Vi&b, G. & Atkinson, J. H. (1995). Gdotechnique
2, 249-265
Stiffness of fine-grained
G. VIGGIANI*
The stiffness of soil at very small strain G, is a
useful parameter for characterizing the non-linear
stressstrain behaviour of soil for monotonic
loading and it is required for analyses of the
dynamic and small strain cyclic loading of soils.
Tests were carried out on fine-grained soils in a
hydraulic triaxial cell fitted with bender elements
and with local axial gauges. From the results of
these tests simple expressions were obtained which
describe the variation of GO with current state in
terms of the current stress and overconsolidation
ratio. The parameters in these expressions were
found to depend on plasticity index. The simple
expressions for G, were found to apply generally
at larger strains, with the values for the parameters
also depending on the current strain. Values of G,
measured in laboratory tests on reconstituted
London clay agree well with values measured in
tests on undisturbed samples and in field tests
which make allowance for the different states in
the various tests.
KEYWORDS: clays; dynamics; elasticity;
equipment; laboratory tests; stiffness.
INTRODUCTION
The shear stiffness of soil measured in dynamic
field and laboratory tests is generally significantly
greater than the shear stiffness measured in con-
ventional triaxial tests, assuming that
stress-strain behaviour is linear. As a result it was
generally believed that stiffnesses measured
dynamic tests did not represent the stiffness of
soil in monotonic loading and were applicable
only to dynamic loadings such as earthquakes,
shocks or machine vibrations. Dynamic
investigating the variation of shear modulus with
shear strain amplitude showed that the stiffness
reduced with increasing strain as in Fig. l(a)
(Anderson & Richart, 1976). Conventional
axial tests, often with local measurement of strain,
showed a similar reduction of shear modulus with
strain, as in Fig. l(b) (Jardine, Symes & Burland,
1984). The non-linearity of the stress-strain
Manuscript received 22 March 1993; revised manu-
script accepted 23 March 1994.
Discussion on this Paper closes 1 September 1995; for
further details see p. ii.
* City University, London.
45, No.
soil at very small strains
and J. H. ATKINSON*
La rigidite G, d’un sol, sous tres faible deforma-
tion, est un parametre interessant qui permet de
caractiriser la non-linearite du comportement en
contrainte-deformation de ce sol lors d’un
chargement monotone et d’analyser les cycles de
chargement dynamique a faible deformation. Des
essais ont iti! realises en celhde triaxiale hydrau-
lique sur des sols finement genus equip&s de cap
teurs en flexion et de jauges axiales locales. Les
resultats obtenus au tours de ces essais ont permis
de definir des relations simples donnant la varia-
tion de GO en fonction de la contrainte courante et
du degre de surconsolidation. Les parametres de-
pendent de I’indice de plasticite. Une expression
simple de G, est applicable a de plus fortes defor-
mations, les parametres &ant alors en plus fonc-
tion de la deformation courante. Les valeurs de GO
mesurees en laboratoire sur de l’argile de Londres
reconstituQ sont en bon accord avec celles
obtenues sur des Cchantillons intacts ou lors
d’essais in-situ et rendent compte des differents
&tats rencontres lors des differents essais.
laboratory
behaviour of soils was also inferred from back-
analysis of field observations (Simpson, Calabresi,
Sommer & Wallays, 1979).
Figure l(c) is an idealization of soil stiffness
the over a large range of strains, from very small to
large, and approximately distinguishes strain
in ranges. At very small strains the shear modulus
reaches a nearly constant limiting value G,. For
reconstituted soils the strains at which the
stiffness starts to decrease varies with plasticity
tests from about 0.001% for low-plasticity soils to
about 0.01% for plastic clays (Georgiannou,
Rampello & Silvestri, 1991; Lo Presti, 1989). At
strains exceeding about 1% the stiffness is typi-
tri- cally an order of magnitude less than the
maximum, and it continues to decrease as the
state approaches failure. In the intermediate small
strain range the stiffness decreases smoothly with
increasing strain. Strains in the ground near
structures in stiff soils are generally in the small
strain and very small strain regions (Burland,
1989).
Non-linear numerical analyses have been used
successfully to predict movements around engin-
eering structures (Jardine, Potts, St. John &
Hight, 1991) where the introduction of non-
250 VIGGIANI AND ATKINSON

linearity alone considerably improved the quality elasticity with empirical non-linear stress-strain
of the prediction. Non-linear models for soil curves obtained from laboratory stress path tests
behaviour may be developed using the theory of (Jardine & Potts, 1988) or using kinematic hard-
ening elasto-plastic models with multiple plastic
potential surfaces (Stallebrass, 1990). In the
former case the initial value of shear modulus is
useful for defining the starting point of an empiri-
cal stress-strain curve; in the latter case it is
needed to define the stiffness inside the innermost
yield surface.
There is considerable evidence that soil behav-
iour within the region of very small strain is
linear and elastic. In both slow and dynamic
cyclic loading tests stress-strain loops show little
or no hysteresis, which means that the behaviour
is conservative and little or no energy is dissi-
pated (Papa, Silvestri & Vinale, 1988; Silvestri,
1991). Volumetric and shear deformations are
fully recoverable (Lo Presti, 1989) and uncoupled
so that no pore pressures are generated during
10-Z undrained shear (Georgiannou et al., 1991; Sil-
Shear ytryin’ %1’-’
a
vestri, 1991).
Values of the shear modulus at very small
strains G, can be measured using dynamic tech-
niques in field and laboratory tests (Atkinson &
Sallfors, 1991), in which the deformation proper-
ties of the soil are related to elastic shear wave
velocities. In the laboratory, the most common is
the resonant column test in which the response of
a cylindrical sample subjected to forced harmonic
torsional vibrations is measured. The resonant
column test can be used to evaluate the stiffness
of soils at shearing strains ranging from
O-00001 % to 1%. However, since analyses of reso-
nant column tests are based on the assumption
that the behaviour of the soil is linear and elastic,
analyses of the test data are strictly valid only in
the region of very small strain (Isenhower, 1979).
10-l 1 10 An alternative laboratory technique involves
Shear strain: %
transmitting and receiving shear waves using
(b)
small electro-mechanical transducers known as
bender elements (Shirley & Hampton, 1977). In
bender element tests the strains are not constant
throughout the sample because of both material
and geometric damping. The maximum shear
IL.arger
strain generated in the soil is, however, very small
Small strains :e;trains and was estimated to be less than 10m3% (Dyvik
& Madshus, 1985). In field tests the velocities of
shear waves can be measured from the surface,
using refraction surveys or Rayleigh wave tech-
/ (\ -L -
niques, or at depth, using the cross-hole or down-
hole techniques (Yoshimi, Richart, Prakash,
Shear strain (log scale) Barkan & Ilyichev, 1977). Once again, the strains
(4
involved in field dynamic tests are not constant,
Fig. 1. Typical variation of stiBoess with strain for soil:
decreasing from a maximum close to the source.
(a) dynamic tests on fine-grained soils (after Anderson 81 The shear strain amplitude can be obtained from
Richart, 1976); (b) triaxial tests on London clay (after the ratio of the particle velocity to the shear wave
Jardine et al., 1991); (c) idealization for a wide range of velocity, E = u&, so that estimates of the strain
strains (after Atkinson & Sallfors, 1991) amplitude can be made in individual experiments
 STIFFNESS OF FINE-GRAINED SOIL AT VERY SMALL STRAINS 251

