CHAPTER

1
Integrals

Recap Notes

INDEFINITE INTEGRAL dx= +C

Jcotx loglsin x|
is the inverse process of differentiation
x|+ C
Integration = log| sec x+
Jsecx dx
i.e,Flx)-f) =

Integrals are also

Jfa)

known as
dr

where Cis the constant of integration.

=F(e)+C,

antiderivatives.
cosec x dx
logan
tan

= log |cosec x - cot x| + C

c
SomeStandard Integrals

C =log tanC
Jdx =x +C, where is the constant of
Properties of Indefinite Integral
integration
1+1

x"dx= where n # -1 Jrodx =f)+C

+1 +C, (Gi)
Jfhds =Js()dx +C, fandgareindefinite
Jedr =+C with the same derivative.
integrals

J'dx=loga-+C, where a > 00

Jdx=loge |x|+C,where x 0 (ivfk fo)dx=kff()dx, k being any real mumber.

METHODs OF INTEGRATION
Jsinx dx =-cosx +C Substitution
Integration by
=
cosx dx sinx +C The given integral Jfo)dx can be transformed
into another form by changing the independent
sec xdx= tan x +C variable x to t by substituting * g() =
cosec-xdr= -cot xr+c Integrals Substitution

> Jsecx
tanx dx =secx +C J flax +b)dx ax +b = t

=
cosec x cotx dx
=-cosec x+C JSet)sr)dr g(x) t

=sinx+C= - cosx + C, Jx) =t

V-2 where x| <1 f()
tan"x +C = - cot x +C JSYS«)dx So)=t
=
px +q A(cx + d) + B.
=dx=secx+C=
xvx-1
- cosec'x +C, J(Px+9Ner +d dx

d L Find A and B by equating

where lal >1 or
or coefficients of like powers
ex+d
tan xdx = + C= -log x +C x on both
loglsec x lcos of sides.
 mtG CBSE Board Term-I Mathematics Class-12

Some
(px+9}vCx +a
dx or |Cx
+d =#
Integrals of Particular Functions

(px+qx+r)Ncx+d

=dx
sin c
PAtq=S
(px+9)Ncr +dx+e

J2 dx 1
and then c +dt =u

(
X
(px +g)Ncx +d
ta
p T-dx or px +q)

px +9
A dx
=A(ax+bx+c)+ B dr=lo C
ax+bx +C
r
(9 dx=tan1+c a

+bx+c dx
pPx+4Nax
Integration by Partial Fractions
Integration using Trigonometric ldentities If
fx) and g(x) are two polynomials such that
When the integrand consists of trigonometric
deg f)2 deg g(), then we divide f)by g().
functions,we use known identities to convert it into
.
a
form which can be easily integrated.Some of the +emainder
identities useful tor are given below: )-Quotient
this purpose

)
(2sin-1-cos.a)

2cos=(1+cos3)
(iii) 2 sinx cos y
= sin (x + y) + sin (x - y)
If fx)
degree
and glx) are
of

f)
f)
wecan evaluate Jodx
is less
two

)
polynomials
than the degree

by decomposing
such that the
of
glx), then

8)
into
v) 2 cos X sin y = sin (x + y) - sin (x-y) partial fraction.

(v) 2 cos x cos y =cos (x + y) + cos (x - y) Form of the Rational Form of the Partial1

= cos (x y) cos (x +
(vi) 2 sin X sin y ) Function Fraction

Some Special Substitutions

Expression Substitution (-ar-b*b

+9 A-aX-bB
X =a sin8 or a cose
px+9
a?+x or
(+) X=a tan or a cote (r-a aA B

(x-a)

x2-a2
X=a sece
or acosec6 pX+ A
(x-a) X-a r-a (x-a)
a a+X
x =a cos20
or
a-x px +qx +r
-a)(r-b)(x-c) X-a X-b *-C

