass 50.0g zero, then the number of terms in the
on soft increases without limit, but the sum appro
with speed 200 m s (see Table 6.2)
The bullet a definite value equal to the area underthe
plywood of thickness 2.00 cm.
emerges with only 10% ofitsinitial
kinetic in
of the Fig. 6.3(b). Then the work done is
energy. What is the emergeit speed
bullet ?
limrlxax
W Ax 0
Answer The initial kinetic energy
of the bullet
=
1000 J. It has a final kinetic energy
is mu'/2
100J. Ifv, is the emergent speed
of0.1x1000 - JFr)dr
of the bullet,
2 where 'lim stands for the
limit thesum
of
mu=100 J for a varying
2 Ax tends to zero. Thus,
be expressed as a def
2x100 J the work done can
over displacement (see a
U O.05 kg integralof force
Appendix 3.1).
= 63.2 msl:
approximately 68% Area AA =F(%JAx
The speed is reduced by
(not 90%).
F(x)T
VARIABLE FORCE
6.5 WORK DONE BYA

constant force is rare.

It is the varlable force,
A encountered. Fig. 6.3
which is more commonly dimension.
force in one
is a plot of a varying can take
displacement Ax is small, we
If the constant and
a s approximately
the force F )
then
the work done is Fig. 6.3(a
AW=F Ax
 The Nork
Work done by the
Warea ofof thehe rlctlonal force 119
- 1000 J rectange AGHI
(-50)x20rectang
The area
0 has a on the
b) negatlve
slgn.negatlve side of the
6.3
(a) T 6.8 THE force axis
work dor
shaded rectangle
by i the represents the
thesmal varying jorce F), We are VARIABLE
wORK-FORCE
ENERGY THEOREM
displacement
(b) adding the area Ax, AW =
over and now FOR M
find t of all the Fl) Ax kinetic famillar with the
for Ax-0, the area rectangles we theorem for energy to
is exactly equal to the under the a prove concepts of work
work curve ourselves to onevarlable sorce.the work
done by Fxd, energy
xample 6.5
Awoman
change of kinetic dimension. The We confine
pushes a energy is time rate of
a railway platfor on dk dm'
Surlace. She
which has trunk
a dt
plies a force of 100 Nrough dtm
distance of 10 m.
over a
wTeSsively tired and
her
Thereafter,
she gets
educes linearly with distanceapplied force m dudt
Ve
total distamce to 50 N. The =Fu
been
through
moved is 20 which the from Newton's Second
by the woman
m. Plot trunk has
the force Law)
and the at
Is 50 N
versus frictional force,applied
which Thus
work done by the displacement.
two forces over 20 m. Calculate the dK Fdx
Answer
Integrating from the initial
F
position (x,). we have position x,) to final
100 C
6.7 K
50 dK =|Fdx
hen
0A D
orce 10 m
where, K, and K, are the
:20 m X and final
nit kinetic
x, and
energies corresponding toinitial
also S-50-**** xr
9.6.4 Plot of the
force F
applied by the woman and or K-K, = Fdx
the opposing
frictional force f versus (6.8a)
displacement. From Eq. (6.7), it follows that
The plot of the applied force is shown in K- K = W
= Fig.
. At x 20 m, F 50 N (# 0). We are (6.8b)
Thus, the WE theorem is proved for a
at the frictional force fis Ifl=50 N. It given force. variable
to F. It
Olion and acts in a direction oppositeopposes
While the WE theorem is useful in a
herefore, shown on the negative side of the variety of
orce axis. problems, it does not, in general, incorporate the
The work done
by the woman is complete dynamical information of Newton's
second law. It is an integral form of Newton's
area of the rectangle ABCD + area of second law. Newton's second law is a relation
he trapezium CEID
between acceleration and force at any instant of
time. Work-energy theorem involves an integral
Wp =100x10+100+50) x10 Over an interval of time. In this sense, the tempora
= 1000 +750 (time) information contained in the statement of
Newton's second law is 'integrated over' and is
= 1750 J
 120
not available explicitly. Another observatlon Istha are like 'eompressed
sprlngse
Newton's second law for two or three dimenslon large amount of potentlal ene
results when these fault Hnes
is in vector form whereas the work-enerky ergy. Ane
theorem is in scalar form. In the scalar lorm, polentlal energy Is the stored eadyra
of the posItlon or
information with respect to directtons contalned conitlguratlo energi
in Newton's second law is not present. body left fo Itsell releases thls s.
he form ofkinetie enery. Let us tm
Example 6.6 A block of mass m =1 kg. of potential energy more concrete
moving on a horizontal surface with speed The lorce on a
gravitatlonal ball.
2 ms' enters a rough patch ranging mg.gmay be treated asa constant
from x=0. 10 mto x=2.01 m. The retarding surface. By 'near we imply that the
force Fon the block in this rangeis inversely the ball above the carth's surfacei luri
proportional to x over this range compared to the earth's radiusR (he
we can ignore the varlation of g near t
K
F for 0.1 <x<2.01 m surface". In what follows we have t
upward direction to be positive. Let us
0 for x <0.1m and.x> 2.01 m ball up to a helght h. The work done bythe
where k= 0.5 J. What is the final kinetic agency agalnst the gravitational force ls m
energy and speed v, of the block as it work gets stored as potentlal tn
crosses this patch ? Gravitational potential energy of an objer
function ofthe height h, is denoted by Mh.
Answer From Eq. (6.8a) is the negative of work done by the grait
force in raising the object to that height,
K, =K,+ d V(h) = mgh
X If h is taken as a variable, it is easily seen
O.1
the gravitational force F equals the negal
the derivative of VIh} with respect to h. Thu
mu-k In(x)0
F - Vh) = -mg
dh
muf-k In (2.01/0.1) The negative sign indicates that
gravitational force is downward. When relk=
2-0.5 In (20.1) the ball comes down with an increasing s
2 - 1 . 5 =0.5J Just before it hits the ground, its speed isg
by the kinematic relation,
y2K,/m =Ims V=2gh
This equation can be written as
for the natural
Here, note that In is a symbol to mv = mgh
e and not the logarithm
logarithm to the base 2
the base 10[In X= log, X=2.303log,,X].
which shows that the gravitational poter
POTENTIAL ENERGY at height h, when theo
cONCEPT OF energy of the object
6.7 THE
or
manifests itself as kinetic ener
possibility is released,
The word potential suggests the object on reaching the ground.
energy notion of potential ener
for action. The term potential
capacity stretched Physically, the
A where"
mind 'stored' energy. the class of forces
brings to one's When it applicable only to
potential energy. done against the
force gets 'stored up' ase
bow-string possesses are
constraints remov
arrow flies off at a great speed.. external
is released, the but has When
is not uniform, kinetic energy. Mathema
manifests itself as
The earth's crust that are called dimension) thepo
dislocations in one
discontinuities and (for simplicity,
earth's crust
lines. These fault lines in the
fault
Gravitation.
discussed in Chapter8 orn
varation ofg
with height is
The
 N R G Y A N DP U