by using calibrated geophones. Field dynamic with the contribution from inelastic slipping and
tests generally develop strains in the field of rearrangement becoming larger with increasing
10-3-10-4% and less. strain and stress ratio. Thus the overall behaviour
Direct comparison between the shear modulus of soil should be expected to correspond to a
obtained from dynamic tests and the very small value of n a little greater than l/3 at very small
strain shear modulus relevant to monotonic strains, because of the small contribution from
loading in triaxial compression or extension tests slipping and rearrangement, with n increasing to
is difficult, as the rates of strain and the modes of a value very close to 1.0 at large strains as the
shearing are very different in the two types of test. contribution from the elastic deformations of the
Recent laboratory test data are available compar- particles becomes relatively small.
ing the stiffness of sands under dynamic and Based on experimental observations on sands,
static conditions (Iwasaki, Tatsuoka & Takagi, Hardin & Black (1966) proposed that the shear
1978; Ni, 1987; Bolton & Wilson, 1989). The modulus at very small strains could be related to
results of these tests indicate that the stiffness of the mean effective stress raised to a power of 0.5
sands at very small strain is independent of the and to the voids ratio and stress history. Hardin
rate of loading. Less experimental evidence is & Black (1968) assumed that the same relation-
available for saturated clays, probably because of ship would hold also for normally consolidated
the difficulties connected with the correct defini- clays. A more general expression was proposed
tion of the drainage conditions and the measure- by Hardin (1978) based on theoretical elastic
ment of pore pressures generated during fast stress-strain relationships by Rowe (1971) and
dynamic loading. Nevertheless, the present evi- empirical equations for initial tangent modulus
dence is that values of shear modulus obtained by Janbu (1963) and Hardin & Black (1968). This
from dynamic and slow loading triaxial tests are can be written in the form
approximately equal (Rampello & Pane, 1988;
Georgiannou et al., 1991). G, = Sf(u)OCRkp,‘-“p’” (2)
If the mechanical behaviour of soil is taken to
where S is a dimensionless coefficient which
be essentially frictional the mechanical properties,
depends on the nature of the soil, f(u) is a function
including both strength and stiffness, vary linearly
of the specific volume, p’ is the mean effective
with the mean stress. However, if the soil is ideal-
stress, p, is the atmospheric pressure and OCR is
ized as an assembly of elastic spheres in contact,
the overconsolidation ratio defined as the ratio of
the theories developed by Hertz as reported by
the maximum past stress to the current stress.
Richart, Hall & Woods (1970) lead to the result
Results of tests on soils in resonant column tests
that the shear modulus should depend on the
(Hardin & Drnevich, 1972) show that n is less
mean stress raised to the power of l/3.
than 1.0 and k increases from 0 to 0.5 as the plas-
The observed behaviour of soil lies somewhere
ticity index increases from 0 to 100.
between these two limits. For sands Wroth &
In order to consider the effect of anisotropic
Houlsby (1985) proposed a general expression
stress states on the very small strain stiffness of
relating shear modulus to mean stress in the form
t ”
soils, Ni (1987) proposed a more general form of
equation (2)

0
G
-_=A p

Pr P, G, = Sf(o)OCRkp,’ -“c:“‘cr;“‘c$’ (3)

where the dimensionless parameters A and n where oe’ is the stress in the direction of wave
depend primarily on the nature of the soil and on propagation, or’ is the effective stresses in the
the current strain. The reference pressure p, is direction of particle motion and cr8’is the effective
included in equation (1) so that the parameters A stress orthogonal to the plane of shear, and n =
and n are dimensionless but their numerical n, + n, + r18. From the results of resonant
values will depend on the choice of reference pres- column tests on hollow cylindrical samples of dry
sure. Experimental results from both dynamic washed mortar sand, both in biaxial loading con-
and static tests on sands indicate that the value of ditions and in true triaxial conditions, Ni (1987)
n varies significantly with strain from values near concluded that G, is affected equally by cre’ and
0.5 at very small strain to 1.0 at large strain err’ (n, w nr) while the influence of erg’is practically
(Wroth, Randolph, Houlsby & Fahey, 1979). negligible, so that nB z 0.
Recent numerical studies of the mechanical Equations (2) and (3) contain the specific
behaviour of large random systems of elastic volume u, the current stess cr’ or p’ and the over-
spheres of different sizes show that the overall consolidation ratio. If the overconsolidation ratio
deformation always includes both elastic defor- is redefined in terms of the stress at the intersec-
mations of the particles and slippage and tion of a swelling and reconsolidation line with
rearrangement (Dobry, Ng & Petrakis, 1989), the intrinsic normal consolidation line for recon-
252 VIGGIANI AND ATKINSON