Va-r
or .
X =a sin6 or a

x =a
cos-6

tan-0 or a cot-0
px +qx +r
(x-a)(x-b)
A-a (r-a)
B C
(*-b)

or
a+X
VatxVx px +qx +r A Bx+C
x =a +bx +c) x-a x +bx+c
-X X-b cos- 6+bsin-0 x-a)(x

Vx-bVa-x where x+ bx + c
can not
or be factorised further
Vla-)-b)
Integrals 3
Integration by Parts Second Fundamental Theorem: Let flx)
be a
If u and v are two differentiablefunctions of x, then continuous function in the closed interval [a, b] and

be an = F(b)-F(a)
uo)dr=[ foba]-aodd. F(x) integral offx),then Jf(x)dx

In order to choose 1s function, we take the letter

EVALUATION OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL BY
which comes first in the word ILATE.
SUBSTITUTION
I- Inverse Trigonometric Function
L- Logarithmic Function When definite integral is to be found by substitution,
A- Algebraic Function change the lower and upperlimits of integration.If
T-Trigonometric Function substitution is t=f{x) and lower limit of integration
E-Exponential Function is a and upper limit is b, then new lower and upper
Integral of the type limits will be fla) and f6)respectively.
Jef)+fa))dx= e"flx)+C SOME PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS
INTEGRALS OF SOME MORE TYPES

0 va-ix=važ-x?+a sin
2
c
(Gi)
-aPds-Ja-a?ogl+2-P|+c In Particular
fx)dr=0
+a2 loglx+V2+7l+c
fxldx,wherea<e<b
(Gii)
fva2+adr-Vr Gii) fxdx=,frdr+|
DEFINITE INTEGRAL
Let Fx) be integral offl), then for any two values of
Giv)
fdx=,la+b-xndr
the independent variable x, sayaand b, the difference
Fo) - F(a) is called the definite integral from of f) () fJdx = Sa-xlx
a to b and is denoted by Jf(")dx, 0 if
f-x)=-f)
(vi)
Lf(dx= 2fds, if
fE)=f©)
Here, x =a is the lower limit andx = b is the upper
limit of the integral.

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS

(vi)
-tx+se0-d
First be a continuous
Fundamental Theorem:Letf(x)
function in the closed interval [a, b] and let A(x) be (vii) raydr d, it
fea-)-f)
the area function. Then
A (")
=
f(x), for all x e la, b].
0
if
f(2a-x)=-fl)
CHAPTER

2
Applications of Integrals

RecapRecap Notes
INTRODUCTION Area of shaded portion, as shown in tigure, is
givenby
In geometry,we have learntformulae to calculate
areas of various geometrical figures. Such formulae
of elementary geometryallow us to calculate areas of
y=f)
many simple figures. However, they are inadequate for
Xa
calculating the areas enclosed by curves. For that we
shall need some concepts of integral calculus. X=D
Area Under Simple Curves
Area of shaded portion, as shown
in figure,
is given
A f)dx|+Jf()dx
by >The area of a region bounded by y = 4ax and

J -4by is
>The area
1040
3
of a region
sq. units.

bounded by y
= 4ax and

x=b
>x 8a
O'x =a y mx is Sq. units.
3m
A- Jfrhds The area of a region bounded by yf
=4ax and its

>Area of shaded portion, as shown in figure, is given

latus rectum is
o3
sq. units.

by >Thearea of a region bounded by one arc of sinax or

cosax and -axis is sq. units.

-y=b
Area of region bounded by an ellipse
Ya is tab sq. units.