defin
ned.if the force Flx) can
) is.
be
which means
dV nd hat V. the
as Over potential enerp f
sum of the
r(X dx the ti
kinetin
whole path, the borly ls a
hat K, Wx) ytox, this omstant
The K, means that
quantity K x)
is
TT PINdx=-J
dV=V- V, the
mechanieal energy +V).
of the total calied the
kinetie energy
Vx) may K system.
and the Indtidually
a conservative Is a vary from
done by force such prarntial
as
: on the initial and sumn
final
constant, Thepoint to peoint, but theenergy
thneean theprevioUs chapter we havepositions
worked conservative
let forre' is nw
aptness of the
term
STm us rlear
s dealing with inclined consider sone of the
mis
If an planes. conservative force. definitinns of a
n l a s s
SOh ol
mis released from rest,
from the A force
hict
eart
ken n Smooth
rictionless) Flj is coiervative if it
ran
inclined plane of from a te derive
heighi h. its speed at the bottom scalar
alse given by Ey. (6.9). quantity ty the relation
exten 2gh irrespectiv of the angle of inclination. The
ghT the bottom of
the inclined
generalisation requires thethree-dimensional
use of a
vertor
enere Thus,
derivative, which is outside the
ect uires a inetic energy, mgh. If the plane it book. scope of this
work done The work done
hana kinetic energy did depend on other by the
conservative
or
factors force
itatio. the velocity the This
seen can
depends only on the end points.
particular from the be
y the object, the force would be path taken relation.
called non- -

n t onscrvative. W=K-K = V(x)

which Vlx)
on the end
tThe dimensions of
potential Athird
depends points.
gative 21
and the unit is joule (J), theenergy are definition states that work done the
same as
This is
Thus kinetic cnergy or work. To by this force in a closed path is zero.
reiterate, the once
again apparent from Eq. (6.11) since
x X.
npotential energy. for a conservativechange
Vis equal to the force,
he lorce
negative of the work done by Thus, the principle of conservation of
total
at t AV Fd Ax
mechanical energy can be stated as
elease (6.9) The total mechanical
g SDes In the example of the energy of a system is
falling ball considered in conserved if the forces,
doing work on it, are
isgs sSeclion we saw how
potential energy was conservative.
onverted to kinetic energy. This hints at an The above discussion can be
made more
mportant principle of conservation in mechanics, concrete by considering the example of the
hich we now proceed to examine. gravitational force once again and that of the
8 THE CONSERVATION OF MECHANICALL spring force in the next section. Fig. 6.5 depicts
a ball of mass m
ENERGY being dropped from a cliff of
height H.
tenti or simplicity we demonstrate this important
objciple for one-dimensional motion. Suppose
ergyat a body undergoes displacement Ax under
e action of a conservative force F. Then from
rgy ne WE theorem we have.
e won AR Fx) Ax
e force is conservative. the potential energy H
ticall
unction VMx can be defined suci that
-AV Flx) Ax
e
entia he
Fig. 6.5 The conversion of potential enerqy to kinetic
above equations imply that
AR+ AV 0 energy Jor a ball of mass m dropped from a
A(R + V) =0 6.10) height H.
 122
The total nmechanical energles E, E and E Answer () There are two
zero (ground the bob :
ofthe ball at the indicated heights gravity
and the
level). h and H, are string. The latter does
no. tenslm
(6.11 a) displacemnent of the bob ls
E mgH string. The potentla alway
(6.11 b)
energy of
assoclated with the gravltatlonal
E mgh +mus
(6.11 c)
total mechanical energy E of
E (1/2 mu? conserved. We takethe
The constant force is a special case of a spatially system to be zero at the potentlale
dependent force Flx). Hence, the mechantcal
lowest ener
lowest prin
at A
energy is conserved. Thus
EE
or,
E=mu
2
mgH =mu
U2gH T-mg= TLd
a result that was obtained in section 3.7 for a
L Newton's Secon
where T is the tension in the
string at
freely falling body. highest point C, the string slackens
Further tension in the string (T) becomes
E= E zero.
which implies, Thus, at C

