Module On Purposive Communication

METRO BUSINESS COLLEGE
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PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION
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Supplemental/Reference Material
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Nature of the Communication Process
As we all know, human communication is vital for survival and it is one thing in life that we cannot avoid to do.
Communication:
- comes from the Latin word ‘communis’, which means ‘commons’. To be common means “to come together” or “to commune”- “to
share something in common”.
- is the process of exchanging ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions from one person to another
with the use of symbols which may be verbal and/or non-verbal and aims for understanding.
Why study Communication?
- to understand ourselves as social being; to understand ourselves as a person; to gain professional competence and; to pre-
serve cultural values
Elements of Human Communication:
1. Sender - is the one who initiates the communication.
2. Receiver -provides the sender with feedback which may prompt the sender to clarify the message or signal to carry on as
planned.
3. Message – Is made up of the ideas and feelings that a sender-receiver wants to share with others.
· Verbal symbols – express through words

· Non-Verbal symbols – express through gestures, inflection, tone, etc.
4. Channel - are means through which we transmit the message in either vocal or non-vocal messages.
· Vocal messages– are verbal and spoken

· Non-vocal messages– may be expressed in words or non-verbal symbols
5. Feedback - the behavioral response of the sender-receiver to each other. It is the information that comes back to the sender
of the message and informs how well the message is getting through.
6. Noise - an interference that bars the message from being understood or interpreted.
a. external noise – comes from the physical environment.

b. internal noise – confined within the psychological and sociological nature of individuals when thoughts and feelings are
engrossed on something other than the communication at hand.
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7. Context - refers to the surrounding/environment that helps shape the interaction between and/or among individuals.
Physical context – the physical environment where the communication takes place.
Social context – refers to the relationship the participants hold for each other.
Psychological context – which has to do with the mood and emotions of the communicators at the moment of communica-
tion.
Process of Oral Communication:
1. Encoding - is everything that goes inside the brain of an individual.
- involves the sender who, grounded by communicative intentions and goals, decides on assigning codes.
- is a systematic arrangement of symbols used by individuals to create meaning.
2. Transmission - is the process by which the sender, having assigned codes to come up with thought symbols (message) that
are also comprehensible by the participant/s of the communication, transmits or sends message to its recipient.
3. Receiving - Having been submitted through sound waves and light waves, the comes from the sender then reaches the re-
ceiver. It is assumed that the receiver’s attention is focused on the communication at hand to facilitate better understanding of the
message transported by the sender.
4. Decoding - is the process by which the receiver interprets or assigns meanings to the codes transported by the source. The
receiver tries to give meanings to these symbols which may be literal or may give associations depending on knowledge and/or expe-
rience.
5. Responding - response is anticipated by the sender from the receiver.
Types of Communication:
Intrapersonal Communication - operates within the communicator. (what to wear for the day, what activities to engage in,
reflecting different situations, talking to oneself)
Interpersonal Communication - occurs between two or more people. (Private conversations with friends,
interview with prospective employer, simple group meeting).
Purposive communication is more than just plainly communicating with other people with a purpose. It is somehow a totality of the
different ways of communicating that includes, writing, speaking and presenting to different audiences.
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Purposive Communication is used for the students to improve in all skills of communication:
1. Verbal Communication
2. Non-Verbal Communication
3. Visual Communication
Explanation:
1. In Verbal Communication there is speaking, presenting verbally or by exchange of words. Example: News Anchors, are
reporting about the latest news.
2. In Non-verbal Communication there is writing, using a material to communicate. Example: You decided to inform your
classmate by texting him, that you cannot come to his house today.
3. In Visual Communication you use pictures or anything that can visually explain what you want to convey. Example: Your
topic is about gender differences, so you use the rainbow to represent the varieties of gender present.
Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written Language
1. Language Variety
A. Refers to any variant of a language which can be sufficiently delimited from another one.
B. A set of linguistic items with similar social distribution
A. Different kinds of language varieties:

Pidgin – it is a new language which develops in situations where speakers of the different language need to com-
municate but don’t share a common language. When a child starts learning a pidgin as his/her first language
and it becomes the mother tongue of a community, a pidgin will turn into a creole.
Creole— it it a distinct language which ahs taken most of its vocabulary from another language.
Regional dialect—it is a variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a country. One common example of it
is the American and British English. The New Yorkers live in apartments, while Londoners live in flats. The
Americans ride an airplane in travelling overseas while the British ride an aeroplane.
B. Differences in Varieties of English language

There are many varieties of English, among those are the American English and British English. It is
agreed that no one version is “correct”, however they possess three (3) major differences, such as pronunciation,
vocabulary, and spelling.
In the case of vocabulary, let us use the word “mean” as an example. It means “angry” or “bad humored” in
American English, but it means “not generous” or “tight-fisted” in British English.
American English: “ Don’t be so mean to your sister!”