Intrinsic normal
(7)
;
5
g ” __________-------
The work described in this Paper was experi-
0
E mental and consisted largely of tests on reconsti-
P
tuted samples in a hydraulic triaxial cell in which
lz
values of G, were measured using bender ele-
ments. The principal purpose of this work was to
examine the variation of G, with current stress
I and overconsolidation ratio and to evaluate the
P’ P’P parameters for some typical fine-grained soils.
In p’
Additional work was carried out to examine the
Fig. 2. Relationship between specific volume, stress and
variation of the shear modulus with stress and
overconsolidation ratio
overconsolidation at larger strains and to deter-
mine values of G, for London clay in laboratory
tests on undisturbed samples and in situ.
stituted samples as in Fig. 2, the state at A is
defined by any two of the parametrics v, p’ and
R, It is usual to choose the current stress as one LABORATORY TEST EQUIPMENT AND
of the parameters to define the current state of PROCEDURES
soil, but the choice of the other parameter v or R, The laboratory tests were carried out on 38
is a matter of convenience. For coarse-grained mm dia. samples in a computer-controlled
soils, for which it is often difficult to locate the hydraulic triaxial cell of the type described by
intrinsic normal consolidation line, the most con- Atkinson, Evans & Scott (1985). The apparatus is
venient parameter is the specific volume; for fine- shown in Fig. 3. The very small strain shear
grained soils the overconsolidation ratio is modulus G, was measured using bender elements
usually preferred. of the type developed at the Norwegian Geotech-
At large strains the states of normally consoli- nical Institute by Dyvik & Madshus (1985), and
dated and lightly overconsolidated soils are on the stiffness at larger strains was measured using
the state boundary surface and the stiffness at a both an external displacement transducer and a
particular strain increases linearly with the mean pair of Hall-effect local axial gauges (Clayton &
stress p’ (Wroth, 1971; Wroth et al., 1979) so that Khatrush, 1986). For tests on reconstituted
n = 1 in equation (1). From the results of samples which were reconsolidated in the hydrau-
undrained triaxial tests on normally consolidated lic triaxial cell the measurements of axial strain
and overconsolidated samples of a glacial till soil, were approximately the same for both sets of
Atkinson & Little (1988) found that the value of instruments, provided allowance was made for
G/p’ at a particular strain increased linearly with the compliance of the apparatus in the readings
the logarithm of the overconsolidation ratio, obtained from the external displacement trans-
which is consistent with the behaviour derived by ducer. Using either an external transducer or
Wroth (1971) from a reinterpretation of tests on
undisturbed London clay by Webb (1967). These
results can be expressed in the form

G G I
0
Slgnal generator
-= --$ / + c 108Ro) Local axial
P' .. ,. gauges
Bender jijjjj j.: ‘:jj::i:iji:
or elements jj:jj:ji/: ,I.j::,:.:
::::: .....A
.:: :. .:.:.::.:
G/G”, = 1 + c log R, (5) .‘,.,. ..:..:
...
::::. ::::: / I’
where G,, is the stiffness of a normally consoli-
::::. ......A..
:.
.:.:.:: :.::.,.:.
dated sample at the same strain and the same :;‘;i.:::+-::.
.::.
.. : L..
:
mean effective stress and c is a constant. Houlsby ~~~ 1

Lziijiiqei
& Wroth (1991) expressed the variation of
stiffness with overconsolidation ratio using a
power function of the type

07
G G
-= R;;
PI nc
Fig. 3. Laboratory test apparatus
 STIFFNESS OF FINE-GRAINED SOIL AT VERY SMALL STRAINS 253

local axial gauges the smallest reliable measure- drive the transmitter element and the output
ment of strain was about 0.002% and the first signal from the receiver were displayed on a Tek-
reliable determination of stiffness was at a strain tronix 2211 50 MHz digital storage oscilloscope.
of about 0.004%. The shear modulus G, was calculated from
Reconstituted samples were prepared by one-
dimensional consolidation of a slurry in a tall G, = pV,’ = pL2/t2 (8)
floating ring oedometer until the samples were
sufficiently strong to handle. They were then where p is the density of the soil and V, is the
transferred to the hydraulic triaxial cell and con- velocity of the shear wave which is determined
solidated, usually isotropically, to the required from the effective length L through which the
initial state. The samples were then loaded and shear wave travels and the travel time t. The
unloaded as required by the particular test and values of p for a cylindrical sample can be deter-
the very small strain shear modulus G, measured mined with high precision, but there are uncer-
at various states during the test using the bender tainties about the value for L (which could vary
elements. At the same time the overall strains in between the overall length of the sample and the
the sample were measured using the external dis- distance between the tips of the bender elements)
placement transducer or the local axial gauges and the precise instant of arrival of the shear
and a conventional Imperial College type volume wave at the receiver.
gauge. Additional tests were carried out on a 38 These uncertainties were examined in detail by
mm dia. undisturbed sample of London clay pre- Viggiani (1992) and Viggiani & Atkinson (1995).
pared by hand-trimming a 100 mm dia. thin wall By means of direct calibration they found that the
tube sample. effective length of travel should be taken as the
The test results were interpreted in terms of the distance between the tips of the elements. They
deviatoric stress parameter q’ = (oa’ - or’) and the also found that the arrival of the shear wave cor-
mean stress parameter p’ = l/3(0,’ + 2~,‘), where responds closely to the first major reversal of
era’ and or’ are the axial and radial effective polarity of the received signal rather than to the
stresses respectively. The corresponding strain point of first deflection which probably corre-
parameters were the shear strain E, = 2/3(~, - E,) sponds to the arrival of the near field components
and the volumetric strain a, = a, + 2~,, where E, of the shear wave (Salinero, Roesset & Stokoe,
and E, are the axial and radial strains. The state of 1986), travelling at the velocity of compression
soil is defined by the current values of q’, p’ and waves. Both findings are in good agreement with
the specific volume u. previous experimental observations and numeri-
Bender elements were used to determine the cal studies (Brignoli & Gotti, 1992; Dyvik &
shear modulus at very small strains G, by mea- Madshus, 1985; Mancuso, Simonelli & Vigale,
suring the velocity of shear waves through the 1989).
sample. Bender elements are piezoelectric electro- For the tests described in this Paper the results
mechanical transducers that bend as an applied were always interpreted by taking the effective
voltage is changed or, conversely, mechanical length as the distance between the tips of the ele-
bending of the elements produces a change of ments and the arrival of the shear wave as the
voltage. A transmitter element and receiver first significant reversal of polarity of the received
element are fixed into the top and bottom platens signal. From the work described by Viggiani &
of the triaxial cell so as to protrude about 3 mm Atkinson (1995), the calculated values of G, could
into the sample. A change of voltage applied to have overestimated the true values by up to 14%.
the transmitter causes it to bend and generate a However, because the choice of the arrival time
shear wave that propagates through the sample. was consistent throughout the analysis of the
The arrival of the shear wave is recorded as a data, this error does not apply to comparisons
change of voltage by the receiver. between shear moduli and affects only their
The electronics required to operate the bender absolute values when compared with other
elements are shown in Fig. 3. A Farnell FGl methods of measurement.
function generator was used to supply the trans- At strains sufhciently large to be measured
mitter with the driving voltage. This normally using an axial displacement transducer or local
consisted of a square wave with a frequency of 50 strain gauges the tangent shear modulus G was
Hz and an amplitude of 10 V (20 V peak to peak). calculated from the test results from the gradient
The frequency of the square wave was always suf- of the deviatoric stress-shear strain curve. In
ficiently low that the subsequent step of the wave comparing the values of shear modulus deter-
did not interfere with the received wave generated mined from bender element tests and from direct
by the previous step. The amplitude of the wave measurements of deviatoric stress and strain on
was limited by the necessity of avoiding depolar- the same sample it has been assumed that the
ization of the bender elements. The signal used to results are comparable, despite differences that
254 VIGGIANI AND ATKINSON