U2g(H-h) (6.11 d)
and is a familiar result from kinematics.
E-mu+2mgL
At the height H, the
energy is purely potential.
It is partially converted to kinetic at mg=" [Newton's Second Law
height h and L
is fully kinetic at
ground level. This illustrates
the conservation of mechanical
energy. where v is the speed at C. From Eqs. (6.
6.14)
Example 6.7 Abob of mass mis suspended
by a light string oflength It is imparted
a
horizontal velocity v, at the lowest pointA
such that it completes a semi-circular
B-mg
Equating this to the energy at A
trajectory in the vertical plane with the string
becoming slack only on reaching the topmost 5
point, C. This is shown in Fig. 6.6.Obtain an mgL-
expression for () v; (i) the speeds at points Or, VoV5gL
Band C: ii) the ratio of the kinetic energies
K/K) at B and C. Comment on the nature (i) It is clear from Eq. (6.14)
of the trajectory of the bob after it reaches
the point C. At B, the energy is

mg Emug +mgL
iTTe

Equating this to the energy at A and emp

the result from (), namely v = 5qL.

1
nu + mgl =mu
2

mg
mgL
Fig. 6.6
 2GY AND POWER

ermal . U' V3gL

ion (T)
ork simce t
h.e kinetic
of
Sorces 1alio energies at Band C W =.
nomalbob is toh 1th

he only. T
orce system 2 616
oint 2
energyA.Tho F, -0
he
string becomes slack -0
t h e bob is
X- 01
t h OniCcling
horizontal and to theandleft.theIr
instlt.
ing string is cut at If
i l l C x c
JectilS

Projection
cute a projectilethis instant, the
in to motion with (6)
TTTTTTTTTTIATTTTTTTT -F, is negative
X 19 positive
iontal a
ond Law from the edge of a rock kicked
b will l cont
on its
cliff.
at A. Atth continue circular Otherwise
l the revolution. path and TTTTTTTTTTTTT
o n l

ns, as th
ro. 6.9
HE POTENTIAI ENERGY OF A F, is positive
The sprii
o force is an SPRING om X1S negative

nhic
is conservat
example of a variable force
hed to a spring
Fig. 6.7 shows a
and block
resting on a X
6.13 aOtal surtace. The smooth
TTTTTT 7TTTTTTTTT
horiz other X=0
is atached to a rigid wall. Theend of the spring
e is
6 and may treated as
spring light
the
massless. In an ideal
ring. spring force F, is F
.13) a Where x is the proportional to
displacement of the block from
le equilibrium position. The Area-
be either positive |Fig.
displacement could -kx
6.7(b)] or negative
IFig. 6.7(c)]. This force law for the
spring is called
Hooke's law and is mathematically stated as (d) B

F.= - kx

The constant k is called the spring constant. Its

unit is N m'. The spring is said to be stiffif kis
large and soft if k is small.
Fig. 6.7 Illustration of the spring force with a biock
Suppose that we pull the block outwards as in attached to the free end of the spring.
Fig. 6.7(b). If the extension is x the work done by (a) The spring force F, is zero when the
the spring force is displacement x from the equilibrium position
is zero. (b) For the stretched spring x> 0
and F. <0 (c) For the compressed spring
m x<0 and F.> 0.(d) The plot of F, versus x
= dx
W F, dx - kx The area of the shaded triangle represents
O
Due to the
the work done by the springforce.
and x, this uork dore is
in opposing signs of F,
(6.15) negative, W, = -kxn /2.
2
also be o b t a i n e d by the spring is
This expression may a s in is true when
same
of the triangle The
Considering the a r e a 0). Thee
a displacement x (k
done by the compressed with
that the work the
-
=
Fig. 6.7(d). Note since it kx/2 while
force F is positive force does work W,
CXternalpulling spring
Overcomes the spring
force.
 124
and vice versa, however, the
/2.If the block
Thlsotst1s
extermal force Fdoeswork + k energy remains consta
to a depicted in Fig. 6.8.
is moved from an initial displacement x
final displacement x,the work
,
done by the
spring force W is

kx .17)
W- kxdx =

Thus the work done by the spring force depends

only on the end points. Specifically. if the
block
is pulled from x and allowed to return to x