British English—”She’s so mean she wont even pay for a cup of tea.”
Words such as color, center, and recognize were spelled in American way while it is spelled colour, centre, and recognize
in British English.
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II. Language Register

- It refers to the level and style of one’s writing. We use different language registers for different types of writing,
just as we speak differently to different people.
- There are three (3) common registers in writing: formal, informal, and neutral.
A. Formal—it is appropriate for professional writing and letters to a boss or a stranger. This type includes business letters, letters
of complaint, academic essays, reports, official speeches, announcements, and professional emails.
Rules of the formal language register:
1. Do not use contractions:

- can’t
- haven’t
- won’t
- couldn't
- isn't
Contractions can only be used if you are quoting someone’s exact words in your writing.
2. Spell out numbers less than one hundred.

- three
- sixty-four
- ninety-nine
3. Write in third person point of view.

We usually do not use first person or second person unless it is a quote. Use he, she, it, or they, instead of I, we, you,
and us.
4. Avoid using too much passive voice.

Passive: The research was completed by the students in 2014.
Active : The students completed the research in 2014.
Passive: The cheese was eaten by the rat.

Active: The rat ate the cheese.
5. Avoid using slangs, idioms, exaggerations, and clichés.

Slangs like: awesome, cool, okay/ok, howdy
Clichés like in a nutshell, at the end of the day, and think outside the box,
6. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms.

Write the entire name out the first ime it appears, followed by the acronym. From then on, you can use the acronym by
itself.
Example:
“The Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA) issued a travel ban for the following countries….The DFA spokesper-
son concluded that…”
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7. Do not start sentences with words like: and, so, but, and also. Traditionally, words like, nevertheless, additionally, howev-
er, in addition, as a result of, and although are more advisable to use in formal writing.
8. Always write in complete sentences.

