TROPICAL SEMI EVERGREEN

AND GRASSLAND FOREST

(Duar Flood Plains, Terai
region)
KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK
Kaziranga National Park (KNP) in Assam, India, is a protected area of global prominence as it provides
habitat to the largest population of the Indian Rhinoceros in the world.

Kaziranga National Park (26°35'–26°45’N and 93°05'–93°40’E) is located in the floodplain of the
Brahmaputra River in the Nagaon, Golaghat and Sonitpur districts of Assam coveringan area of
1030sq. km and is the largest protected area on the southern bank of the Brahmaputra River. The
terrain of the park is flat (55-75 mabove msl) with an east to west incline. Being in the floodplain of
Brahmaputra River, the soil of the park is rich in alluvial deposits. The park also declared as a tiger
reserve by the Government of India, derives its name from the Karbi language in which the word
”Kazi” means Goat or Deer. The park rests in the ecologically rich Indo-Malayan Biogeographic realm,
complexing the elements of both the Indian and Malayan origins, giving it a distinct landscape ranging
from woodland - hilly area , woodland – grassland, grassland – water bodies to river islands. A large
number of small rivers and channels flow through the park from east to west , mostly originating from
the Karbi Anglong hills to the south , run northwards and ultimately drain into the Brahmaputra River ,
adding to its catchment area.

Locational map of Kaziranga National Park

(Source- kaziranga national park of india: some wildlife and tourism management related pressing issues.pdf)

The Kaziranga National Park presents a unique ecosystem where prescribing burning is used to
maintain the vegetation structure by arresting the seral stage of grassland and preventing invasion of
tree forest.

Source:-
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335060811_KAZIRANGA_NATIONAL_PARK_OF_INDIA_SOME_WILDLIFE_AND_TO
URISM_MANAGEMENT_RELATED_PRESSING_ISSUES
 This riverain habitat consists primarily of tall, dense grasses interspersed with open forests,
interconnecting streams, and numerous small lakes called ‘bheels ‘.The forest was found to be
influenced by the location of the water bodies, it’s proximity to the river and the elevations in the
topography. The grasslands were found in the low-lying areas which were dotted with beels, the
Semi-Evergreen forests were found in higher elevations along rivulets and the Moist Mixed
Deciduous forests were found scattered between the grasslands and the Semi-Evergreen forests.

Forest types:-

Wet alluvial grasslands- The grasslands, visibly classified as tall and short grass patches, and
Savannahs are grass dominated biomes in Kaziranga National Park and form the major part of its
vegetation. This habitat occurs in low-lying alluvial flood plains of rivers. It is dotted with beels and
sustains a wide variety of herbivores.

Wet Alluvial Grassaland (Source:-Studio work)

List of dominant flora

Tall grass- The dominant grass species of this type are Arundo donax, Imperata cylindrical,
Phragmites karka, Saccharum spp. and Thysanolaena latifolia. These grass species grow gregariously
at the onset of monsoon and form pure and dense stands up to 6 m tall.

Tall Grasses (Source:-Kaziranga Biodiversity Final report.pdf)

(Source:-Kaziranga Biodiversity Final report.pdf)

Imperata cylindrica Thysanolaena latifolia Arundo donax Phragmites karka

(Source:-Studio work)

Short grass- Short grass patches are restricted along the edges of water bodies and other wetland
areas. These communities comprise grass as well as forbs species and are more diverse than the tall
grass ones. Cynodon dactylon, Cenchrus ciliaris, Chrisopogon aciculatus, Digitaria ciliaris, D. setigera,
Hemarthria protensa, Paspalum conjugatum, Cyperus spp. etc.

Short Grass (Source:-Kaziranga Biodiversity Final report.pdf)

Cynodon dactylon Cenchrus ciliaris Hemarthria protensa Digitaria ciliaris

(Source:-Studio work)

Savannah- The short grass patches invariably have trees scattered throughout their extent.
However, some areas are with higher tree densities and form savannahs. Usually species such as
Barringtonia acutangula, Bischofia javanica, Bombax ceiba, Careya arborea, Dillenia indica,
Duabanga grandifora, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Trewia nudiflora etc. are seen.

Savannah (Source:-Kaziranga Biodiversity Final report.pdf)

Alluvial plains Semi-evergreen forests- This type of forest is characterised by dense and
impenetrable vegetation comprising of tall trees and multi storied nature with shrubs, lianas,
climbers, herbs and epiphytes. At the fringe and open spaces bamboos and canes occupy the space.
This habitat occurs along rivulets and higher altitudes and consists of multiple layers of vegetation.