may arise due to different modes of shearing, not correspond to the maximum past stress p,‘.
stress path rotations and rate effects. Also, this definition of R, is different from the
usual definition of overconsolidation ratio in
which the current vertical effective stress is related
VARIATION OF G, WITH ISOTROPIC STATE to the maximum past vertical effective stress.
Tests were carried out on reconstituted samples With R, defined as in equation (9), the current
of speswhite kaolin clay, powdered slate dust, specific volume is defined by the current values of
London clay and North Field clay. North Field p’ and R, and so is not independent.
clay is a glacial till from a test bed site adjacent to Each sample was isotropically compressed and
the Building Research Establishment at Watford swelled following the path in Fig. 4(a). Typically
(Abbiss, 1981). These tests examined the variation the samples were brought to states with p’ = 50-
of the very small strain shear modulus G, with 400 kPa and R, = l-8. Due to the hysteresis in
isotropic effective stress p’ and overconsolidation the unloading-reloading loops the values of R,,
ratio R, given by defined by equation (9), at a particular stress on a
particular loop are different and so the values of
R, = P~'IP‘ (9) R, indicated in Fig. 4(a) are nominal values.
where pP’ is the stress at the intersection of a The samples were generally compressed and
swelling line with the isotropic normal consoli- swelled by continuous drained loading and
dation line (see Fig. 2). As soils may creep at con- unloading, but in a few stages the load was
stant mean effective stress, the value of pp’ may applied as a single increment followed by iso-
tropic consolidation. The solid line in Fig. 4(a) is
the state path calculated on the assumption that
2.5 , , , , , , , , I, I I,, I I any excess pore pressures could be neglected. The
small vertical sections at the end of some stages
represent additional small volume changes due to
dissipation of small excess pore pressures devel-
* Dynamic reading of Go
oped during continuous loading or unloading or
to creep. The line for R, = 1 in Fig. 4(a) through
the equilibrium states represents the isotropic
normal compression line.
Figure 4(b) shows the values of Go measured at
the states indicated in Fig. 4(a). The data show
that the value of Go increases with mean effective
stress p‘, although the variation is non-linear, and
that the value of G, at a particular stress
- p’ = 50kPa 100 kPa 200 kPa 400 kPa
increases with overconsolidation ratio. At a par-
ticular nominal value of R, and at a given stress,
values of G, may be slightly different. This is

105 -
I
Nominal values
1
Nominal values

d
‘0
0

Mean effective stress p’: kPa 104’ I J

.-lo 102 103
(b)
P’!Pr
Fig. 4. (a) Isotropic stress states at which bender
element tests were carried out; (b) variation of G, with Fig. 5. Variation of G, with stress and overconsolidation
mean stress p’ and nominal overconsolidation ratio for reconstituted samples of speswhite kaolin
 STIFFNESS OF FINE-GRAINED SOIL AT VERY SMALL STRAINS 255

because, due to hysteresis in the unloading-

reloading loop in the An p’ plane, the specific
volumes and hence the actual values of R, are
different.
Figure 5 shows a typical set of values of G,
measured on samples of kaolin clay at the states
indicated in Fig. 4, together with additional
values obtained at intermediate states on the
normal compression line. This shows values of
G,/p, against p’/p,, both to a logarithmic scale,
where p, is a reference pressure which, for conve-
nience, has been taken as 1 kPa. The data points
for the normally consolidated samples fall close g , , , , , ,,(
to a single straight line given by
1 2 3 4 5 6 769 3
Ro

Fig. 6. Variation of G,, with stress aad overconsolidation

or for reconstituted samples of speswhite kaolin

(11) tional tests on reconstituted speswhite kaolin, the

values of n in equation (11) found by fitting
where A and n are non-dimensional soil para- straight lines through all the available data for a
meters. For the test data for speswhite kaolin particular overconsolidation ratio indicate that n
shown in Fig. 5 the values are A = 2088 is independent of R, , at least for R, less than 4.
and n = 0.653, with coefficient of correlation Figure 6 shows the same data as those in Fig.
r2 = 0.996 and standard deviation a = 0.009. The 5, together with data from additional tests on
values of A and n obtained by fitting a straight reconstituted kaolin clay. The data are plotted as
line through all the available data for normally
(GdGe,,) where GOnf is the value of G, corres-
consolidated speswhite kaolin were A = 1964 and ponding to normally consolidated samples at the
n = 0.653. The general form of equation (ll), same mean effective stress. The data points fall
which relates the shear stiffness of kaolin clay at reasonably close to a straight line which, making
very small strain G, to the current stress, is essen- use of equation (1 l), is given by
tially the same as equation (l), which was pro-

0p’ ‘&”
posed by Wroth & Houlsby (1985) for the shear %!=
modulus of sands. The values of A and II depend
A
(12)
P, P,
on the value taken for the reference pressure.
In’Fig. 5 the data points for overconsolidated where m can be regarded as another soil para-
samples fall above the line for normally consoli- meter. For the data shown in Fig. 6, m = 0.196
dated samples and, for each value of R, , they fall with coefficient of correlation r2 = 0.830 and
close to lines parallel to the line for normally con- standard deviation e = 0.021. The increase of G,
solidated samples. Considering the data shown in with log R, given by equation (12) is similar to
Fig. 5, together with results of a number of addi- that reported by Houlsby & Wroth (1991).