Make sure that you are writing a full sentence and not in fragments.
Evaluating Messages and Images of Different Types of Text
I. Different Types of Text
A. Factual Texts—inform, instruct, or persuade by giving facts and information.
B. Literary Texts—entertain or elicit an emotional response by using language to create mental images.
II. Purpose of Texts
The purpose of a text is the writer’s reason for writing. There are texts which have more than one (1) purpose, but usually, one
will stand out as primary.
1. entertain—to make the reader enjoy reading.
2. persuade—to change a reader’s opinion
3. advise—to help people decide what to do.
4. analyze—to break down something to help people to understand it better.
5. argue—to make the case for something.
6. describe—to give details about a person, place, event, or thing.
7. explain—to make clear why or how something works.
8. inform—to tell a reader about something.
9. instruct—to tell a reader how to do something.
III. Textual Analysis
Also known as literary analysis, it is a careful examination of a text both for what it says and for how it says it, with the goal of
demonstrating the ways the text achieves certain effects.
A. Key Features of Textual Analysis
1. A summary of the text
Your readers may not know the text you are analyzing, so you need to include it or tell them about it before you analyze
it.
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2. Attention to the context
Texts don’t exist in isolation. They are influenced by and contribute to ongoing conversations, controversies, debates,
and cultural trends. To understand a particular text, you need to understand its larger context.
3. A clear interpretation or judgment
Lead readers through a careful examination of the text to an interpretation or reasoned judgment. When you interpret
something, you have to explain what you think it means.
4. Reasonable support for your conclusions.
The writer can support his/her interpretation by quoting words or passages from a verbal text or referring to images in
visual text.
B. Steps in analyzing a text (for written texts)
1. Read to see what the text says
Skim the text; then, reread the main ideas. Once you have a sense of what is says, what do you think about it? Do you
agree with what the writer says?
2. Decide what you want to analyze
Think about what you find most interesting or intriguing and why. You could begin your analysis by exploring what at-
tracted you.
3. Think about the larger context.
Context refers to the interrelated conditions in which something exists or occurs: environment, setting.
Write a brief paragraph describing the larger context surrounding the text and how that context affects your understand-
ing of the text. Use the following questions to guide you in this step:
- who else cares about this topic?
- does the text refer to any concepts or ideas that give you some sense that it’s part of a larger
conversation?
- is there any terminology that reflects the writer’s allegiance to a particular group or discipline?
- whom does the writer cite? Do the other writers have a particular academic specialty or share
similar leanings?
4. Consider what you know about the writer
The writer’s credentials, other works, reputation, and beliefs are useful tools to understand a text.
5. Study how the text works
Look for patterns in the way how the components of the text such as the words, sentences, paragraphs, headings, imag-
es, etc., are used and decide what those patterns reveal about the text.
6. Analyze the argument
Recognize the argument the text presents. Here are some questions to consider when analyzing an argument:
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- what is the claim?
- what support does the writer offer for the claim?
- how does the writer appeal to readers? Does he/she appeal to your emotions? Rely on logic?
Or try to establish common ground?
- how fairly does the writer present the argument? Is there a mention of counter -arguments? If so, how does he
deal with them? By refuting them? By acknowledging them and responding reasonably?
- does the writer use any logical fallacies?
- what authorities or other sources of outside information does the writer use?
For visual texts
Make the readers understand the text’s intended effect on viewers as well as its actual effect, the ways it creates that
effect, and its relationship to other texts.
1. Describe the text
Focus on specific details as you examine it. Given the widespread use of Photoshop or other digital manipulation tools,
you can usually assume that every detail in the image is intentional. Then, ask yourself these questions:
- are there typical features of this kind of image that it includes or lacks?
- what stands out in the image? Are some parts of it grouped together or set apart from each other?
- is it far away, close up, or are you level with it? What is the effect of your viewing position to the image?
- does the image tell or suggest a story, about what has happened or is about to happen?
- does the image allude to or refer to anything else?
2. Explore your response
Images, particularly advertisements, often try to persuade us to buy something or to feel, think, or behave a certain way.
Ask the following questions s you think about your response:
- what emotional response, if any, does the image make you feel?
- what does the image lead you to think about?
- do the image and words accompanying seem to to be trying to persuade you to think or do something?
3. Consider the context
Visual texts are part of larger conversations with other texts that have dealt with the same topic or used similar imagery.
4. Consider what you know about the artist or sponsor
Comics, illustrations, and editorial cartoons are usually signed by the artist. Commercial and advertisements are made
by ad agencies or the company that sponsored or posted the image. Information about them are readily available in the
internet. How does that information affect your understanding of the text?
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5. Decide on a focus for your analysis
What do you find most interesting about the text, and why? You would want to focus on its details, the argument it
makes, the emotional appeal of its images, and the words it used to deliver the message.
Communication Aids and Strategies using Tools of Technology
I Technology and Communication
A. Key Tools and Platforms in Digital Communication
1. Social Network Platforms
A social platform, as defined by Techopedia, is a web-based technology that enables the development, deployment,
and management of social media solutions and services.
Facebook, Twitter, Google Plus, and LinkedIn are among the top social network platforms that can be used by differ-
ent organizations, companies, and businesses.
For example, Facebook can be used to post infographics, interesting pictures, or engage the viewers in surveys or
contests. Twitter can be a medium for spreading links, promoting people or organizations, posting announcements,
and asking entertaining questions.
2. Content Publishing Platforms
Content publishing platforms are used to prepare and deliver content to the audience. Content may be information
about a certain individual, company, product, event, social issue, etc.