Semi evergreen Forest(Source:-Kaziranga Biodiversity Final report.pdf)

List of dominant flora

Top storey- The top storey consists of species such as Artocarpus spp., Albizia procera, Bombax
ceiba, Dipterocarpus retusus, Dimocarpus longan, Duabanga grandiflora, Haldina cordifolia, Hopea
parviflora, Shorea assamica, Sterculia spp., Stereospermum chelonoides, Terminalia spp., Tetrameles
nudiflora etc.

Middle storey- The middle storey is richer with tree species than upper storey and usually
represented by species like Aglaia chittagonga, Alstonia scholaris, Bischofia javanica, Bauhinia
veriegata, Callicarpa arborea, Carallia brachiata, Careya arborea, Castanopsis indica, Dillenia spp.,
Dysoxylum gotadhora, Ficus spp., Garuga pinnata, Hymenodictyon orixense, Lagerstroemia spp.,
Litsea spp., Mitragyna parvifolia, Mesua ferrea, Meyna laxiflora, Micromelum integerrimum,
Polyalthia sp., Schima wallichii, Sterculia spp., Trewia nudiflora, Toona ciliata etc.

Lower storey- The lower storey is characterised by small trees and shrubs such as Actinodaphne
spp., Antidesma spp., Ardisia spp., Bauhinia racemosa, Casearia esculenta, Cinnamomum bejolgota,
Clerodendrum spp., Dendrocnide sinnuata, Flacourtia indica, Glochidion spp., Glycosmis pentaphylla,
Leea spp., Mallotus spp., Morinda angustifolia, Murraya koenigii, Pavetta indica, Saurauia spp. Etc.

Ground cover- Ground cover is mainly composed of herbs such as Achyranthes aspera,
Alternanthera sessilis, Commelina spp., Diplazium esculentum, Floscopa scandence, Gesneriaceae
members, Lindernia spp., Murdannia spp., Phlogacanthus spp., Onychium japonicum, Ophiorrhiza
mungos , Pauzolzia spp., Polygonum spp., Psychotria spp., Pteris spp., Rungia pectinata, Rouvolfia
serpentina, Sida spp., Tectaria polymorpha, Urena lobata and Zingiberaceae members.

Lianas- Bauhinia vahlii, Bauhinia scandens, Bridelia stipularis, Calamus flagellum, Calamus
floribundus, Caesalpinia crista, Derris scandens, Gnetum montanum, Hodgsonia macrocarpa are
some of the common liana species.

Epiphytes- The main epiphytes are orchids, ferns, fern - allies and members of the family
Zingiberaceae, Gesneriaceae and Asclepiadaceae. The common angiospermic epiphytes are species
of Bulbophyllum, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Hoya, etc. and some of the important epiphytic ferns in
these forests are Asplenium nidus, Drynaria quercifolia, Microsorum punctatum, Pyrrosia
nummularifolia, Vittaria elongate.

Semi Evergreen Forest(Source:-Studio work)

Tropical moist mixed deciduous forests:- The Moist mixed Deciduous forests occur as isolated
patches in grasslands or along alluvial semi-evergreen forest of mixed deciduous with major
proportion of deciduous trees.

Moist mixed Deciduous Forest(Source:-Kaziranga Biodiversity Final report.pdf)

List of dominant flora

Top storey- They are characterized by dominance of Albizia procera, Bombyx ceiba, Dillenia indica,
Dillenia pentagyna, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Lagerstomia parviflora, Shorea robusta and Ziziphus
mauritiana.

Middle storey- The middle storey is formed by Casearia glomerata, Wrightia arborea, Morinda
angustifolia, Aporosa octandra, Antidesma acidum, etc.
Ground cover (in Sal forests)- This is usually covered with tall grasses like Imperata cylindrica and
Themeda arundinacea. These grasses are usually associated with terrestrial ferns like Lygodium
flexuosum and species of Diplazium, Athyrium and Cyclosorus.

Ground cover- The ground cover is usually formed by species like Desmodium laxiflorum,
Lepidagathes incurva, Ageratum conyzoides, Sporobolus indicus, species of Clerodendrum etc.
together with a number of terrestrial ferns and fem-allies like Tectaria polymotpha and species of
Diplazium, Cyclosorus, Adiantum, Dryopteris, Pteris, Athyrium, Lycopodium etc.

Epiphytic ferns- Some of the epiphytic ferns in this type of forest are Asplenium nidus, Dtynaria
quercifoli, Pyrrosia nummularia etc.

