Religion 2 Course Book

Religion II
Course Book
Mr. Boyle
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Section 1 – The World of
the Christian Testament
Section 1-1The Political World of 1st Century
Palestine: The Empires of Persia and Greece
In order to understand and, indeed, appreciate Jesus of

Nazareth, his life, and his message, it is imperative to
understand the world into which he was born: Roman occupied
1st century Palestine. At this point, a brief historical review may
be helpful, as it will assist in placing Jesus in his proper context.
Persia
A discussion of the ancient Persian empire must include the

exploits of Cyrus the Great (600/576 – 530 BCE), founder of the
Achaemenid empire, conqueror of the Babylonian empire, and,
according to Isaiah 45:1, YHWH's messiah (Cyrus was portrayed
as a liberator by Biblical authors). Cyrus became king of Persia in
559 BCE, and he proceeded to build the largest empire the world
had yet seen. In October of 539 BCE, Cyrus conquered
Babylonia; by this time, the Babylonians were so fed up with their
king, Nabonidus, that the opened the gates of Babylon for Cyrus
and welcomed him as a savior. Having taken control of
Babylonia, Cyrus allowed for the return of all those exiled to the
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vicinity of Babylon itself, including the people of Judea (only a
small portion of the population actually returned to Palestine, with
most opting to stay). These various nation seemed to have also
been incorporated into Cyrus' vast empire, which stretched from
the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River.
Cyrus' model for empire building was considerably different

than the Mesopotamian empires of Assyria and Babylonia which
had preceded him. While the Assyrians and Babylonians ruled
their vassals through threats and deportations, Cyrus set up a
satrap (province) system of government, in which regions within
his empire were allowed some self-rule. In addition to this, Cyrus
respected the religions and customs of his subjects, including the
people of Judea, who rebuilt the Temple under Persian rule (515
BCE).
Although Persia continued to grow under Cyrus' successors,

westward expansion was eventually brought to a halt by Greece.
The Persian king Darius I led the first Persian invasion of Greece,
but was defeated by a largely Athenian army at the Battle of
Marathon in 490 BCE, which brought the invasion to an end.
Darius' son, Xerxes I, led a second invasion of Greece in 480
BCE. Although the Persians were able to defeat the Greeks at the
infamous Battle of Thermopylae and may have burned Athens,
the Persian navy was eventually defeated at the Battle of
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Salamis, which effectively brought Persian attempts to dominate
the Greek mainland to an end.
Greece and the Rise of Alexander
The unity with which the Greek city-states had repelled the
Persian invasion was, in the end, short lived. In 459 BCE, Greece
was enveloped in a civil war, known as the Peloponnesian
Wars, which lasted until 404 BCE. The wars were primarily a
conflict between Athens and Sparta; Sparta and many other
Greek city-states feared the power and influence Athens had
gained in the aftermath of the second failed Persian invasion.
The wars crippled Athens, but the rivalry between the two city
states would endure until the conquests of Philip II of
Macedonia, which lay to the north of Greece. By 338 BCE, Philip
had forced all of the major Greek city-states (except Sparta) to
accept his leadership, thereby uniting Greece. Preparations were
underway for another war against Persia in 336 BCE, which would
be led by Philip. But it was in this year that Philip was
assassinated by one of his bodyguards, leaving his son
Alexander III, known as Alexander the Great, as king of both
Macedonia and Greece.
Alexander was the most influential leader in the ancient

world. Tutored by Aristotle, Alexander, though Macedonian by
birth, was thoroughly Greek in terms of thought and culture.
Considered a genius of military strategy, his tactics are still
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studied today. After coming to power in 336 BCE, Alexander
began a war of conquest against the Persians, conquering their
entire empire over the next eight years and beginning an invasion
of the Indian subcontinent. This invasion was brought to a halt
by his army who, longing to go home to their families, threatened
revolt. Alexander died at the age of 32 in Babylon in 323 BCE,
leaving no apparent heir; his empire, the largest the world had
yet seen, was consequently divided among his generals.
Alexander's greatest legacy was cultural in nature.

Wherever his armies went, they brought with them the Greek
culture (art, philosophy, religion, and language) that was so near
to his heart. Having learned from the example of Cyrus the
Great, Alexander sought to create an empire unified by culture, a
culture of blended traditions with Greek culture as its heart. This
movement to blend Greek culture with the other cultures of the
near East is known as Hellenism.
Questions
1. Why is it important to review the historical events leading

up to the time of Jesus?
2. Who was Cyrus the Great? How was his rule different from
that of the Assyrians and Babylonians?
3. Who was Alexander the Great? What is Hellenism, and what
was its goal?
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Section 2-2 The Political World of 1st Century
Palestine: Hellenism and the Maccabean
Revolt
Following Alexander's death, large section of his empire

were controlled by the Diadochi, the men who had acted as
Alexander's generals and his successors. By the beginning of the
4th century BCE, the two Greek kingdoms of the east that
competed for control of Palestine were the Seleucid Empire,
which controlled Syria and parts of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia,
and the Ptolemaic Empire, which controlled Egypt. Initially,
Ptolemaic Egypt controlled Palestine, including the territory of
Judea, the area around and including Jerusalem (formerly
Judah). This was a time of relative quiet for the inhabitants of
Judea. This changed, however, at the beginning of the 2nd
century BCE, when Seleucid Syria took control of the region,
ushering in a period of conflict and, eventually, revolt.
The Syrian Greek rulers, following Alexander's example,