There are groups and individuals who use YouTube or Viemo because it is a good platform for video publishing, shar-
ing, rating and commenting. Some prefer to create blog-based websites where they can publish their articles and
news with the help of Wordpress. Emails, and digital newsletters are still two of the most reliable tools if the user is
not that tech-savvy.
In spite of the advantages that these tools can bring, keep in mind that it can also bring harm if not used appropriately.
These tools are not for internal departmental conversation and knowledge sharing should not be used for debate and con-
flict resolution.
B. Multimodal Text
Multimodal refers to the strategic use of two or more communication modes within the same text and where all modes
are attended to as part of meaning-making.
A multimodal text can be printed (books, comics, posters, and print ads), digital (slide presentations, e -books, e-
posters, blogs, web page, film, and social media), live (performance and events), and transmedia (using a combina-
tion of printed, digital, etc., to tell a story).
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II. Tips in Delivering Presentations
1. Prepare
Know whom you are about to speak and what they are expecting or needing from the presentation. Moreover, it is im-
portant to prepare your equipment and handouts.
2. Start with a bang, not a whimper
Many presenters begin by giving their name, and the title of the program. If you use this, you might lose your audience
before you start.
You can start with a compelling quote, a great story, a stunning statistic or even a provocative question. They key is to
get the people’s attention. Then you can introduce yourself and the topic.
3. Keep it short
Humans have short attention span if they are only sitting and listening to a speaker. It is better to have the audience
wanting more of you than feel that they have had more than enough.
You may also use Kawasaki’s 10-20-30 rule in your speech. This rule states that a Powerpoint slide should have no
more than 10 slides, last no longer than 20 minutes, and have no text less than 30 -poin font.
4. Use Stories
Use stories to illustrate your key points. This makes the presentation much more memorable.
5. Be courteous, gracious, and professional at all times
When audience members give questions or comments, you should thank them for their input. A true professional can
always remain cool and in control even with the most challenging audience.
6. Evaluate
You may ask a trusted colleague to observe your presentation and give you feedback. If that is not possible, at least
take time after every presentation to review what you believe went well and what could be improved.
Communication for Various Purposes
A. Oral Communication
1. Types of Speech According to Purpose
Informative Speech
i. Speech of Description
This type of speech answers the questions, “who”. “what”, and “where”. The main points in this type of speech
are usually placed in a chronological, topical, or narrative pattern.
ii. Speech of Explanation
It answers the question “why” and follows a topical, causal, narrative, or comparison -contrast pattern
iii. Speech of Demonstration
It answers the question “how” and follows a chronological pattern to reveal the steps about a process or proce-
dure.
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Persuasive Speech
The speaker in a persuasive speech has one goal: to convince the audience to accept his/her idea, stand, or
claim. This type of speech is commonly used by politicians, periodical editors, sales agents, and marketing
strategists.
Useful tips in preparing a persuasive presentation:
1. Be objective but subjective
The facts and data should be integrated and organized in the speech in a manner that will influence the listen-
ers to act in favor of the speaker.
2. Use your brain and heart
According to Westside Toastmasters, the brain and the heart should be used in a balanced manner.
“A speaker should learn how to determine what type of emotions his/her audience have and how to use these
emotions in a persuasive process. A master persuader should know what emotions, how to balance the audi-
ence’s emotion with logic.”
3. Cite, cite, and cite
A speaker should always cite his/her resources. According to Massachusetts Institute of Technology Libraries,
there are several reasons why citing should be done:
To show your listener that you have done proper research by mentioning sources you used to get your infor-
mation.
To be a responsible scholar by giving credit to other researchers and acknowledging their ideas used by oth-
er authors/speakers.
To allow your listeners to track down the sources you used by citing them accurately in your manuscript by
way of footnotes, a bibliography, or a reference list.
Argumentative Speech
It shows a disagreement or a conflict and tries to make listeners believe that the speaker’s idea is better based on the
reasons at hand. In argumentation, a speaker needs to make a claim and defend it by supporting it with facts and pieces
of evidence from varied and credible sources.
According to Vermont Reads Institute, as cited by Hanes, unlike a persuasive speech, an argumentative speech con-
tains any of the following:
warrants—statements about how the evidence supports the claim
Backing—support for warrants
Counterclaim—an opposition to a certain argument
Rebuttal—a response to a claim, counterclaim, backing, or warrant with an aim to refute it.
Argumentative speech is a “genre that required a writer to investigate a topic, collect, generate, and evaluate evidence;
and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner”.
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2. Types of Speech According to Manner and Delivery
Memorized
It is a rote recitation of a memorized speech. Actors recite from memory whenever they perform a script in a movie sce-
ne, television program or a stay play.
It might seem that memorizing would help against nervousness, but what if the speaker forgets the next word, sentence
or phrase? One disadvantage of this type is the speaker is focused on what comes next instead of getting involved in
the meaning of their remarks.
Manuscript
This type of speech is delivered through reading from a paper script or teleprompter and is typically used when there is
a time constraint or the speech will be telecast.
Even though this type will allow the speaker to deliver a speech in precise words, its use become a disadvantage as it
reduces the ability to make eye contact with the audience and adapt to their feedback.
Impromptu
It is a speech that one has to make without prior preparation. This kind of speech is common in beauty pageants and
special events like weddings and birthday celebrations.
Some tips that might save you from being ambushed to deliver an impromptu speech:
- Anticipate when you may be asked to speak
- Focus on your audience and the situation
- Accept the invitation with assurance
- Organize your thoughts
- Present reasons, logic, facts to support your viewpoint
- Don’t apologize
- Don’t ramble
Extemporaneous
This type involves the speaker’s use of note cards or prompts for his/her speech outline, but he uses his/her own words
as he/she proceeds.
An extemporaneous speech could be performed with little or no preparation. A speaker should strive for a dialogue