Plasticity index Plastiaty index Plasticity index

0 Speswhite kaolin A North Feld clay l Various clays (Weller, 1966)

0 London clay 0 Slate dust l Fucino clay (Pane & Butghignoli, 1966)

Fig. 7. Variation of stitTness parameters for G, with plasticity index

256 VIGGIANI AND ATKINSON

500,, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , I-
only the general trends of the data. Also shown in
‘1’ = 0.75 043 0.30 0.00 - Fig. 7 are points representing tests on various
other fine-grained soils reported by Pane &
4OO-
Burghignoli (1988) and Weiler (1988). They gener-
ally fall near the trends for the data obtained as
part of the present work. These data illustrate the
significant influence of plasticity index on small
strain stiffness through the parameter A, and the
relatively small importance of overconsolidation
ratio through the parameter m.

VARIATION OF G, WITH ANISOTROPIC

a',:kPa
Fig. 8. Anisotropic stress states at which bender element
tests were carried out on reconstituted samples of spes-
white kaolin
Results obtained from tests on the other soils
all conformed to the general relationships found
for speswhite kaolin clay shown in Fig. 6, but
with different values of the parameters A, n and
m. Values for these parameters are shown in Fig.
7 plotted against plasticity index. The broken
lines in Fig. 7 are not best-fit lines and indicate
STRESS STATE
For anisotropic states for which ua’ # 6,’ the
value of G, might vary primarily with the mean
stress p’ as in equation (1 l), or primarily with the
stress in the direction of travel of the shear waves,
or with one of the stresses orthogonal to the
direction of travel. Following Ni (1987), equation
(11) can be extended for anisotropic states of
stress in a similar way to that in which equation
(2) was extended to equation (3). In a bender
element test the direction of wave propagation is
always the direction of the axial stress and oe’ =
0,‘; the direction of particle motion is orthogonal
to the surface of the bender element and the
direction normal to the plane of vibration is

o u'r= lOOkPa o u',= 50kPa

q a',= 2OOkPa q o',=lOOkPa
A dr = 400kPa A 0'8 = POOkPa

Fig. 9. Variation of G,, with axial and radial stress for normally consolidated
speswhite kaolin: (a) compression, a.’ > a,‘; (b) extension, u,’ < u,’
 STIFFNESS OF FINE-GRAINED SOIL AT VERY SMALL STRAINS 257

parallel to the bender element. In a triaxial 106 _ I

sample these are equal and err’ = CT*’= Q,‘, where
ur’ is the radial stress.
As the influence of the stress orthogonal to the Compression Extension

plane of vibration has a negligible influence on G, 0 ?J’ = 0.00 . ‘I’ = 0.00

0 ‘I’ = 0.43 . ‘I’ = -0.36
(because n, x 0 in equation (3)), equation (11) can A ?f = 0.75 . ‘I’ = -0.60
be written as * rf = 0.30 l Tf - -0.27
,drlos -
s :

where B,’ and cr’ are the axial and radial stresses
in a triaxial sample, A, is equivalent to A in equa-
tion (11) and, in general, the parameters n, and n,
are not equal. The data shown in Figs 4-l were
I
obtained from tests on isotropically compressed 102
samples for which p’ = oq’ = or’ and so A, = A P’lPr
and n = n, + n,. To examme the variation of G,
Fig. 10. Variation of G, with mean stress and stress
with axial and radial stress for anisotropic states,
ratio for normally consolidated samples of speswhite
tests were carried out on reconstituted samples of kaolin
kaolin clay consolidated to the isotropic and
anisotropic stress states following the stress paths
shown in Fig. 8, where the stress ratio 9’ is q’/p’. VARIATION OF SHEAR MODULUS DURING
For the paths in Fig. 8 the value of the mean TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION
effective stress was increased and so the samples A constant p’ drained triaxial compression test
can be considered to be normally consolidated was carried out on a reconstituted sample of
throughout all stages of each test. kaolin clay and values of G, were measured using
The test results are shown in Figs 9 and 10. In the bender elements at various points on the
Fig. 9 the observed value of G, increases with stress path as indicated in Fig. 11(a). The corre-
both axial stress CT=’ and radial stress or’. In Fig. sponding stress-strain curve is shown in Fig.
9(a), for compression, the gradients of the lines 11(b). The overall stress-strain behaviour is rep-
and hence the values of n, and n, are approx- resented by the smooth non-linear curve drawn
imately equal, the exponent n, being only slightly through the many data points; the stars indicate
larger than the exponent n,. This indicates that, bender element tests.
in triaxial compression, G, depends about equally The test results are shown in Fig. 12. The tri-
on the stress in the direction of wave propa- angles represent values of G, determined from
gation and on the lateral stress, which is consis- shear wave velocities using the bender elements
tent with the observations by Ni (1987). In Fig. plotted at values of overall strain measured using
9(b), for extension, the gradients of the lines and the external axial displacement transducer. The
hence the values of n, and n, are significantly dif- circles represent values of the tangent shear
ferent from each other, the exponent n, being sig- modulus calculated from deviator stresses and
nificantly larger than the exponent n, although n, shear strains. Values for the shear strains were
+ n, is approximately equal to n in both triaxial calculated from axial strains measured using an
extension and compression. Ni (1987) did not external linear variable differential transformer
report the results of triaxial extension tests. In (LVDT) and from volumetric strains measured
Fig. 10 there is a unique relationship between G, using an external volume gauge. The samples
and p’ for the normally consolidated samples were reconstituted and reconsolidated in the
which is independent of the value of the stress hydraulic triaxial cell, and so bedding and seating
ratio g’ and is the same for compression and errors were very small and the axial strains mea-
extension. The line in Fig. 10 is the same as that sured using the external LVDT were not signifi-
obtained for isotropically compressed samples cantly different from those measured using the
shown in Fig. 5. These data indicate that the local axial gauges. The lower limit of strain for
value of G, in reconstituted normally consoli- which the values of tangent stiffness become unre-
dated kaolin clay depends primarily on the value liable was estimated to be about 0404%. For
of mean stress p’ rather than on the value of the strains of up to 0.02% the tangent stiffnesses were
stress either in the direction of travel of the shear determined from a fifth-order polynomial fitted to
waves or orthogonal to the direction of travel, at the data points. For strains greater than 0.02%
least for stress ratios in the range the tangent stiffnesses were calculated using the
-0.60 < q’ < 0.75 and which are not close to methods described by Atkinson, Richardson &
failure. Woods (1986).
258 VIGGIANI AND ATKINSON