W, = -kxdr
-
= 0 18) Fig. 6.8 Parabolic plots of the potential
The work done by the spring force in a cyclic kinetic energy K of a block attoolenergyy
spring obeying Hooke's law. The
process is zero. We have explicitly demonstrated
that the spring force ) is position dependent
are complementary, one
decreasin
other increases. The total
only as fîirst stated by Hooke, (F, = - kx): (i) mech
energy E=K+ Vremains constant
does work which only depends on the initial and
final positions, e.g. Eq. (6.17). Thus, the spring
force is a conservative force. Example 6.8 To simulate car accidents aut
We define the potential energy Vd of the spring manufacturers study the collisions of movina
cars with mounted springs of diferent
to be zero when block and spring system is in the spring
equilibrium position. For an extension (or constants. Consider atypical simulation with
a car of mass 1000 kg
compression) x the above analysis suggests that moving with a spee
18.0 km/h on a smooth road and collidin
with a horizontally mounted spring of sprin
Va)- 2 (6.19) constant 10
6.25 x Nm'What is
You may easily verify that dV/dx = - kx, the maximum compression of the spring?
force. If the block
spring of mass min Fig. 6.7is
extended to x and released from rest, then its Answer At maximum compression the ki
total mechanical energy at any arbitrary point x energy of the car is converted entirely int
where xlies between -x and +x will be given by potential energy of the spring.
The kinetic energy of the moving car is
Xm x+mu 1
where we have invoked the conservation of K=m
mechanical energy. This suggests that the speed
and the kinetic energy will be maximum at the =x105x5s
equilibrium position. x =0, i.e.,
K 1.25x 10* J
x where we have converted 18 km h to 5 ms
useful to remember that 36 km hrl = 10

where v is the maximum speed. At maximum compression the x po

energy V of the spring is equal to the -
energy Kof the moving car from the prin-
or Vnm x conservation of mechanical energy.

Note that k/m has the dimensions of IT]

our equation is dimensionally correct. The
and
kinetic energy gets converted to potential energy
 AND
POWER
NKOAND
10'J
N
x
1.25
= tkx
= 2.00 m

idealise the situation. Jumng

l We

1sidered
b e e n
to be
massless. The
h a v e

considered to possess
c o n s
TTTTTT77TTTTTATT cquilibrium
mg position
1ion.

few
this
section by making a
Fig. 6.9 Theforces acting on the car.
tl COservative forces.

is abs
sent from the above
on
time
AK =K- K =0-m
on
example considered 2
i1sS1O11S.

as.
In
In the
t}he

The work done by the net force is

compression, but
/ .
calculate the
W CC n

Over
which the comnpression
-lox gX
i m e

of Newton's Second Law W -um

A Solution
is required
for temporal
tlhis
system Equating we have
nlor7nation.
conservative. Friction, for
torces are
all,

non- -conservative force. The mu-kx+ jum g Xn

is a
ple. of energy will have
of c o n s e r v a t Now umg 10*x 10 5 x 103N (taking
= 0.5 x
=

This is illustrated above

After rearranging the
principle

in this case.
e nmodified g =10.0 ms).
ol
the following quadratic
m Example 6.9.
equation we obtain
energy is arbitrary. equation in the unknown x,
he zero of the potential
tO Convenience. For the
according
It is set mu' =0
V) 0, at x = 0, i.e. the
force we took
=
k xm +24um g xn -

spring had zero potential

nstretched spring force mg+u*m*g* + mku"|
energy. For
the constant gravitational -
surface. In m
took V=0 on the earth's
mg. we the force root since
that for take the positive square
a later
chapter w e shall see where we
values w e
universal law of gravitation, the Putting in
numerical
due to the X is positive.
infinite distance
zero is best defined at an obtain
from the gravitational
source. However, once
Xm1.35 m
is fixed in a result in
the zero of the potential energy expected, is less than the
consistently which, as
given discussion,
it must be Example 6.8.
adhered to throughout the discussion. You the body consist of a
If the two forces on
horses in midstream! and a
non-conservative
cannot change conservative force F.
force Fc the of
conservation mechanical energy

Example 6.9 Consider Examplebe6.8 taking formula will have to be

modified. By the WE
the coeficient of friction, , to
0.5 and
theoremn
of the
calculate the maximum compression (F+ Pc) Ax =
AK

spring But F Ax= - AV

A(K + V) = FnAx
Answer In presence of friction, both the spring Hence AE = FAx
force and the frictional force act so as to oppose

spring as shown in where E is the total mechanical energy. Over

the compression of the
the path this assumes the form
Fig. 6.9.
We invoke the work-energy theorem, rather E-E Wc
than the conservation of mechanical energy. where W is the total work done by the
The change in kinetic energy is non-conservative forces over the path. Note that
 Chemical eniergy arises
on
from the
participating in
in the che t
depends molerules
forre. W different binding cnerg
conservatie es. A
have
the has s eTETRY tharn
unlike
i to LAW onour
particular
path THE Achemicalreactiom.is bastralhy ate
the ENERGY:
PORMS OF ENERGY
ofatoms. Ifthe totale of the
VARIoUS

CONSERVATION
OF
6.10 d i s c u s s e d

products ofthereactir
OF have than the
we canbe reaction Is said to he
section

previous seen
that it and the
the based reverse is true
n We have one heat is
energv. categories : reaction. Ifthe
mechanical distinct other on endothermin
into two the is
classified energ:
kinetic
namely
the reactiona kilogram ofit when
motion. potentialenergY carbon and
on namely translorm
(position). wBhich Jofenergy.
onfiguration forms
a olten about 3x 10
in many
comes
not is associated w
Energy which may Chemical energy
a n o t h e r in ways
into one rise to the stability ofsubs
that give into
be clear to us. molecules,
e
forces bind atoms
chains. etc. The chem
6.10.1 Heat is nota
frictional force
polymeric c o m b u s t i o n of coa]. r
seen that the associated from the
We have However.
work is arising
force. of is indispensabie
conservative
6.5. A block wood and petroleum
Example
with the force offriction. horizontal surface existence.