behavior in presenting, he/she should speak with the audience, not at them.
 Written Communication
1. Informative Written Communication
- Progress/Status Report
It answers the question “How the project is going?”
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A progress or status report should contain the following:
- Review of the project’s purpose
- Description of the project’s current status
- List of obstacles you have encountered and attempts you have made to overcome those obstacles
- Description of the next milestone
- Forecast of the project’s future
- Feasibility Report
It evaluates one or more potential action steps and recommends how the organization should proceed. Most
feasibility reports contain the following elements:
- Introduction
This part should contain a brief definition of the problem and an explanation of its consequences. It
should also state the importance of the alternatives that you will be discussing.
- Criteria
This section should contain the standards that you used to evaluate the alternative courses of action.
Get the readers accept the criteria you have made by explaining them thoroughly so that there will be
no or lesser oppositions in your recommendations.
- Methodology
Describe the process you used to identify and evaluate the plan under consideration.
- Evaluation of the Solutions
Assess the feasibility of the solutions that you have given through the criteria that you listed earlier.
Provide necessary supporting material to show how you arrived at your conclusion.
- Recommendations
This part contains the description of the solution that best fits the criteria provided earlier. Be concise
and straightforward.
- Conclusion
This section covers the summary of the findings and shows how it can help solve the problem at hand.
- Incident and Police Report
According to the Philippine National Police, the following questions should be answered as a guide in writing an
incident or police report:
· Who was involved?
Write down all the names of those who are involved including the victims, suspects, witnesses, and
whoever may be listed as present during the incident, or may not be present but has knowledge about
the incident.
· When did it take place?
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. Persuasive and Argumentative Written Communication
· Persuasive Paper
The goal of a persuasive paper is to get the reader agree with your point of view on a particular topic. It con-
tains “call to action” which asks the reader to do something to show that they agree with the author. Its tone is
emotionally charged and more aggressive.
A persuasive paper uses a combination of facts and emotion and often heavily relies on opinion to convince the
reader that the writer is correct. In this type of written communication, the writer usually only presents his/her
side. If he/she includes one opposing point, it is then quickly dismissed or refuted.
· Argumentative Paper
An argumentative paper is more formal and academic than a persuasive paper. It aims to get the reader recog-
nize that the writer’s argument is valid. In this paper, the writer presents multiple perspectives, although clearly
for one side. Argumentative writing should include scientific studies, statistics, and quotes from experts for its
evidence.
Parts of an Argumentative Paper:
- Introduction
There are three important questions that should be answered in this section:
1. What is this?
2. Why am I reading it?
3. What do you want me to do?
To answer the said questions, do the following steps:
· Set the context
Provide general information about the main idea and explain the situation so the reader can make sense of the
topic and claim you are making.
· State why the main idea is important
Create a clear and convincing essay people will want to read and act upon.
· State your thesis/claim
Use logos (sound reasoning), pathos (emotional appeal), and ethos (author’s credibility) in composing your the-
sis statement or claim.
- Body paragraphs
A good paragraph has four elements:
- Transition
A transition sentence leading in from a previous paragraph to assure smooth reading —this acts as a
hand-off from one idea to the next.
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- Topic Sentence
A topic sentences tells the reader what you will be discussing in the paragraph
- Specific Evidence and analysis
Specific evidence and analysis that support one of your claims and provide a deeper level of detail
than your topic sentence.
- Brief wrap-up sentence
A brief wrap-up sentence that tells the reader how and why this information supports the paper’s the-
sis—the brief wrap-up is also known as the warrant. The warrant is important to your argument be-
cause it connects your reasoning and support to your thesis, and it shows that the information in the
paragraph is related to your thesis and helps defend it.
- Rebuttal Section
· The opponent’s argument
Fairly and accurately state the main points of the argument you will refute.
· Your position
Clearly state the nature of your disagreement with the argument or position you are refuting.
· Your refutation
Provide an appropriate counterargument depending on the nature of our disagreement. If you challenge the
writer’s evidence, then you must present the more recent evidence. If you challenge assumptions, then you
must explain why they do not hold up. If your position is that the piece is filled with fallacies, then you must pre-
sent and explain each fallacy.
- Conclusion
· Restate your topic and why it is important.
· Restate your thesis/claim
· Address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should align with your position
· Call for action or overview future research possibilities.
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APA FORMAT
APA stands for the American Psychological Association. You’ll most likely use APA format if your paper is on a scientific topic. Many
behavioral and social sciences use this organization’s standards and guidelines.
What are behavioral sciences? Behavioral sciences study human and animal behavior. They can include:
· Psychology
· Cognitive Science
· Neuroscience
What are social sciences? Social sciences focus on one specific aspect of human behavior, specifically social and cultural relation-
ships. Social sciences can include:
· Sociology
· Anthropology
· Economics
· Political Science
· Human Geography
· Archaeology
· Linguistics
While writing a research paper, it is always important to give credit and cite your sources; this lets you acknowledge others’ ideas and
research you’ve used in your own work. Not doing so can be considered plagiarism, possibly leading to a failed grade or loss of a job.
This style is one of the most commonly used citation styles used to prevent plagiarism. Here’s more on crediting sources.
In this guide, you’ll find information related to “What is APA format?” in relation to writing and organizing your paper according to the
American Psychological Association’s standards. This page covers information related to this specific style and the official handbook
was used as a reference, but this page is not associated with the American Psychological Association.
Here’s a quick rundown of the contents of this guide on how to do APA format:
A. Information related to writing and organizing your paper:
1. Paper and essay categories