attempted to unify the diverse peoples of their empire by
continuing the process of Hellenization, the process of forcing
Greek cultural traditions on non-Greek peoples. As has been
mentioned before, this often led to the creation of a blended
culture, with other near Eastern traditions infused into the
dominant Greek culture. For most cultures, the introduction of
Greek ideas and traditions was not problematic, with Greek gods
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worshiped along with the gods of their particular culture, and
Greek language, artistic traditions, and philosophies becoming
the current fashion. The Greek language became the lingua
franca (a language used by peoples who do not share a common
language as a means of communication) of the Near East, and
Greek style cities, including gymnasiums (athletic training
facilities) and hippodromes (race tracks).
The blending of Judaism and Hellenism, however, was

extraordinarily volatile. Because Judaism was a monotheistic
faith, with very strict cultural and dietary regulations often aimed
at separating Jews from non-Jews, or Gentiles, Hellenism was
fundamentally incompatible with Judaism. Adding to the problem
for moderns looking back on this period, the writings are often
vague and inconclusive. Certain facts, however, do seem clear.
Jews embraced one of two reactions to the introduction of
Hellenism. Some, in particular the young and the wealthy,
embraced Hellenism, even at the expense of their ancestral
practices. Others, including the Hasidim ("pious ones"), who
were the predecessors of the Pharisees and other 1st century
religious groups, resisted the process of Hellenization, even at the
expense of their own lives.
Conflict between the Judeans and the Syrians reached a

boiling point during the reign of Antiochus IV, a Seleucid ruler
who called himself Epiphanes, which means "God Manifest."
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Antiochus actively forced Hellenism on his subjects, including
Jews, as a means of unifying his empire. When many Jews
refused to come into the fold, Antiochus outlawed Jewish
practices that differentiated Jews from other peoples, including
circumcision, reading the Torah, abstinence from pork, and
Sabbath observance; the punishment for observing these
traditions was death, a fact illustrated very clearly in the Second
Book of Maccabees, which contains many stories of Jews
martyred during this time period.He also stole gold and other
items of value from the Jerusalem Temple, and eventually
desecrated (treated with violent disrespect) the Temple itself.
The nature of this desecration, which the Book of Daniel calls "the
abomination of desolation" (Daniel 9:27) is unclear, but may
have taken the form of an altar to Zeus in the Temple courtyard,
the sacrifice of pigs in the Temple, or perhaps a statue of
Antiochus himself placed in the Temple. For many Jews, these
events appeared to represent the coming of the end of the world.
But it was not the end of the world that was coming, but
rather war. Initially led by an elderly village priest, Mattathias,
and later by his son, Judas Maccabeus ("The Hammer"), the
Maccabean Revolt began in 166 BCE. The Maccabee family
gathered around them a group of guerilla fighters who were
surprisingly successful against the Syrian army. In December of
164 BCE, the Maccabees and their allies liberated and rededicated
the Jerusalem Temple, an event celebrated every year during the
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Feast of Hanukkah. After Judas' death, the revolt was led by a
number of his brothers until, in 142 BCE, Israel won its
independence from Syria. Going against the wishes of the
Hasidim and their other allies, the Maccabees set up a royal
dynasty of kings, called the Hasmonean Dynasty.
Questions
1. What happened to Alexander's empire after his death? How

did Judea fit into this arrangement?
2. Discuss the relationship between Judaism and Hellenism.
What role did Antiochus IV play?
3. What was the Maccabean Revolt? What were the
outcomes?

Palestine: Roman Domination
The Hasmonean Period, which lasted from 142 - 40 BCE,

was a time period of disunity and rivalry. It is clear that, while
they were skilled fighters and military leaders, the Hasmoneans
left much to be desired in terms of political governance.
Eventually, political intrigue led to national tragedy. John
Hyrcanus II, angry that his younger brother Aristobulus II had
proclaimed himself both king and High Priest, requested outside
intervention to overthrow his brother. He sought help from
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Rome, who sent Pompey to secure Palestine on behalf of the
republic. Hyrcanus was made High Priest and governor, bring
Jewish independence to an end in 63 BCE (until the creation of
the modern state of Israel in the 1940's CE).
The Romans used "kings" of Judea as puppets, acting in all

affairs in the best interests of the empire. The most famous, or
perhaps infamous, of these rulers was Herod the Great, who
ruled Palestine from 40 - 4 BCE. Herod was an Idumean by birth,
making him suspect to the Judean population. After being
appointed king by the Roman Senate, Herod had to use force to
take over his new "kingdom," which took three years. Herod was
the greatest builder since Solomon, responsible for the
construction of the Greco-Roman city Caesarea Maritima, the
fortress of Masada (which would become the last stronghold of
the Zealots during the First Jewish War of the 1st century CE),
and the massive renovations to the Jerusalem Temple, which
began in 20 BCE and was completed in 62 CE, eight years before
its destruction at the hands of the Romans. Herod was a skillful
and cruel leader, successful in maintaining order for Rome during
Caesar Augustus' Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"), but was hated
by his subjects and known for taking extreme measures to
preserve his power (he killed his wife and two of his sons,
believing that they were plotting against him).
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After Herod's death, his kingdom was divided among his
three sons. Philip was given the regions north and east of the
Sea of Galilee. It is interesting to note that the biblical authors
are mostly silent about him, perhaps indicating that he was a
capable ruler. Herod Antipas was given the Galilee and Perea;
he was the Herod of Jesus' adult life, and the man responsible for
the death of John the Baptist. Finally, Herod Archelaus was
given the regions of Samaria, Judea, and Idumea; from a political
perspective, these were the most important regions in Palestine.
Archelaus proved to be as cruel as his father, but not nearly as
competent. He was removed by Rome in 6 CE and replaced by
procurators, or governors. The most famous of these was
Pontius Pilate, who governed the region from 26 - 36 CE.
Life in Roman occupied Palestine was tense and problematic