on a rough
mass m sliding distance
a X 6.10.3 Electrical Energ
comes to a halt over
with speed v, kinetic frictionJ
by the force of
The work done theorem electrical current causes t
work-energy The low of
Over fy By the
x, is to rotate and
bells to ring The
=
our scope to glow. fans attraction and
mv/2 If we confine the repuis
J X laws governing
that the kinetic energy which we shal
mechanics, we would say force. and currents,
due to the frictional
charges
of the block is lost we Energy
later.
is associated with an eje
block and the table cons
On examination of the current. An urban Indian household
increase in their
would detect a slight
done by friction is not about 200Jofenergy per second on an ave
temperatures. The work
heat energy. This
lost, but is transferred as 6.10.4 The Equivalence of Mass and Ene
raises the internal energy of
the l ck and the
nineteenth century. pBysi
warm, we Till the end ofthe
table. In winter, in order to feel believed that in every physical and chem
our palms
generate heat by vigorously rubbing mass of an isolated system
shall see later that the intermal process, the
together. We conserved. Matter might change its phase, e
with the ceaseless, often
energy is associated
A idea
random, motion ofmolecules. quantitative glacial ice could melt into a gushing stream,
of the transfer of heat energy is obtained by matter is neither created nor destroyed; Abe
that 1 of water releases about 42000 J Einstein(1879-1955) however. showed that mas
noting kg
by10 °C. and energy are equivalent and are related
of energy when it cools
the relation
6.10.2 Chemical Energg
One of the greatest technical achievements of E= mc 6.20
vacuum i
humankind occurred when we discovered how where c, the speed of light in
approximately 3 x10 ms, Thus, a staggerm
to ignite and control fire. We learnt to rub two
amount of energy is associated with a mer
flint stones together (mechanical energy). got
them to heat up and to ignite a heap of dry leaves kilogram of matter
E=1x (3 x10°* J = 9 x1016J.
(chemical energy). which then provided
sustained warmth. A matchstick ignites into a This is equivalent to the annual electrical outp
bright flame when struck against a specially
prepared chemical surface. The lighted
ofalarge (3000 MW) power generating station
matchstick, when applied to a firecracker, 6.10.5 Nuclear Energy
results in a spectacular display of sound and The most destructive weapons made by man, t

light. fission and fusion bombs are manifestations

 ANDPOWER

6 . 3
Oximate energy
A p p r o x i m .

oclated with varlous

Table
phenomena
Desoription
Energy (J)
cmitted by
by
emftted
the
the galaxy during 10
R:do
CerAV

al cnergy of the Mtlky Way

tts lifetime
102
EneAy
eleascd In a supernova exploston
hydrogen n ston
Occan's
energy of the carth
12otational lo29
al solar energy nt on the carth
N wind energy dissipated near earth's surface
5x10
10
Ani global energy usage by human
Annual energy dissipated by the ticles 3x10
2anerey release of 15-megaton fuslon bonb
10
Annual electrical output of large generating plant 10'
Thunderstorm

10
Enery released in burning 1000 kg of coal
3x10'0
Kinettc energy of a large jet aircraft,
Energy released in burning 1 Htre of gasoline 10
3x10
Daily food intake of a human adult
Work done by a human heart per beat
10
0.5
Turning this page
103
Flea hopP 107

Discharge of a single neuron l0o

Typical energy ofa proton in a nucleus lo13

Typical energy of an electron in an atom 1018

Energy to break one bond in DNA 1020

bove equivalence of mass and energy [Eq.

Example 6.10 Examine Tables 6.1-6.3
On the other hand the explanation of the and express (a) The energy required to
iourishing energy output of the s u n is also break one bond in DNA in eV; (b) The
d on the above lequation. In this case kinetic energy of an air molecule (10-21 J)
tively four light hydrogen nuclei fuse to form in eV: (c)The daily intake of a human adult
lium nucleus whose mass is less than the in kilocalories.
1of the masses of the reactants. This mass
called the mass defect Am is the Answer (a) Energy required to break one bond
erence,
of energy (Am)c?, In fision, a heavy
erce of DNA is
leus like uranium 2U. is split by a neutron 10-20J
0.06 eV
lighter nuclei. Once again the final mass is 1.6x101sJ/eV
than the initial mass and the mass difference
nslates into energy, which can be tapped to
Note 0.1 eV= 100 meV (100 millielectron volt).
Ovide electrical energy as in nuclear power
(b) The energy of a n air molecule is
ants (controlled fission) or can be
nuclear kinetic
mployed in making nuclear weapons 10-21J
ancontrolled nuclear fission). Strictly., the energy 0.0062 eV
1.6x107J/eV
aEreleased in a chemical reaction can also be
Telated to the mass defect Am = AE/¢. However, This is the same as 6.2 meV.
or a chemical reaction, this mass defect is much (c) The average human consumption in a day is
smaller than for a nuclear reaction. Table 6.3
lists the total energies for a variety of events and 10J
2400 kcal
phenomema. 4.2x10 J/kcal
 128