The data in Fig. 12 show that the value of G, kaolin clay. The data points start at strains of
remains nearly constant, irrespective of the devi- about 0X)04%, which was the limit of reliable
ator stress or the shear strain. The slight measurements of stiffness. Each stiffness-strain
reduction in G, by about 5% can be attributed to curve has the characteristic shape, with G
small excess pore pressures in the sample which * decreasing with increasing strain. Also shown in
would have the effect of reducing the current Fig. 13 are the values of G, obtained from bender
value of mean effective stress p’. The tangent element measurements in tests at different values
shear modulus decreases smoothly from a value of p’.
that approaches the value of G,, corresponding Figure 14 shows values of stiffness at a particu-
to very small strains, towards a value of G = 0 at lar strain extracted from the data in Fig. 13
large strains. At very small strain, G, varies with plotted against mean stress, both normalized with
p’” as shown in equation (11). At strains greater respect to the reference pressure pr as in Fig. 5.
than about 0.1% the shear modulus G has been The uppermost line represents results obtained
found to vary linearly with p’ (Atkinson & Little, from the bender elements corresponding to Go.
1988). A question then arises as to the nature of For each strain the variation of stiffness with
the relationship between stiffness and mean stress mean stress can be represented by equation (1 l),
in the intermediate range of small strain. with the values of A and n both varying with
Figure 13 shows stiffness-strain curves for a set increasing strain. Figure 15 shows the values of A
of constant p’ drained triaxial compression tests and n obtained from the data in Fig. 14 plotted
carried out on normally consolidated samples of against strain on a logarithmic scale. The values
of A decrease by a factor of about three over the
strain range OXrO5%-0.05%, which is a conse-
quence of the highly non-linear behaviour of soil
over this range of strain. In Fig. 15(b) the para-
meter n increases smoothly in the strain range
0.005-0.05% from n = 0.12, which is just above
the value for Go obtained using the bender ele-
ments, towards n = 1, corresponding to large
strain when G is proportional to p’.

l_l. 0 20 40 60
p’: kPa
(a)
80 100 120
G,’ IN UNDISTURBED
A further test was carried out on an undis-
turbed sample of London clay. The sample was
trimmed from a 100 mm dia. tube sample taken
from a depth of about 6 m at a site at Chattenden
in Kent about 45 km east of central London
LONDON CLAY

I””

50

____~---*----b---d-*___
40

m
P’S0
0:
Dynamic reading of Go
20

10

0 2 4 6 8 10
0
Shear strain: % 10-d 10-S 10-z lo-’ 1 10
(b) Shear Wan: %

Fig. 11. Stress path and stressstrain curve for special Fig. 12. Variation of G and G, with strain for the special
triaxial test with additional bender element tests triaxial test shown in Fig. 11
 STIFFNESS OF FINE-GRAINED soIL AT VERY SMALL STRAINS 259

q p’ = 400 kPa
A D’ = 200 kPa
p’ = 200 kPa
Go = 62 MPa 0 p’ = 50 kPa 60
m
$
ij
p’ = 100 kPa 40
Go = 39 MPa

p’ = 50 kPa
Go = 25 MPa

Shear strain: %

Fig. 13. Variation of G with strain for a set of constant p’ trinxial com-
pression teats oa reconstituted kaolin clay

(Abbiss & Viggiani, 1994). The sample was com-

pressed and swelled in the hydraulic triaxial cell
to a number of different isotropic and anisotropic
states which encompassed the range of states esti- 2000 + From bender elements
A = 1964
mated for the sample in situ, and at each state the t
value of G, was measured using bender elements.
Figure 16(a) shows the variation of Go for the
undisturbed sample of London clay with p’, both
normalized with respect to a reference pressure
p, = 1 kPa as before. The undisturbed sample
was heavily overconsolidated in situ and
remained overconsolidated even at the maximum
stress achieved in the triaxial cell, so that its over-
consolidation ratio varied with reconsolidation
pressure as indicated in Fig. 16(a). The values for
the overconsolidation ratio R, given in Fig. 16(a) Shear strain: %
were calculated from equation (9) taking the iso- (a)

‘““5 1.1 :

1.0 - At larger strain ~ :

rl=l.)

t t From bender elements

” = 0.653
0.6

10-Z lo-’ 1 10
Shear strain: %

P’IP. (b)

Fig. 14. Variation of G with mean stress and strain Fig. 15. Variation of the parameters A aad II extracted
extracted from the data in Fig. 13 from the data in Fig. 14
260 VIGGIANI AND ATKINSON

tropic normal compression line for reconstituted

samples. Also shown in Fig. 16(a) is the relation-
ship between G, and p’ obtained from tests on
‘OS5 *9-
J

_a--

Jl,r;
normally consolidated reconstituted samples. _--*
In Fig. 16(a) the data points for the undis- _Q_-9=-
turbed samples represent states with different
overconsolidation ratios because the maximum
stress applied in the triaxial cell was always con- g 104.

siderably smaller than the estimated maximum ’ : 0 Ro= 62 _____ Undisturbed

- a&=43 -m-- Reconstituted (R, = 1)
past stress in the ground. Consequently the data OR,=38
points for the undisturbed sample fall above . R. = 21
- AR,=18
those for the reconstituted samples, and the best- AI&=13
fit lines through the two sets of data are not - OR,=12

parallel.
The data for the intact sample fall close to a 103
I
10 102 103
line given by P’IP,
6)
Go
-_=c(