from the start. Many Jews viewed Roman as a Gentile oppressor,
and Jews who worked with them as collaborators. Resistance to
Roman rule began at the very beginning, with Zealot
(nationalistic revolutionaries) groups harassing the Roman
legions. This harassment became open rebellion in 66 CE, when
war throughout Palestine. The First Jewish War was initially
successful; the Zealots were able to take Jerusalem, rallying the
people around the idea that, to allow Gentiles to rule over the
Israel was a sin against God.
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Rome was able to quickly suppress the rebellion in the
Galilee, but Judea and Jerusalem were more difficult. Adding to
Rome's concerns was the suicide of the emperor Nero.
Vespasian, who had been placed in command of the Roman
forces in Palestine by the Senate, was recalled to Rome, where he
was made Emperor. His son, Titus, was given command of the
legions and laid siege to the city of Jerusalem for six months.
When he finally breached the walls of the city, Titus laid the city
to waste and destroyed the Temple, leaving only the Western
Wall (Wailing Wall) of the Temple complex standing, a reminder
of Roman might.
The revolt continued for another two years, finally ending at

the fortress of Masada in 73 CE. According to the 1st century
Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, the defenders committed
suicide rather than be taken by Rome. After the defeat in the
First Jewish War, and the failure of the subsequent Bar Kochba
Revolt in 135 CE, the Jews were expelled from Jerusalem by
Rome. Jewish hope in a military overthrow of the Roman
occupying force was shattered.
Questions
1. How did Rome come to control Palestine? How did it

maintain this control?
2. Who was Herod the Great? For what was he known?
3. What was the First Jewish War? What was the result?
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Palestine: Unity in 1st century Judaism
Christianity, as it exists today, is the product of two distinct,

and seemingly opposed, cultural traditions: Judaism and
Hellenism. Jesus and his disciples were Jewish, and the seed
from which Christianity sprung was planted in the soil of Jewish
Palestine. But as the plant grew, Christianity's branches reached
out into the Hellenistic world of the Roman Empire, eventually
becoming a predominantly Gentile religion, and one shaped by
the Mediterranean world in which it blossomed.
As has been mentioned previous, Jesus himself was a Jew,

and it is impossible to understand him, or his message, without
an understanding of the Judaism in which he was born, lived, and
died. As such, it may be helpful to examine 1st century Judaism,
both in terms of the beliefs that unified and divided Jews of the
time period. We begin with an analysis of the four "binding ties"
of 1st century Judaism, those four beliefs that all (or at least the
majority of) Jews would have embraced.
The One God, YHWH
After the Babylonian Exile, and certainly by the time of Jesus

of Nazareth, Judaism was, without a doubt, a monotheistic faith.
Belief in the one God YHWH was essentially a requirement of
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Judaism, as was the exclusive worship of that god. This belief is
expressed in a passage known as the Shema, which is found in
Deuteronomy 6: 4-9, and which Jesus referred to as the
"greatest" commandment:
Hear, O Israel! The LORD is our God, the LORD alone!

Therefore, you shall love the LORD, your God, with your
whole heart, and with your whole being, and with your
whole strength. Take to heart these words which I command
you today. Keep repeating them to your children. Recite
them when you are at home and when you are away, when
you lie down and when you get up. Bind them on your arm
as a signand let them be as a pendant on your forehead.
Write them on the doorposts of your houses and on your
gates.
To be Jewish, then, was to believe in the oneness of God, a
concept foreign to all other peoples in the Roman Empire. YHWH
describes himself as a "jealous" God, demanding total allegiance
from the children of Israel.
The name YHWH, which was revealed to Moses on Mt.

Sinai/Horeb in the form of a Burning Bush, is related to the
Hebrew verb "to be." YHWH, therefore, is a god of existence,
who has always existed, and brings all things into existence. He
is creator and, potentially, destroyer, facts that point to both his
omnipotence and omniscience. After the Babylonian Exile, the
belief developed that the name YHWH was too holy to be uttered
by human lips, and to do so was a form of blasphemy, punishable
by death. Jews substituted the word adonai ("Lord") or
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HaShem("The Name) for the name YHWH, which is often
referred to as the tetragrammaton, or "four letters."
The Torah
The Torah, which means "Law," refers to the contents of the

first five books of what is today called the Hebrew Scriptures, or
Old Testament. Also known as the Pentateuch, these five books
are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
Collectively, these books tell the story of Israel's origin as an
introduction into the more important section of Torah: the Sinai
Covenant. The bulk of the material contained in the Torah
deals directly with this covenant, both the story of its creation in
connection with YHWH's liberation of Israel from slavery in Egypt,
and also the actual laws and rules of the covenant itself.
The most famous laws contained in the covenant are the