O1 The area of
aregion boundedby y ax = +bx +cand

A- Jfondy I-axis is (-4ac)2 units.

a
CHAPTER

3 Differential Equations

Recap Notes

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION of the form y

differential
=f(«) +C which satisfies the given

An equation involving an independent vaiable, a equation.

the of the dependent General Solution: The solution of a differential
dependent variable and derivatives
variable is called differential equation. equation which contains a number of arbitrary
>A differential equation involving
of the dependent variable with
derivatives
respect to only
constants
equation.
equal to the order of the differential

variable is called an ordinary Particular Solution: A solution obtained

one independent by giving
differential equation.
particular values to arbitrary constants in the
A differential
equation involving derivatives with general solution.
to one variables is
respect more than independent
called a partial ditfterential equation. METHODS OF SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL
Order and Degree of a Differential Equation EQUATIONS
The order
differential
of
highest derivative appearing
in
equation is called order of the differential
a Equation in Variable Separable Form : If the
=
differential
equation is of the formf(x)dx gy)dy,
separable and such equations
equation. then the variables are
The power of the highest order derivative be solved
in a differential
appearing can by integrating on both sides. The
equation, after it is made free solution is given by
from radicals and fractions, is called degree of the
difterential Jfw)dx=lg(y) dy +C,where Cis an arbitrary constant.
equation
Note:Order and degree (if defined) of a differential Equation Reducible to Homogeneous Form: If
equation are always positive integers. the equation is of the form y_JX,y), where
dx
HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
g(x, y)
fx, y) and g(, y) are homogeneous functions of
A differential equation of the form the same degree in x and
y, then put
= vx and y

dyfx.)
dx
=V+x so that the dependent variable is
y
g(x,y) dx
changed to another variable o, then apply variable
where, f (x, y) and g (,y) arehomogeneous functionsof
r and y of the same degree. separable method.
Solution of Linear Differential Equation: A
LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
An y
differential equation of the
form+Py=Q, dx
equation of the
fom+Py=Q dx
where P and Q where P and Q are functions ofx (or constants) can
are functions of x
besolved as:
only (or constants) is called a linear
P
differential
equation of the first order.
1. Find Integrating Factor (LF.) =e" dx

The solution of the differential is

equation
sOLUTION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONN =
y(LF.) |Q(1.F.)dx +C, where C is constant
Solution of a differential
equation is a function of integration.
CHAPTER

4 Vector Algebra

Recap Notes

VECTOR
A physical quantity having magnitudeas well as
direction is called a vector. A vector is represented
a+y+2?
The numbers Ir, mr and nr, proportional to the
by a line segment, denoted as
AB or a. Here,
point direction cosines of vector f are called direction
A is the initial point and B is the terminal point of ratios of the vector f and denoted as a, b and C

AB respectively.
thevector
Magnitude: The distance betweenthe points A i.e., a
=
lr, b= mr and c =nr
and B is called the magnitudeof the directed line Note:+ m+n=1 and a+b+é#1,(in general).
segmentAB. It is

Let
denoted |
by AB1. TYPES OF VECTORS
>Position Vector: Pbe any point in space, having
coordinates (x, y, 2) with respect to some fixed point Zero vector: A vector whose initial and terminal
O (0, 0, 0) as origin, then the vector

The vector OP is usually

OP having O as
point and Pas its terminal point is called
its initial

the position vector of the point P with respect to O.

denoted by

P(x.yz)
. points coincide is called a zero (or null) vector. It
cannot be assigned a definite direction as it has zero

magnitude and it is denoted by the 0.

>Unit Vector: A vector whose magnitude is unity
|al =1.Itis denoted by a.
i.e.,

Equal Vectors:Two vectors a and bare said to

be equal, written as a= b, iff they have equal
magnitudes and directionregardless of the positions
of their initial points.

Coinitial Vectors: Vectors having

same initial point
are called co-initial vectors.