PI 0P' ’
-

P,
where a = 3000 and p = 0.50. From equations
(14)

(9)
lo55
L -I

and (12)

@
910’:
so a = A(JQ’/~,)~ and p = n - m. (Test results for
2 -
reconstituted London clay gave n = 0.76,
m = 0.25 and n - m = O-51, which is very close to o Undisturbed
l Reconstituted
the value obtained from Fig. 16(a).)
Equation (12) can be rewritten as
Go
-=,‘I
P~Ro" 0
”
-P
P,
(16) lo’l 10 102
P’lP,
103

Fig. 16(b) shows values of Go’/p,Rom plotted (W

against p’/p,, both to a logarithmic scale; the
Fig. 16. Variation of GO with mean stress and over-
value of m was taken as 0.25 corresponding to the
consolidation ratio for undisturbed and reconstituted
value obtained from the tests on reconstituted samples of London clay
samples of London clay already described. The
data points corresponding to the results obtained
from the undisturbed samples now fall very close represented by equation (12); for the shear
to the line obtained from the tests on the recon- modulus at larger strains the corresponding
stituted samples. This result demonstrates that, relationship could be either equation (4) or equa-
for the London clay examined, the value of Go tion (6), which is similar to equation (12).
depends on the current state (determined by both However, for the data shown in Fig. 6 from which
the current stress and the overconsolidation ratio) equation (12) was developed, the over-
and is unaffected by structure and fabric. This consolidation ratios were limited to about 7 due
apparently surprising result can be explained if, at to the maximum pressures available in the
the very small strains involved in dynamic tests, hydraulic triaxial cell; for tests on intact samples
most of the deformation is connected to elastic the overconsolidation ratios were larger since the
deformations and local slipping at the points of maximum stresses in the ground were generally
contact between soil particles rather than to greater than those available in the triaxial cell.
major slippage and rearrangement of particles. Figure 17(a) shows values of G,/G,,, obtained
from bender element tests on undisturbed and
reconstituted samples of London clay plotted
against R,, both to a logarithmic scale corres-
VARIATION OF G, WITH ponding to equation (6). The data points obtained
OVERCONSOLIDATION from the tests on the undisturbed sample fall very
The general variation of shear modulus at very close to the best-fit straight line through the
small strain G, with overconsolidation can be results obtained from the tests on reconstituted
 STlFFNESS OF FINE-GRAINED SOIL AT VERY SMALL STRAINS 261
-F
and log R, in Fig. 17(a) agrees with the relation-
ship proposed by Houlsby & Wroth (1991) and
test results given by Hardin & Drnevich (1972).
Figure 17(b) shows the same data as those in
A Undisturbed Fig. 17(a), but with G,/G,,, plotted to a natural
q Reconstituted
scale corresponding to equation (4). In this case
the data points for the undisturbed sample at
values of R, greater than about 10 depart from
the best-fit line through the data for reconstituted
samples. On the basis of these results G, can be
Best-fit line from
reconstiiuted samples related to stress and overconsolidation by an
expression of the form of equation (6) or equation
(12) over a wide range of overconsolidation
ratios.
L
100

MEASUREMENTS OF G, IN SITU AND

A Undisturbed
q Reconstituted
est-fit line from
reconstituted
0.5P
1 10
z
Fig. 17. Variation of G, with overcoasolidatioo ratio for
undiiturbed and reconstituted samples of London clay
samples. These results again indicate that the
stiffness of soil at very small strain is basically
unaffected by whether the sample is undisturbed
or reconstituted, provided that undisturbed and
reconstituted samples are brought to the same
mean effective stress and overconsolidation ratio.
The unique relationship between log (Go/Go,,)
IN LABORATORY TESTS
Measurements of Go in situ can be made by
observing the velocities of either shear waves or
Rayleigh waves in the ground; a number of differ-
ent techniques are available (Yoshimi et al., 1977;
Atkinson & Sallfors, 1991). Measurements were
made using Rayleigh waves at the site on London
clay at Chattenden from which the undisturbed
sample was obtained. Rayleigh waves, also
known as surface waves, travel largely in a layer
that is about one wavelength deep, and their
samples velocity varies with the shear stiffness of the
ground. The Rayleigh wave velocity V, is related
to the shear wave velocity V, through Poisson’s
ratio v’, but the relationship is not sensitive to the
100
value of v’. For most practical purposes it is suffi-
cient to take V, as 0.9V, and the error will be
limited to less than 5% for a very wide range of
values of v’ (Richart et al., 1970).
In the most common form of the Rayleigh
wave method (Richart et al., 1970) continuous
seismic waves generated at the surface by a vibra-
tor are detected by two geophone receivers placed
at the surface at a distance from the vibrator and
at a known distance apart as in Fig. 18. For a
half space in which the stiffness increases with
depth the velocity of the Rayleigh waves between
the two receivers varies with the wavelength, and
hence with the frequency, of the excitation

Vibrator

Oscillator and amphfier

00 -

Fig. 18 Apparatus for in situ measurements of shear modulus using Rayleigh waves
262 VIGGIANI AND ATKINSON