Decalogue, or Ten Commandments. But the Torah contains
many more laws; there are 613 mitzvot (commandments) which
govern every aspect of life. There are laws dealing with ritual
requirements, such as circumcision, Sabbath observance, and the
various festivals in the Jewish calendar, as well as laws governing
ethical behavior, dietary regulations, and so-called purity laws,
which define what is holy and unholy, clean and unclean. There
are also laws, in particular in the Book of Leviticus, which govern
the Jewish priesthood. Many of the laws are aimed at the idea of
separation, in particular separation of Jews from Gentiles. This
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presents a particularly challenging situation for the early
Christians, many of whom came from both groups.
In the first century, many other books existed that are

viewed as scripture by both Jews and Christians today. Some of
these books, such as many prophetic works, were embraced by
some within the Judaism of the day. Many, such as the
Sadducees (priests and aristocrats), rejected all books except the
Torah, making the Torah the only definitive Jewish scripture of
the time. Following Torah regulations was a major concern for all
Jews, and eventually the belief developed that the Torah existed
before the creation of the universe.
The Divine Promises
Beyond the understanding that, through the Torah, the

nation of Israel was linked to YHWH in a covenantal bond was the
belief that YHWH had bestowed upon Israel two major promises
through its ancestors, Abraham and David.
Abraham, who was considered a patriarch, or father, to all

Jews, had answered God’s radical call to follow him from
Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan. YHWH promised Abraham
three things: land (Canaan), blessing, and progeny
(descendants). As children of Abraham, Jews in the first century
viewed themselves as heirs to that promise, the so-called
Abrahamic Covenant.
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The second promise made by YHWH to Israel, the Davidic
Covenant, was YHWH’s promise to David of an eternal dynasty
of kings. Because of David’s complete and unwavering devotion
to YHWH, God promised him that someone from his line would
always be king in Israel.
In the 1st century, however, both of these promises seemed

to be broken. After the Babylonian Exile, the people of Judea no
longer had a king, and even during the years of independence
under the Hasmoneans, the kings were not from the Davidic line.
And, although many Jews were in the Promised Land, much more
were part of the Diaspora (“Dispersion”), a word which refers to
Jews living outside of Palestine. As part of the Roman Empire,
Jews did not have direct control of the land YHWH had promised
to Abraham. Therefore, many Jews looked forward to the day
when YHWH would fulfill these promises and reestablish the
kingdom of Israel through the Messiah (“Anointed One”).
The Jerusalem Temple
“One temple of the one god.” These words, written by the

1st century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, reflect the Jewish
belief in the primacy of the Jerusalem Temple. First built by
King Solomon in the 10th century BCE, the original Temple, which
centralized Jewish worship in Jerusalem, was considered the only
place acceptable for sacrifices made to YHWH, which were an
important element of ancient Judaism. The Temple was
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destroyed by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar in 587 BCE;
the Second Temple, which was smaller than the original, was
built during the Persian period, in 515 BCE. It was renovated by
Herod the Great (20 BCE - 62 CE) and was usually referred to as
Herod's Temple in the 1st century of the Common Era.
According to Jewish belief, YHWH's kavod, or "glory," dwelt

in the innermost room of the Temple, the Holy of Holies. Only
the High Priest was allowed to enter this sacred space, and only
on Yom Kippur, or the Day of Atonement; on that day, the high
priest would enter the Holy of Holies, offering a sacrifice on behalf
of all of Israel to atone for their sins. He would also utter the
name YHWH, the only time this was allowed.
For some Jews in the 1st century, the Temple was also
problematic. This was the seat of power of the high priests and
the aristocracy, those who held power in Judea, and who
maintained this power through collaboration with the Roman
authorities. For groups such as the Essenes, who had removed
themselves from Jerusalem and mainstream Judaism, the Temple
has become an extension of Roman, and therefore Gentile,
power. With the Roman destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, the
very nature of Judaism changed, from a religion focused on
animal sacrifice to one focused on deeds of love and compassion.
Questions
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1. Name and briefly describe each of the unifying factors in 1st
century Judaism. Include in your description any
problems/issues which arose from these.
2. Who was Josephus?
3. What is the Holy of Holies? Why is it important?

Palestine: Division in 1st century Judaism
Just as there were factors that unified Jews in the 1st

century, there were also many factors that divided Jews of the
time. 1st century Judaism, like Christianity today, was not a
unified phenomenon. Many groups existed among the Jews of
1st century Palestine. Below is a brief description of each of
these groups, many of which are found in the New Testament,
The Sadducees
The Sadducees were the Jewish upper class, consisting of

the wealthy aristocracy and the priests. Their name seems to be
derived from the Hebrew word meaning "righteous one," or
perhaps from the name Zadok, who was High Priest under David,
and from whom the Sadducees claimed to be descended. With
the Pharisees, their primary rivals, they controlled the
Sanhedrin, which was the Jewish ruling council.
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The Sadducees derived their power from their control of the
priesthood and the Jerusalem Temple. Because of their position
of power within Judaism and the political climate of the time, the
Sadducees acted as the chief mediators between the Jewish
people and the Roman authorities, and they seemed to be
interested in maintaining the status quo in order to ensure their
continued position of power. Conservative in both politics and
religion, the Sadducees rejected new theological trends, such as
beliefs in an end time judgment, the resurrection of the dead,
and the existence of angels and demons. They also seemed to
have embraced a literal reading of Scripture, which for them
seems to have consisted of only the Torah.
Because of their connection to the Temple and collaboration