Climbers- Ampelocissus barbata, Mukia maderaspatana, Milletia patchycarpa, Menispermaceae

members and species of Dioscorea, Smilex, Vitis etc.

Moist mixed deciduous forest(Source:-Studio work)

FLORA

TREES

Ailanthus grandis

Albizia lucida

Albizia procera

Alseodaphne petiolaris

Alstonia scholaris

Altingia excelsa

Amoora wallichii

Anthocephalus cadamba

Aphanamixis polystachya

Artocarpus chaplasha

Artocarpus heterophyllus
Artocarpus lakoocha

Artocatpus chaplasha

Azadirachta indica

Baccaurea sapida

Barringtonia acutangula

Bauhinia purpurea

Bombax ceiba

Bombax malabarica

Bridelia retusa

Callistemon citrinus

Camellia caudata

Canarium bengalense

Capparis acutifolia

Caralia lucida

Caraya arborea

Cassia fistula

Castanopsis indica

Cedrela sp.

Celtis australis

Cephalanthus occidentalis

Chickrassia tabularis

Cinnamommum obtusifolium

Cinnamommum tamala

Cinnamomum cecicodaphne

cinnamomum obtusifolium

Cinnanzomum tamala

Citrus maxima

Crateva unilocularis

Croton joufra

Cryptocarya amygdalina

Dalbergia assamica
Dilenia indica

Dipterocarpus macrocarpus

Donella roxburghii

Duabanga sonneratioides

Dysoxylum hamiltonii

SHRUBS

Abutilon indicum

Acacia farnesiana

Achyranthus aspera

Adhatoda vasica

Alocasia acuminata

Alpinia allughas

Alpinia nigra

Artabotrys caudatus

Artemisia caruifolia

Artemisia nilagirica

Asparagus racemosus

Boerhavia diffusa

Bryophyllum calycinum

Butea parviflora

Caesalpinia bonduc

Calotropis procera

Cassia tora

Clerodendron viscosum

Clerodendrum serratum

Combretum flagrocarpum

Croton tiglium

Datura inoxia

Eranthemum scabrum

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Hiptage benghalensis
 Jatropha gossypifolia

Justicia adhatoda

Justicia gendarussa

Kirganelia reticulata

Lantana camara

Lantana indica

Lawsonia inermis

Leea sp.

Melastoma malabathricum

Millettia pachycarpa

Mimosa pudica

Nerium indicum

Ocimum sanctum

Plumbago zeylanica

Psychotria sp.

Stachytarpheta indica

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis

HERBS

Abelmoschus moschatus

Ageratum conyzoides

Alocasia fornicata

Alternanthera pungens

Alternanthera sessilis

Amaranthus spinosus

Centella asiatica

Portulaca oleracea

Rauwolfia serpentina

Stellaria media

Stephania hernandifolia
CLIMBERS

Dioscorea alata

Dioscorea bulbifera

Dioscorea pentaphylla

Jasminum amplexicaule

Mucuna nigricans

Pothos scandens

Thunbergia fragrans

Thunbergia grandiflora

Vitis sp.
(Source:-Kaziranga Biodiversity Final report.pdf)

FACTORS AFFECTING VARIOUS TYPOLOGIES:-

Ecosystems in which grasses and grasslike plants such as sedges and rushes dominate the vegetation
are termed grasslands. Grassland biomes consist of large open areas of grass. Trees can be present,
but they are infrequent.

 Low rainfall, wildland fires, and grazing by animals are three factors that maintain
grasslands.
 In grassland regions, the climate is ideal for the growth of grasses only.
 The low precipitation rates are enough to nourish grasses but not enough for a forest of
trees.
 Frequent fires also play a role in maintaining grassland ecosystems.
 Grasses are well adapted to grow back after a fire.

WET GRASSLAND:- Wet grassland and grazing marsh occurs on low-lying, level land often within river
or coastal floodplains. These grasslands have high water tables and can be temporarily under water
during periods of high rainfall or river flooding. They are primarily managed for grazing, but some are
managed as hay meadows.