Collinear Vectors: Two or more vectors are called

>
Magnitude of OP is,
OPl=yx2+y2+22 collinear if
they
have same or parallel supports,
F| =yx 1TTespec of their magnitudes and directions.
ie, +y +z2
In general, the position vectors of points A, B, C, etc. Negative of a
Vector: A vectorhavingthe same
with respect the origin O magnitude as that of a given vector but directed in
are denoted by a,
to b,c, the opposite sense is called negative of the given
etc. respectively.
vector BA =-AB.
Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios:
i.e.,

The angles o, B, y made by the vector with the ADDITION OF VECTORS

positive directionsof x,y and z-axes respectively are
called its direction
angles. The cosine values of these Triangle law: Let the vectors
and b such
, a
angles, i.e., coso, cosß and cosy are called direction be so positioned
cosines of the vector T, and usually denoted by
that initial point of one
m and n respectively. coincides with terminal point

rare given =AB, b =BC,

Direction cosines ot as oftheother.If a

and then the vector a +b is represented by the third side

+y+2 a +y2 +2 of AABC AB +BC =AC

i.e.,
60 mtG CBSE Board Term-iI Mathematics Class-12

Parallelogram law :Ifthe two

vectors a and bare
(iv) a =b e =bj,a2 =bz and as =b
(v) i and b are collineariff
represented by the two 5
adjacent sides OA and OB of b1b2-3
2 3 =.
a
parallelogram OACB, then
a
their sum a+b is represented VECTOR JOINING TWO POINTS
in magnitude and direction by the diagonal O o
OACB common IfP, y,,z,)andP,(x,,y,,7)
(x,
parallelogram through their point areany two points in the
O ie., OA +OB =OC space, then the vector
VectorAddition P and is the
Properties of

Vector addition iscommutative i.e.,

joining

vector P
P2
O
a+b=b+a. Applying triangle law in

AOP,P2, we get
>Vector addition is
associative i.e.,

(b+c)= (a+b)+C. OP +PP=OP2

a+
Existence of additive identity: The zero vector acts
as additive identity i.e.,
BA=OP-OR
21 +y2]+ 22k)-(1it1jtz1k)
0
a+0=a = +afor any vector a.
Existence of additive inverse The negative (2-1)i+
(V2-y1)j+(z2-1)k
of a -a acts as additive inverse i.e.,
i.e.,

a +(-a) =0 =(-a)+a for any vector a.

PPEV2 -*1)*+(v2-n+(2 -z
SECTION FORMULA

.
MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BYA SCALAR
>Let be
Let A,B be two points such that
a given vector and A be a given
scalar (a real number), then is defined as a OA =a and OB= b.

the multiplication the scalar

The position vector T of the point P which divides
of vector a by
lts magnitude is times the modulus of
the line
segmentAB intermally
in the ratio n is m:
1
a ie, |2al
= 12l läl. given by r=-mb+na
+n
Direction of Aa is same as that of a if A>0 and r
opposite to that of a if à <0. Theposition vector of the point P which divides
the line
segmentAB externally in the ratio m: n is
=
Note: If provided that
#0,
then
givenbyr=-
mb-na
m-n
the unit vector in the direction of
represents The position vector Tof the mid-point of the line

SegmentAB is
givenby r ="t
2
cOMPONENTS OF A VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
Let O be the origin and P(x. y, point a) be any
Scalar (or dot) pro duct: The scalar (or dot)
in space. Let i, j and k be unit vectors
along product of two (non-zero) vectors a and b,
the X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis
respectively. Then denoted by a -b (read as a dot b), is defined as
OP=xi + yj +zk,which is called the component a b =lal =
lblcos6 abcos6,where, a=lal,b = lbl and
form of OP. Here x, y and z are scalar components e(0s0sT) is the angle between a and b.

of OP and xi,
yj and zk are vector components Properties of Scalar Product:
of OP.
4) Scalar product is commutative: 7-b=b.
If and b
are two given vectors
as =ai+azjt+ ak (i) 7-0 = 0
and b=bi+b2j+b3k and be any scalar, then iii) Scalar product is distributive over addition:

)ä+b= (a1 +bji +(a2 +b2)j+(a3 +b3)k ã-(b+)= -b+:7

(i) ä-b=(41 -byi +(a2-bz)j+
(43-b,)k (ä+6). =-+b.
=
(ii) Ai (a)i + (a2)j+ (a3)k (iv) a b) =(1ä)-b = (ab), beany scalar.
Vector Algebra 61

j and k are three unit vectors along three x b) =(i) xb

(v)
=äx(35),A be any scalar.
If i, (ii)

mutually perpendicular lines, then

(tw) 7)x(2b) =A4k2(xb)
ii=jj=k-k=1 and j=j.k=k.i=0
i

ã and
ixj=k,jxk=i,kxi=j
(vi) Angle betweentwo non-zero vectors b is
(vi) Two non-zero vectors a, b are collinear if and
a-b
givenby cose= only äxb =õ
if

lällb
Similarly, axa=õ and a x (-a) = õ, since in the

1.e., 6=cos-1 b first situation 6 = 0 and in the second one,

6 = making the value of sin 0 to be 0.

Tt,

(vii) Two non-zero vectors ñ and b are mutually

(vii) If and b represent the adjacent sides of a
perpendicular and only if ä. b =0
if triangle as given the figure. Then,
in
= b=
(vi)If 6 0, then ä läl|B|

.
Ife -7, then ä-b=-lälbl

Projection of avector on a line:

AB makes an
Let the vector
Area of triangle ABC = AB-CD
angle 0with directed line

Projection of AB on
ba|sin -laxbj
=ABlcosAC=p. (vii) If a and b represent the
The vector
pis called the projection vector. Its adjacent sides of a

magnitudeis IPl, which is known as projection of parallelogram as given in

the figure.
vector AB
Then, area of parallelogram ABCD =AB:DE
Projection of a vector on b, is given as 7-b

>
ie 6) 1

Vector (or Cross) Product:The vector

(orcross)
ix)
- ||a
If =ait
6
sin =|axbj
a2jtagk, b=bji+bzj+ bgk,

product of two (non-zero) vectors a and b (in an

Then, äxb=l4 a2 a3
assigned order),denoted by a x b (read as a cross b),

as axb=lal
is bl
sinen where e(0s0sn)
defined
- +
is the angle between a and b and in is a unit vector =(42bs-asba)i+(asbh ab3)j (amb2 -a2bk
perpendicular to both a and b. ()Angle betweentwo vectors and b is givenby

)
Properties ofVector Product:
Non-commutative:äxb=-bx
i) Vector product is distributive over addition:
Sine= xb|

ax(b+)=xb+x
ie, 0 sin läxb
CHAPTER
Three Dimensional
5
Geometry

Recap Notes
Recap
INTRODUCTION Note: Equation of x-axis, y-axis and z-axis are
= 0 =z,z =0 =xand x= =y. 0
Everything in the real world is in a three dimensional respectively y
shape. The three dimensional geometry is used in Vector Equat :Vector equation of line passing
various fields such as art and architecture,space study
and A@) and parallel to vector b is
through the point
astronomy, geographic information systems etc.
In this chapter we shall study the direction cosines F=i+Ab, where à e R is a parameter.
and direction ratios of line m and also
study about the
Equation of a Line Passing Through Two Given
equations of lines and planes etc. Points
Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line
Cartesian Equation:Cartesian equations of a line
passing through two points having coordinates
>Ifanon-zero vector 7 (or anyline along which f lies)
makes angles a, B,y with positive directions of axes, (y2) and (2,)2y z2) is 11-V-L=Z-2
then a,B, y are called direction angles of 7 (or of the 2-1 V2-1 22Z1
Vector equation a line passing
of
line). cosa, cosß, cosy are called the directioncosines Vector Equation:
through two points having position vector ä and
of f (orline). Any three numbers proportional
to the direction cosines (d.c.'s) of a vector are b is P=ü+(b-)where à e Ris aparameter
called direction
its ratios. If
f=xi+yj+zk, then Collinearityof Three Points:The points A(t yv 2)
B(*2, Z2) and C(X3, 23) are collinear, if
Y3
x,y,z are directionratios (numbers)andi'i
are directioncosines of 7 (or any lines along which
12
23Y1-V2
2-V3
Y2
_2Z2
2223
lies).
cONDITION OF PARALLELISM AND
Relation Between the Direction Cosines of a Line PERPENDICULARITY OF TWO LINES
If 1, m, n are d.c's a
of
line,
then
P+m +n=1. Two lines with direction ratios d,b,C and a, by
Cosines of Line Passing Through Two are
Direction
Points (i) Perpendicular