with Rome, the Sadducee party did not survive the Roman
destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. None of their writings, if there
were any, survive, and so all that is known about them comes
from the New Testament and writers such as Josephus.
The Pharisees
As the primary rivals of the Sadducees, the Pharisees were

a much more liberal group in terms of both religious beliefs and
political views. The name Pharisee appears to be related to the
Hebrew verb "to separate," indicating their concern for separating
themselves from all that was viewed as unclean or unholy. The
Pharisees were the heirs to the Hasidim, the group of Jews who,
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during the time of Antiochus IV, refused to abandon their
ancestral beliefs and fought alongside the Maccabees in the revolt
of the 2nd century BCE.
The Pharisees were particularly devoted to the Torah, and

they seemed to have been highly respected by the common
people. The Pharisees accepted many of the new theological
beliefs that were rejected by their rivals, the Sadducees, and
composed and compiled an oral law, which consisted of
commentaries and explanations of the Torah. Because of their
status (and separation, to a certain degree, from Temple
dependance), the Pharisees not only survived the First Jewish
Revolt, but thrived in the aftermath, becoming the leading group
within Judaism. Because of the Pharisees, who embrace the title
rabbi ("teacher), Judaism itself survives the major changes
brought about by the failure of the revolt, and it is the Pharisees
who shape Judaism into the religion it is today. Eventually, this
oral law was written down in the form of the Talmud, which had
a major impact on the nature of Judaism .
It is important to note that the gospel writers' attitudes

toward the Pharisees, which are largely negative, probably do not
reflect the Pharisees in the time of Jesus, whose beliefs would
have been similar, in many ways, to his beliefs. The hostility
towards the Pharisees represent the conflict between them and
early Christians who, deemed no longer Jews due to their beliefs,
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were kicked out of the synagogues, which become the primary
place for Jewish worship after the Temple's destruction, by the
Pharisees.
The Samaritans
The Samaritans were a distinct "Jewish" group living in the

area between Judea and the Galilee. The inhabitants of Samaria
were the descendants of the Israelites of the northern kingdom,
destroyed by the Assyrians in the 8th century BCE. Although
Yahwists, the nature of Samaritan Judaism was very different
from their Judean counterparts, who viewed them with suspicion
and even hatred (these feelings, it should be noted, were
mutual).
The Samaritans accepted only the Torah and scripture, and

they rejected the primacy of the Jerusalem Temple, accepting Mt.
Gerizim as YHWH's chosen place for sacrifice. Although the early
Christian writers are favorable towards the Samaritans, it should
be noted that most did not convert to Christianity. Although
small in number, Samaritans still exist today, and continue to
practice their ancient rites on Mt. Gerizim.
The Essenes
The Essenes who, along with the Pharisees, seem to have

come out of the Hasidim movement of the 2nd century BCE, were
an apocalyptic group (awaiting God's radical intervention in
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history) who lived in the desert near the Dead Sea, at a
community called Qumran. They lived in the desert from 140
BCE to 68 CE, removing themselves from mainstream Jewish
culture which they viewed as corrupt, and awaiting the arrival of
two messiahs, a warrior from the line of David and a priest from
the line of Aaron. The Essene community was founded by the
unknown "Teacher of Righteousness," and was structured as a
monastic community. Although the New Testament is silent
about the Essenes, Jewish writers such as Josephus discuss their
beliefs; most of what is known about them, however, comes from
their own writings, known as the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Discovered by a young shepherd in 1947, the Dead Sea

Scrolls have given scholars a much better picture of Essene belief
and life in the Qumran community. The scrolls contain books
from the Hebrew Bible, apocryphal books, Essene commentaries
on Scripture, and documents produced for the community, such
as the "Manual of Discipline," which outlines the rules for the
Qumran community, and the scroll entitled "The War of the Sons
of Light Against the Sons of Darkness," which appears to be a
battle plan for the end of the world.
The Zealots
Opposition to Roman authority existed from the very

beginning of Roman rule over Palestine. Many nationalistic
revolutionary groups formed, collectively known as Zealots. The
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Zealots were committed to driving the Romans out of the
Promised Land and reestablishing the kingdom of Israel to its
ancient glory, and they embraced violence as a necessary tool for
achieving this goal. The Zealot movement climaxed during the
First Jewish Revolt (66-73 CE), in which they were defeated by
Rome and the Temple destroyed (which Josephus blames on the
Zealots, who refused to surrender Jerusalem, even when it was
obviously lost). Following the failure of the Bar Kochba Revolt
(132-135 CE), the Zealots ceased to exist as a political entity,
and mainstream Judaism abandoned the use of violence as a
means of achieving national liberation.
It is also important to note that, while there was not a

unified belief in regards to the Messiah, with some groups
expecting two (Essenes) and some none at all (Sadducees), the
mainstream Jewish messianic expectation of the time was as
follows: the Messiah would be a political figure, a warrior like
David, who would liberate Israel, set up a righteous earthly
kingdom that would compel the respect of Gentiles, and he would
usher in a time of universal peace. For early Christians, the
challenge was to reconcile these expectations with their belief in
Jesus of Nazareth as Messiah.
Questions
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1. Name and describe each of the different 1st century Jewish
groups.
2. What were the mainstream Jewish messianic expectations?