2. General paper length
3. Margin sizes
4. Title pages
5. Running Heads — How to format running heads, with samples
6. Preparing APA format outlines
7. How to form an abstract
8. The body of most scientific papers
9. Proper usage of APA format headings and subheadings
10. Use of graphics (tables and figures)
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B. Writing style tips:
11. Verb usage

12. Proper tone
13. How to reduce bias and labels
14. Spelling
15. Abbreviation do’s and don’ts
16. Spacing
17. Other word rules
18. Number rules
C. Brief overviews:
19. Full references

20. In-text citations
21. References page in APA format
D. Complete sample paper
E. Final checklist
F. Instructions for submitting your project
A. Writing and Organizing Your Paper in an Effective Way
This section of our guide focuses on proper paper length, how to format headings, spacing, and more!
Before getting into the nitty-gritty details related to APA research paper format, first determine the type of paper you’re about to em-
bark on creating:
1. Categories of papers
· Empirical studies
Empirical studies take data from observations and experiments to generate research reports. It is different from other types of studies
in that it isn’t based on theories or ideas, but on actual data.
· Literature reviews
These papers analyze another individual’s work or a group of works. The purpose is to gather information about a current issue or
problem and to communicate where we are today. It sheds light on issues and attempts to fill those gaps with suggestions for future
research and methods.
· Theoretical articles
These papers are somewhat similar to a literature reviews in that the author collects, examines, and shares information about a cur-
rent issue or problem, by using others’ research. It is different from literature reviews in that it attempts to explain or solve a problem
by coming up with a new theory. This theory is justified with valid evidence.
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· Methodological articles
These articles showcase new advances, or modifications to an existing practice, in a scientific method or procedure. The author has
data or documentation to prove that their new method, or improvement to a method, is valid. Plenty of evidence is included in this type
of article. In addition, the author explains the current method being used in addition to their own findings, in order to allow the reader
to understand and modify their own current practices.
· Case studies
Case studies present information related an individual, group, or larger set of individuals. These subjects are analyzed for a specific
reason and the author reports on the method and conclusions from their study. The author may also make suggestions for future re-
search, create possible theories, and/or determine a solution to a problem.
2. General paper length
Since APA style format is used often in science fields, the belief is “less is more.” Make sure you’re able to get your points across in a
clear and brief way. Be direct, clear, and professional. Try not to add fluff and unnecessary details into your paper or writing. This will
keep the paper length shorter and more concise.
3. Margin sizes
When it comes to margins, keep them consistent across the left, right, top, and bottom of the page. All four sides should be the same
distance from the edge of the paper. It’s recommended to use at least one-inch margins around each side. It’s acceptable to use larg-
er margins, but the margins should never be smaller than an inch.
4. Title pages
The title page, or APA format cover page, is the first page of a paper or essay. Some teachers and professors do not require a title
page, but some do. If you’re not sure if you should include one or not, ask your teacher. Some appreciate the page, which clearly dis-
plays the writer’s name and the title of the paper.
The APA format title page includes four main components:
· the title of the APA format paper