Grassland communities of Kaziranga National Park (KNP) classified as Eastern Wet Alluvial
Grasslands. It comprised of tall grasses (61%) as well as short grasses (only 3%). Rapid periodic
changes occurred due to recurrence of flood, erosion and alluvial deposition and have direct
implications for the establishment of early successional species. Grassland can be viewed in terms of
upland grasslands and lowland grasslands. Apluda mutica, Arundinella bengalensis, Imperata
cylindrica, Thysanolaena maxima, Saccharum spp., Vetiveria zizanioides, characterize the upland
grassland and the lowland grasslands comprise predominantly of Phragmites karka, Imperata
cylindrica, Saccharum spontaneum, Arundo donax and Saccharum narenga which considered being
early successional species. Seven tall grasses and three short grasses communities have been
identified.
DRY GRASSLAND:-Dry grassland areas decline due to gradual overgrowing by woody species and the
expansion of perennial tall grass species. Dry grassland vegetation was formed by extensive livestock
grazing, thus grazing is considered one of the most natural methods for managing this type of
vegetation.

ALLUVIAL SEMI EVERGREEN FOREST:-The northern wet tropical forests occur in upper Assam, AND
dominated by trees of the family Dipterocarpaceae. Bamboos are usually present. Climbers are
abundant, palms and canes generally present; abundance of epiphytes, ground cover is mainly
composed of evergreen shrubs.

Some salient features of these forests are:

i. The upper Assam valley tropical wet evergreen forests- Dipterocarpus, Mesua ferrea,
Dysoxylum spp, Echinocarpus, and Canarium spp.
ii. The giant Dipterocarpus macrocarpus(Hollong ) and Shorea assamica in Assam valley occur
in patches, attain high girths up to seven meter and height up to 50m.
iii. The Cachar Tropical Evergreen Forest occur in lower hills and hill slopes of Cachar hills, and
the Khasi and Jaintia hills around the Surma valley. The forest is MesuaDipterocarpus-
Palaquium formation.

MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST:-The northern moist deciduous Forests are dominated by Shorea
robusta.

Climatic Conditions:-
 Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm.
 Mean annual temperature of about 27°C
 The average annual relative humidity of 60 to 75 per cent.
Characteristics:-
 The trees drop their leaves during the spring and early summer when sufficient
moisture is not available.
 The general appearance is bare in extreme summers (April-May).
 Tropical moist deciduous forests present irregular top storey [25 to 60 m].
 Heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete undergrowth.
 These forests occupy a much larger area than the evergreen forests but large tracts
under these forests have been cleared for cultivation.

Factors Responsible for Various forest types:-

1. Altitude of the Forest Area

Elevation plays a large role in the health and growth of plants. Elevation may affect the type
and amount of sunlight that plants receive, the amount of water that plants can absorb and
the nutrients that are available in the soil. As a result, certain plants grow very well in high
elevations, whereas others can only grow in middle or lower elevations.

Sunlight , Water, Nutrients , Climate

 2. Soil Deposition
The fluctuations of the Brahmaputra River result in spectacular examples of riverine and
fluvial processes in this vast area of wet alluvial tall grassland interspersed with numerous
broad shallow pools fringed with reeds and patches of deciduous to semi-evergreen
woodlands. Kaziranga is regarded as one of the finest wildlife refuges in the world.
There are many types of waterlogged landscapes known as wetlands, including
swamps, bogs and marshes. Some wetlands are even man-made, such as rice paddies and
those formed around reservoirs. A marsh is a type of wetland found around rivers, ponds
and lakes. They usually contain plants which grow up and out of the water. A swamp is a
type of freshwater wetland that has a spongy, muddy surface and usually has a greater
water content than a marsh. Most swamps can support a variety of larger trees and shrubs .

3. Riverbank Erosion

Rain, floods and landslides caused by water all account for water-based erosion.

consequences of erosion

- Loss of topsoil in any amount reduces the fertility of your soil and the amount of
nutrients available to your plants.
- Lose of topsoil might reduce the water-holding capacity of the soil, allowing water to
run off quickly instead of lingering long enough to soak into the soil and nourish roots.

-Water erosion can wash away fertilizers or pesticides that you've applied to the soil

to nourish or protect plants.

4. Sedimentation

Rivers are important for transporting and depositing sediments, a product of erosion.

A river cuts both downwards and sideways to shape and form wide valleys and deep
canyons. The faster the river current’s velocity and the courser the sediment it carries, the deeper
and wider the valley or canyon becomes.

5. Floods

The regenerative nature of floods helps replenish Kaziranga’s water bodies and maintain its
landscape, a mix of wetlands, grasslands and semi-evergreen deciduous forests. In a herbivore-
dominated area like Kaziranga, it is important we maintain its grassland status. If it were not for
the annual floods, the area would become a woodland. As a riverine ecosystem and the river
helps in cleaning the grassland and more nutrition is added to the grassland with every flooding.