Direction ratios of the line joining (x1, y1 2) and i.e., if

a az
+ b,b2 + C1e2 =0
(2Y2 2) are 2 -X Y2 -Yv 22 - 21 and de.s are 1 --
2 b2
(i) Parallel, if

2221 I BETWEEN TWO

N22-1 V2- V2-) SHORTEST DISTANCE LINES

Distance between Skew Lines

EQUATION OF A LINE IN SPACE (The lines which are neither parallel nor intersecting.)

Equation of a Line Through a Given Point and

Parallel toa Given Vector

1b
>Cartesian Equation: Cartesian equation of a line
passing through (Xy Yu 2) and having direction

ratios a, b, c is _V-V1-2-21
a
Three Dimensional Geometry 19
>Shortest distance betweentwo skew lines is the line Let P(x, y, be any point on
>Cartesian Equation: 2)

segmentperpendicular to both the lines. the plane.

Then
Let and 1, be two skew lines with equations
OP==xi+yj +zk.

=
in vector
+hb and =2
form is
+ub2 ,
then shortest
distance Let 1, m, n be the direction cosines of n. Then
n=li +mj+nk
d=xb)xb2-) Now, Pn=d » = +
If
b
the equation of lines are given by
x+ + =
(xi+yj zk)(li-+ mj +nk) d
my nz d, whichis cartesian equation
the plane in the normal form.
of

1V-1_2-1 and Equation of a Plane Perpendicular to a Given

1 Vector and Passing through a Given Point
:42-
2
22=2-22
b2 C2
Vector Equation: Let a plane passing througha
A with position vector a and perpendicular
point
to the
then shortest distance is vector N.Also, let i be theposition vector of any
P in the plane. Then,
2-1 V2- 2- point

b1 1 -a)-N=0, which is the equation of plane in

vector form.
d2 b2 C2
VbC2-b2C1)+(C1a2- C201) (ab2 -a2b1)* +
Distance between Parallel Lines
T (42)
2 Py,2)

S (a)
OP
Let two lines 4 and lh are parallel, givenby Cartesian Equation: Let the coordinates of given
point A be yu Z), arbitrary point P be (,y, z)
(
T=a1 +ab and =2+ub respectively,where, a1
and direction ratios of N
are A, B, and C. Then,
is the position vector of a point S onl and a2 is the
ñ- xi+ ni +z1k, i =xi+yj+zk
vector a point T on l. Then the shortest
and N Ai + Bj +Ck
of
position
distance
Now, (f-)-N =0
d4PTI=xG-) Alx -x) +B(y -y)+C(z - z1) =0,
which is equation of plane in cartesian formn
Note:It two lines are parallel, then they are coplanar also.
of a
PLANE Equation Plane Passing Through Three
Non Collinear Points
Equation of a Plane in Normal Form Vector Equation: Let R, S and T be three non
Vector 7 be the position points on the plane with position vectors
Equation :Let vector of collinear

P on the plane. Then equation of plane a, b and respectively. Also, let bethe position
any point vector of
any point P in the plane. Then equation
is 1=d, where n is the normal unit vector to o

the plane and d is perpendicular distance of plane plane is

(-7I6-)x (-)]=0
from the origin.