Palestine: Hellenism and Greek Culture
While it can be said that Christianity sprung from the soil of

Judaism, the various philosophies and religions of the Greco-
Roman world provided Christianity with the room it needed to
grow into a religion of its own. In order to understand how
Christianity developed from a sect within Palestinian Judaism into
a largely Gentile individual religious tradition, one must examine
the various cultural influences at work in the Mediterranean world
in which Christianity spread.
Greek Philosophical Traditions
The word philosophy literally means “love of wisdom,” but

generally refers to humankind’s attempt to understand human
existence and the nature of reality. Various schools of
philosophical thought developed in Greece in the centuries
leading up to the rise of Christianity, many of which may have
had an impact on the religion’s development.
Socrates/Plato
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Socrates, who lived during the height of Athenian culture
(469-399 BCE), is perhaps the most well know, and most
influential, philosophers of ancient Greece. Socrates asked the
question, “How does one live a ‘good’ life?” His focus was
primarily on ethics, and he often challenged the accepted truths
of the day. As a result, he angered many of the influential and
powerful Athenians, and was eventually placed on trial. After
being found guilty of corrupting the youth of Athens, Socrates
was put to death.
Socrates left no writings, but his beliefs have been

preserved in the writings of his student, Plato (427-327 BCE),
who made Socrates the hero in a number of stories in which he
outthinks and outwits his opponents. While it is difficult to
separate Plato’s own philosophy from that of his teacher
Socrates, it seems that a major element of Plato’s belief system
was the concept of dualism, the belief that all things exist in
pairs of opposites, such as light and darkness or good and evil.
According to Plato, reality existed on two different planes, the
imperfect material world and the perfect spiritual world. The
human body, as part of the material world, was subject to death
and decay; the human soul, however, was of the perfect spiritual
world, and was therefore immortal. This belief may have had in
impact of Christian belief, especially in the Book of Hebrews,
which stresses the connection between the physical and spiritual
worlds.
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Stoicism
Stoicism, which also originated in Athens, stressed the

ideas of balance, harmony, and order in the universe. According
to Stoic belief, the universe is governed by Logos (“word”),
which refers to the concept of reason. The human body contains
a soul, which is a spark from the divine Logos. The ultimate goal
of life was to achieve balance with the rest of the universe, which
was viewed as containing order. To achieve this end, Stoics were
to remain indifferent to the highs and lows of life, both pleasure
and pain. As such, self-discipline, both of body and mind, were
important elements of a Stoic lifestyle. Some of the teachings of
early Christianity, such as Paul’s exhortation in his letter to the
Philippians to practice self-discipline and endure want or plenty
are very similar to this philosophy.
Epicureanism
In stark contrast to Stoicism, Epicureanism taught that

everything, including the human soul, was of the material world
and subject to eventual death. If there are gods, these gods
have no interest in the affairs of human beings; as such, each
individual must create his or her own meaning in life, often
avoiding pain. Reason is still a central focus, as it is needed to
discern the best path to living an enjoyable, pain free existence.
Although sometimes expressed as “pleasure seeking,” the wise
27
Epicurean would also life a careful life, as pleasure involving risk
would go against the basis of the philosophy.
Cynicism
Cynicism stresses the idea that virtue is the greatest goal

in life. As such, Cynics, like Stoics, practiced self-discipline, but
the goal was not to achieve balance; rather, Cynic self-discipline
and denial were aimed at the rejection of material pleasures,
which the Cynic viewed as an obstacle to attaining a virtuous life.
Elements of Cynic philosophy may be present in early
Christianity, such as the command in the Gospel of Mark to go
out without shoes and rely on the kindness of strangers for food
(Mark 10).
Greek Religious Traditions
Although the line between philosophy and religion was often

blurred in the ancient Greco-Roman world, certain traditions were
primarily religious in nature. Elements of some of these
traditions seem to have a connection to the early Christian
movement.
Dionysus of Thebes
Central to the Greco-Roman religious tradition was the

primacy of the Twelve Olympians, the major gods who resided
on Mt. Olympus. Usually considered as one of the Twelve,
Dionysus of Thebes was a demigod, son of Zeus and Semele, a
28
mortal woman. Dionysus was primarily the God of Wine, but was
also a dying and rising god who suffered a death (in one story, he
is murdered by the Titans, who were the precursors to the
Olympians). Scholars have noted the interesting similarities
between Dionysus and Jesus, both of whom were the sons of a
god and a mortal, connected to wine, and resurrected from the
dead. It seems likely that early Christianity was influenced by
aspects of the Dionysus story, and Christians may have used the
language of the story to express beliefs about Jesus.
Mithraism
The worship of the Persian God of Light, Mithras, was

common in the Roman empire, even becoming the state religion
during the 3rd century CE, and was the primary competitor for
the early Christian movement. The cult of Mithraism was
especially popular within the Roman military, and excluded
women, which may explain its eventual decline and the rise of
Christianity, which welcomed women into the faith.
Mithras was born on December 25, and his birth was