· running head, which includes the page number (see below)
· the author’s name
· institutional affiliation
Some instructors and publications also ask for an author’s note. If you’re required or would like to include an author’s note, place it
below the institutional affiliation.
Here are key guidelines to developing your title page:
· The title of the paper should capture the main idea of the essay, but should not contain abbreviations or words that serve no pur-
pose. For example, instead of using the title “A Look at Amphibians From the Past,” title the paper “Amphibians From the Past.” De-
lete the unnecessary fluff!
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· The title should be centered on the page and typed in 12-point, Times New Roman font. Do not underline, bold, or italicize the title.
· Your title may take up one or two lines, but should not be more than 12 words in length.
· All text on the title page should be double-spaced. The APA format examples paper below displays proper spacing, so go take a
look!
· Do not include any titles in the author’s name such as Dr. or Ms.
· The institutional affiliation is the school the author attends or the location where the author conducted the research.
Sample of an APA format title page:
5. Running heads
Include a page header known as the “running head” at the top of every page. To make this process easier, set your word processor to
automatically add these components onto each page. You may want to look for “Header” in the features.
A running head/page header includes two pieces: 1) the title of the paper and 2) page numbers.
Insert page numbers justified to the right-hand side of the APA format paper (do not put p. or pg. in front of the page numbers).
For the title of the paper, on the APA format title page only, include the words “Running Head” before your title in capital letters. Then
type “TITLE OF YOUR PAPER” justified to the left using all capital letters. If your title is long (over 50 characters), this running head
title should be a shortened version of the title of your entire paper.
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The rest of the pages should NOT include “Running head” in the page header. The header should look like this on the other pages:
6. Preparing outlines
Outlines are extremely beneficial as they help writers stay organized, determine the scope of the research that needs to be included,
and establish headings and subheadings.
There isn’t an official or recommended “APA format for outline” structure. It is up to the writer (if they choose to make use of an out-
line) to determine how to organize it and the characters to include. Some writers use a mix of roman numerals, numbers, and upper-
case and lowercase letters.
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Even though there isn’t a required or recommended APA format for an outline, we encourage writers to make use of one. Who would-
n’t want to put together a rough outline of their project? We promise you, an outline will help you stay on track
Here’s our version of how APA format for outlines could look:
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Don’t forget, if you’re looking for information on APA citation format and other related topics, check out our other comprehensive
guides.
7. How to form an abstract
An APA format abstract is a summary of a scholarly article or scientific study. Scholarly articles and studies are rather lengthy docu-
ments, and abstracts allow readers to first determine if they’d like to read an article in its entirety or not.
You may come across abstracts while researching a topic. Many databases display abstracts in the search results and often display
them before showing the full text of an article or scientific study. It is important to create a high quality abstract that accurately com-
municates the purpose and goal of your paper, as readers will determine if it is worthy to continue reading or not.
Are you wondering if you need to create an abstract for your assignment? You might not have to. Some teachers and professors re-
quire it, and others don’t. If you’re not sure, ask!
If you’re planning on submitting your paper to a journal for publication, first check the journal’s website to learn about abstract and
APA paper format requirements.
Here are some helpful suggestions to create a dynamic abstract:
1. Abstracts are found on their own page, directly after the title or cover page.
2. Include the running head on the top of the page.
3. On the first line of the page, center the word “Abstract” (but do not include quotation marks).
4. On the following line, write a summary of the key points of your research. Your abstract summary is a way to introduce readers to
your research topic, the questions that will be answered, the process you took, and any findings or conclusions you drew. Use con-
cise, brief, informative language. You only have a few sentences to share the summary of your entire document, so be direct with your
wording.
5. This summary should not be indented, but should be double-spaced and less than 250 words.
6. If applicable, help researchers find your work in databases by listing keywords from your paper after your summary. To do this, in-
dent and type Keywords: in italics. Then list your keywords that stand out in your research. You can also include keyword strings that
you think readers will type into the search box.
7. Use an active voice, not a passive voice. When writing with an active voice, the subject performs the action. When writing with a
passive voice, the subject receives the action.
8. Active voice: The subjects reacted to the medication.
9. Passive voice: There was a reaction from the subjects taking the medication.
10. Instead of evaluating your project in the abstract, simply report what it contains.
11. If a large portion of your work includes the extension of someone else’s research, share this in the abstract and include the au-
thor’s last name and the year their work was released.
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Sample abstract page
8. The body of most scientific papers
On the page after the abstract, begin with the body of the paper. Most scientific papers follow this format:
1. Start with the Running head. The running head on the abstract page differs from the running head on the title page. The title page
includes the words, “Running head.” The abstract page and all other pages only show the title of the paper, in capital letters. Also in-
clude the page number. The abstract page should be page 2.
2. On the next line write the title. Do not bold, underline, or italicize the title.
3. Begin with the introduction and indent the first line of the paragraph.
4. The introduction presents the problem and premise upon which the research was based. It goes into more detail about this problem
than the abstract.
5. Begin a new section with the Method and use this word as the subtitle. Bold and center this subtitle. The Method section shows
how the study was run and conducted. Be sure to describe the methods through which data was collected.
6. Begin a new section with the Results. Bold and center this subtitle. The Results section summarizes your data. Use charts and
graphs to display this data.
7. Begin a new section with the Discussion. Bold and center this subtitle. This Discussion section is a chance to analyze and interpret
your results.
8. Draw conclusions and support how your data led to these conclusions.
9. Discuss whether or not your hypothesis was confirmed or not supported by your results.
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10. Determine the limitations of the study and next steps to improve research for future studies.
Keep in mind, APA citation format is much easier than you think, thanks to EasyBib.com. Try our automatic generator and watch how
we create APA citation format references for you in just a few clicks. While you’re at it, take a peek at our other helpful guides, such
as our APA bibliography page, to make sure you’re on track with your research papers.
9. Proper usage of headings & subheadings
Headings serve an important purpose in research papers — they organize your paper and make it simple to locate different pieces of
information. In addition, headings provide readers with a glimpse to the main idea, or content, they are about to read.
In APA format, there are five levels of headings, each with different sizes and purposes:
· Level 1:
· The largest heading size
· This is the title of your paper
· The title should be centered in the middle of the page
· The title should be bolded
· Use uppercase and lowercase letters where necessary (called title capitalization)
·
· Level 2:
· Place this heading against the left margin
· Use bold letters
· Use uppercase and lowercase letters where necessary·
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· Level 3:
· Indented in from the left side margin
· Use bold letters
· Only place an uppercase letter at the first word of the heading. All others should be lowercase. The exception is for pronouns as
they should begin with a capital letter.
· End the heading with a period.
·
· Level 4:
· Indented in from the left margin
· Bolded
· Italicized
·
· Level 5:
· Indented
· Italicized
10. Use of graphics (tables and figures)
If you’re looking to jazz up your project with any charts, tables, drawings, or images, there are certain APA format rules to follow.
First and foremost, the only reason why any graphics should be added is to provide the reader with an easier way to see or read infor-
mation, rather than typing it all out in the text.
Lots of numbers to discuss? Try organizing your information into a chart or table. Pie charts, bar graphs, coordinate planes, and line
graphs are just a few ways to show numerical data, relationships between numbers, and many other types of information.
Instead of typing out long, drawn out descriptions, create a drawing or image. Many visual learners would appreciate the ability to look
at an image to make sense of information.
Before you go ahead and place that graphic in your paper, here are a few key guidelines:
1. All graphics, whether they’re tables, photographs, or drawings must be numbered. The first graphic, labeled as 1, should be the
first one mentioned in the text.
2. Follow them in the appropriate numerical order in which they appear in the text of your paper. Example: Figure 1, Figure 2, Table
1, Figure 3.
3.
4. Only use graphics if they will supplement the material in your text. If they reinstate what you already have in your text, then it is not
necessary to include a graphic.
5. Include enough wording in the graphic so that the reader is able to understand its meaning, even if it is isolated from the corre-
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sponding text. However, do not go overboard with adding a ton of wording in your graphic.
In the APA format sample paper at the end of this page, you’ll find examples of tables.
Tables:
Is there anything better than seeing a neatly organized data table? We think not! If you have tons of numbers or data to share, consid-
er creating a table instead of typing out a wordy paragraph. Tables are pretty easy to whip up on Google Docs or Microsoft Word.
Here are a few pointers to keep in mind:
1. Choose to type out your data OR create a table. As stated above, in APA format, you shouldn’t have the information typed out in
your paper and also have a table showing the same exact information. Choose one or the other.
2. If you choose to create a table, discuss it very briefly in the text. Say something along the lines of, “Table 1 displays the amount of
money used towards fighting Malaria.” Or, “Stomach cancer rates are displayed in Table 4.”
3. Your table needs two items at the top:
4. A number. Table 1 is the first table discussed in the paper. Table 2 is the next table mentioned, and so on.
5. A title. Create a brief, descriptive title. Capitalize the first letter for each important word.
6. Italicize the title.
7. Only use horizontal lines.
8. Keep the font at 12-point size and use single or double spacing. If you use single spacing in one table, make sure all of the others
use single spaces as well. Keep it consistent.
9. If you need to further explain something, or include an APA format citation, place it in a note below the table.
10. If you’re submitting your project for a class, place your table close to the text where it’s mentioned. If you’re submitting it to be pub-
lished in a journal, most publishers prefer tables to be placed in the back. If you’re unsure where to place your tables, ask!
Here’s an APA format example of a table:
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We know putting together a table is pretty tricky. That’s why we’ve included not one, but a few tables on this page. Scroll down and
look at the additional tables in the essay in APA format example found below.
Figures:
Figures represent information in a visual way. They differ from tables in that they are visually appealing. Sure, tables, like the one
above, can be visually appealing, but it’s the color, circles, arrows, boxes, or icons included that make a figure a “figure.”
There are many commonly used figures in papers.
Examples APA Format:
Pie charts
Photographs
Maps
Hierarchy charts
Drawings
Here are some pointers to keep in mind when it comes to APA format for figures:
1. Only include a figure if it adds value to your paper. If it will truly help with understanding, include it!
2. Either include a figure OR write it all out in the text. Do not include the same information twice.
3. Create a sufficient caption and place it below the figure. The caption should clearly explain the content of the figure. Include any
reference information if it’s reproduced or adapted.
APA format sample of a figure:
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Photographs:
We live in a world where we have tons of photographs available at our fingertips. Photographs found through Google Images, social
media, stock photos made available from subscription sites, and tons of other various online sources make obtaining photographs a
breeze. We can even pull out our cell phones, and in just a few seconds, take pictures with our cameras. Photographs are simple to
find, and because of this, many students enjoy using them in their papers.
If you have a photograph you would like to include in your project, here are some guidelines from the American Psychological Associ-
ation.
1. Create a reference for the photograph. Follow the guidelines under the “figure” section above.
2. Do not use color photos. It is recommended to use black and white. Colors can change depending on the reader’s screen resolu-
tion. Using black and white ensures the reader will be able to view the image clearly. The only time it is recommended to use color
photos is if you’re writing about color-specific things. For example, if you’re discussing the various shades of leaf coloration, you may
want to include a few photographs of colorful leaves.
3. If there are sections of the photograph that are not related to your work, it is acceptable to crop them out. Cropping is also benefi-
cial in that it helps the reader focus on the main item you’re discussing.
If you choose to include an image of a person you know, it would be respectful if you ask their permission before automatically includ-
ing their photo in your paper. Some schools and universities post research papers online and some people prefer that their photos
and information stay off the Internet.
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References:
https://medium.com/@lovelycagulong15/my-learnings-in-purposive-communication
https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/format/
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METRO BUSINESS COLLEGE