We polnt out a mlsconceptlon crealed

common
W
mention P
by newspapers and magazlnes. They 1
food values In calortes and urge us to restrlct
diet Intake to below 2400 calorles. What they The Instantaneous power
is kilocalortes (kcal) and not
imiting value of the
should be saylng
calortes. A person consuming 2400 calorles a
avera
Interval approaches ero,
day will s0on starve to death! 1 food calorle ls dW
l kcal. dt

The work dWdone by a force

6.10.6 The Principle of Conservation of
dr is dW= F.dr. The
Ff
Energy also be expressed as
Instanta
We have seen that the total mechanlcal energy
ol the system is conserved if the forces doing work P=F,dr
on it are conservative. If some of the forces dt
involved are non-conservative, part of the = F.v
mechanical energy may get transformed into
other forms such as heat, where v is the instantaneous veloitys
light and sound. force is F
However. the total energy of an isolated system
does not change, as Power, like work and
long as one accounts for all energy. is
forms of energy.
Energy may be transformed from quantity. Its
dimensions are [MIT 1. . ,
its unit is called a watt (W).
one form to another but
the total energy of an The watti
The unit of power is named after
isolated system remains constant.
Energy can one of the innovators of the
Jame
neither be created, nor steam engir
destroyed.
Since the universe as a whole eighteenth century.
be
may viewed There is another unit of power,
as an isolated system, the total
energy of the horse-power (hp) name
universe is constant. If one of
loses energy, another
part the universe 1 hp = 746 W
part must gain an equal
amount of energy. This unit is still used to describe the
The principle of conservation of automobiles, motorbikes, etc. outp
be proved. However, no energy cannot We encounter the unit watt
violation of this principle when we
has been observed. The electrical goodssuch as bulbs,
concept of conservation heaterS
and transformation of
energy into various forms refrigerators. A 100 watt bulb which is on for
links together various branches of hours uses 1 kilowatt hour
(kWh) of energ.
physics,
chemistry and life sciences. It provides a 100 (watt)x 10 (hour)
=
1000 watt hour
unifying. enduring element in our scientific =1 kilowatt hour
pursuits. From engineering point of view all (kWVh)
=
10* (W)x 3600 (s)
electronic, communication and mechanical
3.6x 105 J
devices rely on some forms of energy
transformation. Our electricity bills carry the
consumption in units of kWh. energ
6.11 POWER Note that kWh
a unit of energy and not of
power.
Often it is interesting to know not
only the work
done on an object, but also the rate at which Example 6.11 An elevator can
carry
this work is done. We say a maximum load of 1800 kg
fit if he not only climbs four floors of aphysically
person is (elevator
building passengers) is moving up with a constan
but climbs them fast. Power is defined as the speed of 2 ms'. The frictional force opposing
time rate at which work is done or the motion is 4000 N. Determine
energy is
minimum power delivered by the
the
transferred. motor
The average power of a force is defined as the the elevator in watts as well as in hors
ratio of the work, W. to the total time t taken power
 iyA N DP O W E R 129
ward force on the elevator Is
t ed o W a r dl o r e
by the second particle. F,, Is likewlse the force
=
22000 N rfed on the second particle by the frst particle
10)+ 4000
1800x Now from Newton's third law. F,, FThis
power to balance Implies
u I s ls u p p llyenough,
AP,+AP, 0
59 hp
=44000W
=

d2 The above concluslon Is true even

though tne
forces vary in a conplex fashion during the
yOLLISIONs
collislon time At. Since the third law ls true at
motion (change in position).
sludy
to discover physical
every In_tant, the total impulse on the first object
We try
time.
in a physical is equal and opposlte to that on the second
11c change
hich doof11ot omentum and energy On the other hand, the total kinetic energy of
The laws
examples. In this the system 1s not necessarily conserved. The
are typical
impact and deformation during colliston mayy
s 1 a l i o n

thes laws to a commonly

shall apply
namely collisions. generate heat and sound. Part of the initlal kinetlc
ered phenomena,as billiards, marbles or
energy is transformed into other forms of energy
r i lames s u c h
A useful way to visualise the deformation during
collisions. shall study the
m involre

collision is in terms of a 'compressed spring. If

mnasses in an idealised form.
tO
of the 'spring' connecting the two masses regains
and m. The particle
.sider two masses m, its original shape without loss in energy. then
U the subscript t
speed the initial kinetic energy is equal to the final
with
moving
cosider m, to be at rest. the
ng initial. We can kinetic energy but the kinetic energy during
is involved in making such
ss of generality collision time Atis not constant. Such a collision
situation the m a s s m,
other hand
slection. In this is called an elastic collision. On the
the stationary mass m, and this and the two
ies with the deformation may not be relieved
in Fig. 6.10. bodies could move together after the collision. A
epicted
collision in which the two particles move together
inelastic
m after the collision is called a completely
where the
collision. The intermediate c a s e
of the
deformation is partly relieved and some
and
initial kinetic energy is lost is more common
m2 called an inelastic collision.
is appropriately
6.12.2 Collisions in One Dimension
m Vaf Consider first a completely inelastic
collision
A.10 Collisionofmassm, withastationary massm in one dimension. Then, in Fig. 6.10.
masses m, and m, fly-off in different
ctions. We shall see that there are
(momentum conservation)
ationships, which connect the masses, the m m, +m)u,
cities and the angles.
(6.23)
2.1 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
all collisions the total linear momentum is
Dsm+l2
The loss in kinetic energy on collision is
served; the initial momentum of the system
qual to the final momentum of the system.
Te can argue this as follows. When two objects AK-mv-m,
2
+m,)u
lide, the mutual impulsive forces acting over
Te collision time At cause a change in their
Spective momenta: mu-mi_ using Eq. (6.23)]
2 m +m2
Ap, = F At