connected with the winter solstice and the return of light to the
world. He was visited by shepherds, after which he killed Taurus,
the cosmic bull of the zodiac. The worship of Mithras included
baptismal rites and a communal meal, both of which were rituals
in early Christianity. Indeed, many similarities exist between the
two traditions, with Christians re-appropriating the birthday of
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Mithras as the day of the celebration of Christ's birth, who was
viewed as the "Light of the World."
Mother Goddess Religions
While the patriarchal nature of Greco-Roman society was

often reflected in its male dominated religious traditions, some
mystery religions in the Roman Empire were dedicated to the
worship of Mother Goddesses, female deities who offered
believers help both in this life and the next. The Greco-Roman
goddesses Demeter and Persephone were both considered Mother
Goddesses, but the most popular of this type of deity was Isis,
the Egyptian goddess, consort of Osiris, and mother of the god
Horus. The worship of Isis is an interesting example of
Hellenization, as other female gods from various cultures were
identified as forms of Isis. Isis became known as the "goddess of
a thousand names," who the entire world honored in some form.
The cult of Isis promised believers the goddess' compassion

and assistance with life's problems. This fact, along with her
connection to both (the dying and rising god) Osiris and (the God
of Sky and Kingship) , point to a connection with the Christian
view of Mary, the mother of Jesus.
Questions
1. Who were Socrates and Plato? What is dualism?
30
2. Briefly describe each of the following: Stoicism,
Epicureanism, Cynicism.
3. Identify each of the following and explain the potential
connection to Christianity: Dionysus of Thebes, Mithras, Isis.
Section 2 –
Introduction to the
Christian Testament
Section 2-1Who is Jesus of Nazareth?
Who is Jesus? While the answer to this question may

appear "obvious" to modern Christians, it is actually
extraordinarily complicated. When discussing Jesus of Nazareth,
one must keep in mind that, essentially, we are looking at two
aspects of Jesus. We must, to a certain to degree, recognize the
difference between the Jesus of History (the historical Jesus
who walked the earth two thousand years ago) and the Christ of
Faith (the beliefs about Jesus embraced by his followers as a
result of two thousand years of Christian tradition). We turn our
attention first to the later in an attempt to, on a basic level,
understand Jesus as the object of Christian faith.
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The primary focus of all of the books of the Christian
Scriptures (or New Testament) is the person Jesus of Nazareth.
Whether dealing with the story of Jesus, the history of the
movement inspired by him, or the beliefs and challenges faced by
the early Christian communities, every author in the New
Testament is reacting, often in different ways, to Jesus. In that
sense, the New Testament is essentially a collection of
Christologies, or beliefs about Jesus Christ. Whether focusing
mainly on his humanity (Low Christology) or his divinity (High
Christology), every author, and indeed every Christian, has their
own particular view of Jesus and his identity. One of the most
interesting challenges for scholars is to peel away two thousand
years of tradition in an attempt to discover the life of the
historical Jesus.
Many of these beliefs about Jesus are expressed in the titles

used for him. These titles represent a post-Resurrection
understanding of Jesus and, although used in the stories about
Jesus written by New Testament authors, were probably not used
by Jesus to describe himself. Three of the most important of
these titles are Christ, Son of God, and Lord.
Christ, the English rendering of the Greek word christós

(Χριστός), means “anointed one” and is the equivalent of the
Hebrew word messiah. Originally used for kings of Israel, by the
1st century of the Common Era, the title had become synonymous
32
with the reestablishment of the Davidic line of kings and, by
extension, the sovereign nation Israel. Although Jesus of
Nazareth did not match the mainstream messianic expectations
of the time, early Christians nonetheless identified him as Israel's
awaited messiah and king, point to texts from the Hebrew
Scriptures such as 2nd Isaiah's Suffering Servant passages as
evidence of Jesus' messiahship. For these Christians, Jesus was
the messiah, but in a much more spiritual way, placing particular
emphasis on his suffering, death, and resurrection.
Son of God, in a very general sense, was used for different

characters in the Hebrew Scriptures, such as David, his offspring,
and the nation Israel. However, the imagery of divine parentage
in these instances is always intended as symbolic, representing
YHWH's covenantal relationship with the individual or group. In
the Greco-Roman context in which early Christianity developed,
the idea of a human being (or demigod) having a divine parent is
not unknown, whether in reference to mythological figures such
as Dionysus of Thebes or historical figures such as Caesar
Augustus, who is called divi filius (son of god) in reference to his
adoptive father Julius Caesar, who was deified by the Roman
Senate. What separates the Christian claim of Jesus' divine
sonship from occurrences in the Hebrew Bible is that it was
meant as a literal truth, a reference to Christian belief in both his
full humanity and divinity, as well as his place as the second
person of the Christian Trinity.
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The title Lord may appear, on the surface, to be a reference
to the Christian view of Jesus' authority. While this is absolutely
true, calling Jesus Lord is also an affirmation of his divinity. In
the ancient Jewish tradition, the holy name YHWH was considered
too holy to be uttered aloud; as such, Jews replaced the name
YHWH with the word adonai, the Hebrew word for "Lord". By
using this title for Jesus, Christians are equating Jesus with YHWH
and emphasizing his place as part of the Trinity.
Questions
1. What is the difference between the Jesus of History and the