METRO BUSINESS COLLEGE

Nature of the Communication Process

Why study Communication?

Elements of Human Communication:

1. Sender - is the one who initiates the communication.

· Verbal symbols – express through words

· Vocal messages– are verbal and spoken

a. external noise – comes from the physical environment.

Process of Oral Communication:

1. Encoding - is everything that goes inside the brain of an individual.

5. Responding - response is anticipated by the sender from the receiver.

Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written Language

A. Different kinds of language varieties:

B. Differences in Varieties of English language

American English: “ Don’t be so mean to your sister!”

II. Language Register

Rules of the formal language register:

1. Do not use contractions:

2. Spell out numbers less than one hundred.

3. Write in third person point of view.

4. Avoid using too much passive voice.

Passive: The cheese was eaten by the rat.

5. Avoid using slangs, idioms, exaggerations, and clichés.

6. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms.

8. Always write in complete sentences.

Evaluating Messages and Images of Different Types of Text

I. Different Types of Text

A. Factual Texts—inform, instruct, or persuade by giving facts and information.

II. Purpose of Texts

1. entertain—to make the reader enjoy reading.

2. persuade—to change a reader’s opinion

3. advise—to help people decide what to do.

4. analyze—to break down something to help people to understand it better.

5. argue—to make the case for something.

6. describe—to give details about a person, place, event, or thing.

7. explain—to make clear why or how something works.

8. inform—to tell a reader about something.

9. instruct—to tell a reader how to do something.

III. Textual Analysis

A. Key Features of Textual Analysis

1. A summary of the text

2. Attention to the context

3. A clear interpretation or judgment

4. Reasonable support for your conclusions.

B. Steps in analyzing a text (for written texts)

1. Read to see what the text says

2. Decide what you want to analyze

3. Think about the larger context.

- who else cares about this topic?

4. Consider what you know about the writer

5. Study how the text works

6. Analyze the argument

- what is the claim?

- what support does the writer offer for the claim?

Or try to establish common ground?

- does the writer use any logical fallacies?

For visual texts

1. Describe the text

- does the image allude to or refer to anything else?

2. Explore your response

- what does the image lead you to think about?