AP F21 At
he is the force exerted on the frst particle m+ma2 J
 on head-on colllsion
An experiment

on collision on a horizontal surface, we fan

In performingan experiment with unlform velocities edi
bodies will not travel
One, there will be friction and to arrange therm tor ift
it would be diflicult
ofdifferent sizes collide on a table,
unless their centres of mass are at
the same helght above
the Surface. Threehead-oneo
bclore and Just after collieillbe
difficult to measure velocities of the
two bodies Just
vertical direction, all the three difficulti
in a
By performing this experiment and the otherlsh,
two balls, one ofwhich is heavier (basketball/football/volleyball)
ball/rubber ball/table ball). First take only the
tennis
heavier ball and drop if e e
some height, say 1 m. Note to which it rises. This gives the velocities near
near the
the floor floor or
Hence you gron
just before and just after the bounce (by usingu' =2gh ).
will get the coefficient of restitution.
Now take the big ball and a small ball and hold them in your
hands one over the other, with the heavier ball below the lighter
one, as shown here. Drop them together, taking care that they remain
together while falling. and see what happens. You will find that the
heavier ball rises less than when it was dropped alone, while the
lighter one shoots up to about 3 m. With practice, you will be able to
hold the ball properly so that the lighter ball rises vertically up and
does not fly sideways. This is head-on collision.
You can try to find the best combination of balls which gives you
the best effect. You can measure the masses on a standard balance.
We leave it to you to think how you can determine the initial and
final velocities of the balls.

2 m +mn2
Uis m, +ml2

which is a
positive quantity as expected. and 2s 2mU 6.2
Consider next an elastic collision. Using the
m +m2
Thus, the 'unknowns' {v,, v,} are obtained
above nomenclature with 6, = 6, 0, the
terms of the 'knowns' {m,, m,. v,). Special cas
momentum and kinetic energy conservation
of our analysis are interesting.
equations are
Case I: If the two masses are equal
m m,U,* m,v (6.24) 0
m,v = mUi, + m,v5s
(6.25)
The first mass.comes to rest and pushes offt
From Eqs. (6.24) and (6.25) it follows that, second mass with its initial speed on collision

Case II: If one mass dominates, e.g. m,>>

m,,lU -Uy)=m,vislvas -V,s)
or, The heavier mass is undisturbed whileth
lighter mass reverses its velocity.
= (i)Me, + 0j)
Example 6.12 Slowing down ofneutrons
Hence, (6.26) In a nuclear reactor a neutron of high
speed (typically 10 ms) must be slowed
Substituting this in Eq. (6.24), we obtain
 it
so that it can have a high
6.12.3 ollisions in 31
nteractingwith isotope 2j
92
ission. Show that a
Fig. 6.10 also nsions
mass m
with deptcts the
g it to

mosto f its kinetic energ the collislon of a

ision with a light nucle momentum
Since is stationary
conserved mass m.
moving
Lunear
wh
h has a nass
C a r b o n

momentum is a vectorin such a

collislon.
e
ente stthe
or

h e neutron mass,
The equatlons
Consider
for the
three
this
Implles three
king upthe light nuclei, usually the directions
plane determined lx.
(D,O) or phite, is called a velocity
be the directions of by the
y. z.
fînal
x-y plane. The m, and m, and
tiog choose t to
Z-component of conservatlon
that the entire the linear momentum of the
tial kinetic energy of the neutron collslon is in the *y Implies
xand
ycomponent equatlons are plane. The
m m,cos 0, +m,v,,cos 0,
mi
2 0 (6.29)
m,, sin 6,- mu, stn ,
saal kinetic energy from Eq. (6.27) One knows (6.30)
{m,
are thus four m,, u,}
in most
situations. There
m, m, m,i unknowns (,
m m+m2 only two equations. If 6 Dgr0, and 0,), and
Eq. (6.24) for one ,= 0, 0, we
dimensional collision. regain
If, further the collision is
jonalkinetic energy lost is
elastic,

m-ma m+m
We obtain
(6.31)
K m +ma) leaves us one
an additional equation. That still
e fractional kinetic energy gained by the equation short. At least one of
the four unknowns,
ing nuclei Ka/K, is say 6,, must be made known
for the problem to be solvable.
For example,
-f lelastic collision) can be determined 0,
by moving a detector in an
angular fashion from the x to the y axis. Given
4m,ma m. m. v| 0, we can determine (urr Var 6
m +m from Eqs. (6.29)-(6.31).