(RSx R)

POY 2)

x
Cartesian :
Equation Let (X Yv 2),(* Y2 and 2)
(xY 3) be the coordinates of the points R, Sand
80 mtG CBSE Board Term-lI Mathematics Class-12

Let (x, y, z) be the coordinates of Cartesian Form: Equation of the plane containing
T respectively.
any point
equation
P
of
on the plane. Then cartesian torm of
plane is two coplanar lines 1- 1_Z-21
C1

X-X1 y-V1 Z-Z1

=0 and 2-y2_Z-22is
2-1 V2-V1 22-21
a2 b2 C2
3-1 3-h 3-21|

Intercept

Let plane
Z

+=1
abc
Form of the Equation
makes intercepts
axes respectively. Then
a, b and
equation
of a Plane
c
on , y and
of plane is
|-1
1
2
Y-/1

b2

cONDITION OF PARALLELISM AND

Z21|
C1

C2
=0

PERPENDICULARITY OF TWO PLANES

Equation of Plane Passing Through the
) If the planes are perpendicular, then
Intersection of Two Given Planes
A,4 + B,B, +C,C2 0
(i) If the planes are parallel,
then
A B Ca2
R(0, 0, c)
DISTANCE OF A POINT FROM A PLANE
Vector Form: Consider a point P with position
vector and the plane i=d
0, 0) b,

K 4, 0, 0) Then the perpendicular distance

from point P to the

plane
ä i-d
Vector Equation: Plane passing through the
Note: Perpendicular distance trom origin O to the
intersection of the planes
7i= =d1 and 7i2=d2 d
has the equation F
( +Aii2) d1 +Ad2 plane is Since a=0).
Cartesian Equation :Plane passing through the
+ cqz = dh Cartesian Form: Let P(xy1, z) be the given
intersection of the planes A,x + B,y and
and Ax + By +Cz = D
Az+ Bx+ Cz =d,has theequation point with position vector
be the cartesian equation of the plane.
giv
(Ax + B,y + C-d) + (A,x + B,y + Cz - d)= 0 i= Ai + Bj+ Ck and
Then d=X1i+/1j+21k, the

cOPLANARITYOF TWO LINES perpendicular distance from P to the plane is

Vector Form: The lines P = +abj and = +ub2

AxtBytCZ1-D
are coplanar if and only if
(-): (1 xba) =0 The distance of the point with position vector

22
Cartesian Form: Two lines 1-/1-7-21 from the plane i=q measured in the direction
C1

of the unit vector b is by

and only given
arecoplanar if and
2 b2 C2
The image or reflection
if (,y 2) of a point (x,y 2z)

|*2-1 /2-V1 in a + cz + d=0 is given

2-21 plane ax+ by by
C1 0 X-X1 Y1-21--2(ax1t+by1tCz t+d)
2 2 C2 a +b+c C

Equation of Plane Containing These Two Lines The foot

of perpendicular (x, y, 2)
from a point
Vector Form: Equation of the plane containing two (x yy Z) +
on the plane ax by cz d 0 is given + + =
by
coplanarf= +Ablines and
f= +ubz,
is

-X1 1-2-21-ax1 +b1 +Cz] +d)

-iy)bxba)=0 C a+b +c2
CHAPTER

6 Probability

RecapRecap Notes
INTRODUCTION
In earlier classes,
as a measure of uncertainty
we have studied the probability
of events in a random
)
Extension of

experiment,
Multiplication

thern
Theorem
IfA, B, Care three events associated with a random

experiment. We also learnt

the axiomatic theory and P(ABC) or P(A n n B C) P(A) P(B | A)
P(C (A n B) = P(A) P(B
| |A) P(C| AB)
classical theory of probability.In this chapter, we shall
discuss some more important concepts of probability. ii) If
A, Azy A, are n events associated with a
random experiment, then
cONDITIONAL PROBABILITY PA,nA. A,) =P(A,) PA,|A) P(A, (4,n

I
The probability of an event A is called the conditional
A).PA, |(4, nA2..A).
probability of A given that B has already happened. INDEPENDENT EVENTS
P(A B) P(AB),P(B) +0 Two events are called independent if the occurrence
P(B) or non-occurrence of one does not aftect the
OCcurrence of the other.