because different wavelengths sample material given by Abbiss & Viggiani (1994). These are
with different stiffnesses. similar to those described by Nazarian & Stokoe
The travel time between the two receivers is (1986a, 1986b), except that they generated Ray-
given by leigh waves as single pulses rather than as contin-
uous vibrations at fixed frequencies. The general
T(f) = ?!a L (17)
configuration of the equipment used in the
2% f present work is shown in Fig. 18. Rayleigh waves
were generated using a Ling Dynamics 400 elec-
where f is the excitation frequency and @ is the tromagnetic vibrator attached to a plate, about
phase shift between the two received signals. The
0.2 m in diameter, resting on the ground and tests
Rayleigh wave velocity and wavelength corres- were carried out at frequencies in the range 8-200
ponding to the frequencyfare given by Hz. The receivers were Sensor SM6 vertically pol-
v,(f)
= wxf) (18) arized geophones. The signals were recorded on a
Hewlett Packard dual channel spectrum analyser
b(f) = UfM- (19) and the phase shift of the main Fourier com-
ponents was determined.
where d is the distance between the receivers. The
Figure 19 shows the variation of shear modulus
Rayleigh wave velocity determined by this
with depth obtained from Rayleigh wave mea-
method may be thought of as representative of
surements at the site on London clay at Chatten-
the properties of the ground in a characteristic
den. The values of Go measured in situ are
layer. Following Vettros (1990) and Gazetas
generally in the range lo-30 MPa, increasing
(1982), this was taken as one third of the wave-
slightly with depth and with a few higher values
length determined from equation (19). By repeat-
recorded in the top metre in the crust. (The differ-
ing the experiment with different excitation
ence in the values measured one year apart has
frequencies, a profile of Rayleigh wave velocity
not yet been explained satisfactorily.)
with depth can be obtained. Hence profiles of
Values for G, in the ground can be calculated
shear wave velocity and shear modulus G, are
from the results of laboratory tests together with
obtained.
estimates of the current state of stress and over-
Details of the equipment and experimental
consolidation in the ground. The relationship
methods used for the Rayleigh wave tests are
between G, , stress and overconsolidation ratio is
given by equation (12). Values for the parameters
A, n and m were determined from bender element
tests on both undisturbed and reconstituted
samples of London clay from the site at Chatten-
den; from these tests A = 400, n = 0.76 and
m = 0.25. The in situ stresses were calculated
from the measured unit weights of undisturbed
samples and from the position of the water table,
with values of K, varying with overconsolidation
- yGo Field observations -
0 Summer 1989 _
ratio as proposed by Wroth (1975). The reduction
D Summer 1990 in vertical effective stress due to erosion of 1500
kPa was estimated using data given by Skempton
.-- Based on (1961) for a site where the geology resembles that
laboratory results
at Chattenden. The values of shear modulus G,
calculated from the laboratory tests are shown in
Fig. 19; they fall within the scatter of the results
obtained from the in situ measurements.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The work investigated the variation of the
shear modulus of fine-grained soils with state (i.e.
current stress and overconsolidation ratio) and
strain. From the results of laboratory tests on
reconstituted samples of a number of different
fine-grained soils using bender elements, it was
found that the shear modulus at very small
Fig. 19. Variation of G, with depth in the ground in strains G, could conveniently be related to the
London clay at Chattemien current state through an expression of the form of
 STIFFNESS OF FINE-GRAINED SOIL AT VERY SMALL STRAINS 263

equation (12), where p, is a reference pressure tenden were carried out in collaboration with Dr
included so that the parameters A, n and m are C. P. Abbiss.
dimensionless, although their numerical values
depend on the choice of the reference pressure. NOTATION
Values for the parameters A and n depend on A nondimensional factor relating G,
the plasticity index of the soil. The value of n is in to pl
the region of 0.6-03, depending on the plasticity d distance between receivers in Ray-
index as shown in Fig. 7(b). The value of A leigh wave test
decreases with plasticity index as shown in Fig. f frequency
G shear modulus
7(a), and this shows the very significant influence
G shear modulus for normally con-
of plasticity on soil stiffness. The relationship “E

solidated soil
between G, and current state given by equation
GO shear modulus at very small strain
(12) was found to hold for both isotropic and k exponent of overconsolidation
anisotropic stresses that were not close to failure. ratio
A limited investigation of undisturbed London L effective length of travel of shear
clay showed that the stiffness at very small strain waves in bender element tests
G, was the same as for reconstituted samples at LR wavelength of Rayleigh wave
m exponent for R,
the same state. Furthermore, values of G, mea-
n, narne, n,, ns>4 exponents relating G, to p’”
sured in situ using Rayleigh waves compared well
OCR overconsolidation ratio defined as
with the values obtained in the laboratory tests l&‘/a’
normalized to the in situ stress and over-
PI mean effective stress, 1/3((r,’ + 20,‘)
consolidation ratio. P, maximum past mean effective
At strains larger than those corresponding to stress
the region of very small strain in Fig. 1, the PP effective stress at the intersection
dependence of shear stiffness on state can still be of a swelling line with the normal
expressed using equation (12), but with values of compression line
the parameters A, n and m that depend addi- P, reference pressure (taken as 1 kPa)
deviator stress, ur’ - 6,’
tionally on the magnitude of the strains. In par-
ticular, for a given soil, the value of A was found 2 overconsolidation ratio defined as
Pp’lP’
to decrease with increasing strain as shown in S non-dimensional factor in equa-
Fig. 15(a); this is a consequence of the highly tion (2)
non-linear stress-strain behaviour of soil. The time shift between received signals
value of the exponent n gradually increases with in Rayleigh wave test
strain as shown in Fig. 15(b) and, at large strains, T travel time of shear waves in
n x 1.0. The change of n can be attributed partly bender element tests
to a change from essentially elastic behaviour at specific volume
very small strains to essentially plastic behaviour v, Rayleigh wave velocity
at large strains. v, shear wave velocity
a non-dimensional factor relating G,
The value of shear modulus at very small strain to p’ for intact samples
G, is a useful parameter for characterizing the shear strain, 2/3(s, - E,)
highly non-linear stress-strain behaviour of soil volumetric strain, 6. + 2.5,
for monotonic loading. It is also required for exponents for mean pressure for
analyses of dynamic and small strain cyclic intact samples
loading of soils. The present work has shown that soil density
the variation of G, with stress and over- effective stress in the direction of
wave propagation
consolidation is similar to that for the shear effective stress in the direction of
modulus at larger strains. Values for G, can be particle motion
obtained relatively easily from measurements of effective stress out of the plane of
shear wave velocities in field or in laboratory tests wave motion
using a number of techniques. In laboratory tests phase shift in Rayleigh wave tests
shear wave velocities can be measured using
bender elements which can be incorporated into
conventional soil testing apparatus.
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Dr Viggiani was supported by an SERC Case 104.
award in collaboration with the Building Abbiss, C. P. & Viggiani, G. (1994). Surface wave and
Research Establishment. The field tests at Chat- damping measurements of the ground with a correl-
264 VIGGIANI AND ATKINSON

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