Example 6.13 Consider the collision

nalso verify this result by substituting depicted in Fig. 6.10 to be between two
6.28).
deuterium m, billiard balls with equal masses m, m. =

9while S, =
2m, and
=

8/9. Almost
we obtain
90% of the The first ball is called the cue while the
second ball is: called the target. The
is energy is transferred to deuterium. For
f= 71.6% and S, = 28.4%. In practice, billiard player wants to 'sink' the target
ball in a corner pocket, which is at an
er, this number is smaller since head-on
angle 0, =37°. Assume that the collision
ns are rare.
is elastic and
motion are not
that friction and rotational
he initial velocities and final velocities of important. Obtain 0
the bodies are along the same straight line,
Answer From momentum conservation, since
is called a one-dimensional collision, or the masses are equal
on collision. In the case of small spherical
s. this is possible if the direction of travel VV t+V2r
I passes
y through the centre of body 2 or
S at rest. In general, the collision is two - +V2)}{i +var)
Sonal, where the initial velocities and the = u+a +21y.Va
Avelocities lie in a plane.
132

The matter
={+D +20,h cos (4+37)(6.32) spherlcal masses
simpliw
Stnce the colision is elastic and m, = m, 1t follows assume that colllsion gp
from conservation of kinetic energy that bodles touch each
in the other
hertakesThis
(6.33)
ames of
In our
marbles
Comparing Eqs. (6.32) and (6.33), we get when two everyday world, colcarom
a
bodies touch eact
cos
comet coming from far
(6, +37) =0 alpha particle dh
Or , +37 90 going away in:some towetants
comingdirectle
Thus, 6, = 53° deal with forces
towwards
Such an event is called
se
involving act
This proves the following
result: when two equal and directions in
masses
which the
undergo a glancing elastic collision with par
one
depend on their nittal twO
of them at rest, after the collision,
they will type of interactie velodt
move at right angles to each other.
shapes and sizes. between ther

sUMMARY
1. The uwork-energy theorem states that the in kinetic
change
done by the net force on the body.
energy of a bode t.

2. A
K K= W
force is conservative if () work done by it on an is path
depends only on the end points x x. or (i) the workobject indepen
done by the force
arbitrary closed path taken by the object such that it returns to its is et
3 For a conservative force in one dimension, we may define a initial posi
such that potential enerjy funet
dV(x)
F) d dx

Or V-V, Fxdx
4. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that the total
energy of a body remains constant if the only forces that act on the mecha
5. The gravitational potential of
body are consema
energy a particle of mass m at a height about x
surface is the er
V) = m gx

where the variation of g with

6.
height is ignored.
The elastic potential
energy of a spring of force constant k and extension xis
Vx)-k
The scalar or dot product of two vectors A and B is written as A.B and is a
guantity given by : A.B= AB cos 6. where 8 is the angle between A and B.lIt
pOSItve, negative or zero depending upon the value of 6. The scalar productof
vectors can be interpreted as the product of magnitude of one vector andcompon
of the other vector along the first vector. For unit vectors

ii=jj=k=1 and ij-j k-ki=o

Scalar prodicts obey the commutátive and the distributive laws
Phy guantitySymbol Dimensions
Work W Units Remarks 133

Kinetic energy K
IMLT J
W F.d
MLT J
Potential energy Vix)
IMLT Kmu
J
Mechanical energy E
IMLT Fle)-dVe)
dx
Spring constant J
E K+V
IMT Nm
Power
F-kx
P
IMLT V-
W P Fv

P dw
POINTS TO PONDER dt
The
phrase 'calculate the work
clearly by context) to the done' is
given body work done by a incomplete. We should refer (or
over a certain specific force or a imply
2 Work done is a
scalar displacement. group forces on a
of
kinetic energy which quantity. It can be
or viscous
are positive or negative unlike mass and
positive scalar quantities.
force on a The work done
3. For two bodies, moving
the sum of thebody is
negative. by the friction
Newton's Third Law, mutual forces exerted between
them is zero from
F12+ F21 0
But the sum of the
work done by the two forces need not
W2+W2 0 always cancel, ie.
However, it may sometimes be true.
4. The work done
by a force can be calculated sometimes
the force is not known. even if the exact
nature of
This is clear from
used in such a situation. Example 6.2 where the WE theorem is
5. The WE theorem
is not
independent of Newton's Second Law. The WE theorem
may be viewed as a scalar form of the Second Law.
The
energy may be viewed as a consequenceprinciple
of mechanical of conservation
of the WE
conservative forces. theorem for
6. The WE theorem
holds in all inertial frames. It can also
inertial franes be extended to non-
net force
provided we include the
pseudoforces in the calculation of the
acting on the body under consideration.
The potential energy of a body subjected to a conservative force is
undetermined upto a constant. For always
example, the point where the potential
energy is zero is a matter of choice. For the
the zero of the potential gravitational potential energy mgh.
energy is chosen to be the ground. For the
potential energy k*/2, the zero of the potential energy is the spring
of the oscillating mass. equilibrium position
8. Every force encountered in mechanics does not have an associated
energy. For example, work done by friction over a closed path is not zeropotential
and no
potential energy can be associated with friction.
9 During a collision (a) the total linear momentum is conserved at each instant of
the collision (b) the kinetic energy conservation (even
if the
collision is elastic)
applies after the collision is over and does not hold at every instant of the collision.
In fact the two colliding objects are deformed and may be momentarily, at rest
with respect to each oi..