Properties of Conditional Probability

Two events A and B associated with a random
Property 1:The conditional probability an event of
experiment are said to be independent, if

A given that B has occurred lies between0 and 1

Property 2:IfA and B are any two events of sample
P(A
P(B |
|A) ==
B) P(A), provided P(B)

P(B), provided P(A)

0,

#0
space S, and F is an event of S such that P(F) Two events A and B random

)
0, associated with a
then

P(A U B) | = P(A | ) + P(B | F) - P((A n B) |

experimernt are independent
P(A
If
B)= P(A)
three events A,
P(B)
B, C
if and

associated with a
only if

random
In particular, if A and B are disjoint events, then experiment are independent, then

U B) ) = P(A | E) + P(B |
P(A P(ABC) i.e. P(A n BnC) P(A) P(B) P(C) =
I
Property 3:PA' | B) =1-P(A | B) and in general, it n events A,Ay ..A,associated
with a random experiment are independent, then
MULTIPLICATION THEOREM ON PROBABILITY
>LetA and B be two events associated with a
PA,nAn..A)= PlA) P(A, P(A)
sample Remarks
space Then A n B denotes
S. the event that both A
i) Two events A and B are said to be dependent if they
and B have occurred. A nB is also written as AB.
are not independent P(A n B) # P(A)-P
i.e., if
Sometimeswe need to find the probability of the
ThreeeventsA, B,Caresaidtobemutually
=independent
(ii)
event AB, which is given by if P(A nB) =
P(A) P(B), P(A n C) P(A) P(C),
P(AB) PAB)
JPA) P(B |A), provided P(A) *0. P(BnC)=P(B)P(C),and P(AnBn=P(A)P(B) P(C)
p(B) .P(A |B),provided P(B) # 0.
If at least one of the above four conditions is not
This result is known as multiplication rule of
true for three given events, we say that the events
probability. are not mutually independernt.
Probability 99
(iii) Events A and B are mutually exclusive if and only
P(E)P(AEi)_ where i =
1, 2,3,..
if AnB F¢.
Events A and B are independentit and only if PE)PLAIE)
j=1
P(An B) =
P(A)- P(B)
iv) If events A and B having non-zero probabilities are RANDOM VARIABLES AND ITS PROBABIL-
independent, then P(An B) = # 0. Thus ITY DISTRIBUTIONS
P(A)P(B)
AnB Hence, twoindependentevents having
#. A random variable is often described as a variable
non-zero probabilities cannot be mutually exclusive. whose values are determined by the outcomes of aa

random experiment
BAYES' THEOREM A random variable is called discrete if it assumes
only finite or countable number of values. AA
Partition of a Sample Space random variable which can assume non-countably
A set is said to represent a intinite number of values is called non-discrete or
E,

.
ofevents E1, Ezy continuous random variable.
partition of sample space S, if Let X
(a)
E,nE,=o, itj, j- =1,2,3,
is a discrete random variable which can
assume values xy l2 3
narranged in
(b) E UE UE, S and increasing order of magnitude)with probabilities

c) P(E)>0 forall i=1,2, Py P2y Ps P

In other words, the events

partition of the
E, Ezy ..,E, represent
samplespace S, if they are pairwise
a 2
exhaustive and have non-zero probabilities. P(X=1)
disjoint,

Theorem of Total Then the probability distribution of X is the system

Probability of numbers,shown in the table.
If
E, Ezy Ezy E, is apartition of the samplespace S Note:
of a random experiment and A is any event assoCiated
(i) P(x,) i.e., P(X = x) lies between 0 and 1 for
= PA |E,) +
with S, then P(A) P(E,) P(A | E) + P(E,) k= 1,2,. 1
.+P(E,) P(A | E,).

(i)
Bayes Theorem ZP=1
i=1

If
E, Ezy E3 E, constitute
a partition of the sample ii)P(X x)=P1t P2tt + Pr
space S of a random
experiment and
associated with the experiment, then
A is
any event P(X 2x)=P;t
P(X sx)
=
Pi*1

P(X < a)+ P(X

.= Pt
x) etc.