Christ of Faith?
2. What is a Christology? How is the New Testament related to
the term?
3. Identify and discuss each of the following titles for Jesus:
Christ, Son of God, and Lord.
Section 2-2The Historical Jesus
Because of the theological nature of the books contained in

the New Testament, and because the focus of the authors is on
the concept of Christology rather than history, attempts at
uncovering the Jesus of History can be extraordinarily difficult.
While the canonical gospels and epistles of Paul certainly contain
historical information, the challenge for scholars is identifying this
34
information and separating it from theological belief and early
Christian interpretation.
Non-Biblical Sources
Fortunately for scholars, a number of 1st and 2nd century

non-Christian authors mentioned both Jesus of Nazareth and
the early Christian movement in their writings:
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a Roman senator and

historian who lived during the first century of the Common Era.
In his Annals, a history of the Roman Empire from the reigns of
Tiberius to Nero, he mentions Jesus and discusses the
persecution of Christians in the second half of the 1st century.
According to Tacitus, Nero blamed Christians for the Great Fire
of Rome in 64 C.E..
"Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the

guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class
hated for their abominations, called Christians by the
populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin,
suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at
the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a
most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the
moment, again broke out not only in Judæa, the first source
of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and
shameful from every part of the world find their center and
become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all
who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an
immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime
35
of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind".
Suetonius
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus was a Roman historian and

biographer who lived during the end of the 1st century and
beginning of the 2nd century C.E.. In his Lives of the Twelve
Caesars, he may mention Jesus in connection to the emperor
Claudius and his decision to expel the Jews from Rome.
"Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the

instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome."
Most scholars view Chretus as a reference to Christ, reflecting

a misunderstanding by Suetonius of the difference between
Jews and Christians.
Pliny the Younger
Gaius PliniusCaeciliusSecundus, or Pliny the Younger, lived

during the end of the 1st century and beginning of the 2nd
century C.E. and was the Roman governor of Bithynia-Pontus
in modern day Turkey. While governor, he wrote to the
emperor Trajan inquiring about how those accused of being
Christians should be handled (should the age of the accused
matter, should they be punished if they deny Christian belief,
and is it a crime simply to be a Christian). He also mentions
Christian practices, such as partaking in a communal meal (the
36
Eucharist), swearing oaths against immoral practices, and
singing hymns to Christ “as if to a god.”
In his response to Pliny, Trajan outlines his view on how the

matter should be treated. Christians, he said, should not be
sought out for trial, nor should anonymous accusations be
accepted. They should be given a chance to deny Christianity
by worshiping the Roman gods, but if they were found guilty
they should be punished.
It is interesting to note that Pliny refers to Christianity as a

“superstition,” not a religion, which seems to have been the
typical Roman response to it.
Josephus
Titus Flavius Josephus was a 1st century Jewish historian

and scholar. He was the commander of the Jewish forces in
Galilee during the First Jewish War, but he was captured by the
Roman forces under Vespasian after surviving a suicide pact
with his troops. Claiming that the messianic prophecies
connected to the revolt were a reference to Vespasian
becoming emperor, the general decided to keep Josephus as a
slave. After actually becoming emperor, Vespasian freed
Josephus, who assisted Titus as a translator and negotiator on
his behalf.
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After the failure of the revolt, Josephus took to the
occupation of historian, compiling both a history of the revolt
(The Jewish War) as well as a history of the Jewish people (The
Jewish Antiquities). In the Antiquities, Jospehus mentions
Jesus twice, once in reference to the trial of James, who he
calls “the brother of Jesus,” and the second as a brief
description of Jesus’ life:
“About this time there lived Jesus, a wise man, if indeed one
ought to call him a man. For he was one who performed
surprising deeds and was a teacher of such people as accept
the truth gladly. He won over many Jews and many of the
Greeks. He was the Christ. And when, upon the accusation
of the principal men among us, Pilate had condemned him to
a cross, those who had first come to love him did not cease.
He appeared to them spending a third day restored to life,
for the prophets of God had foretold these things and a
thousand other marvels about him. And the tribe of the
Christians, so called after him, has still to this day not
disappeared.”
Although most probably edited by Christians, this passage does
offer some historical information about Jesus from a non-
Christian perspective.
An Outline of Jesus’ Life
Although it is difficult to identify the aspects of the “Jesus

story” that are historical, scholars generally agree on the
following outline of the life of Jesus:
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o Born late in Herod’s reign to Joseph (an artisan) and
Mary; raised in Nazareth
o At around 30, he came to John to be baptized and was
one of John’s followers
o Proclaimed the Kingdom of God is near (or perhaps
present); associated with sinners and was labeled a
glutton and drinker; family objected to his ministry, not
accepted by neighbors
o Jesus was a healer, challenged widely accepted values
and attitudes; pursued an itinerant life, wandering from
village to village in Galilee; preached the Kingdom of
God
 Unclear what he meant – presented in Gospels as:
 A Future Event
 An Unexpected Event
 A Hidden Power That Grows Slowly
 A Present Reality
 Physically Present But Unnoticed
o Drew followers and admirers, former powerless and
later powerful
o Probably did not present himself as Messiah, but some
probably believed him to be
o Such claims probably circulated; Pilate put to death as
royal claimant
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Although other aspects of the story as outlined in the gospels
may be genuine, these are the only things that can be said about
the Historical Jesus with any amount of certainty. Much of the
story, including the Resurrection, falls into the realm of faith, and
as such cannot be discussed using the language of history.
Questions
1. Describe and identify the importance of each of the

following: Tacitus, Suetonius, Pliny the Younger.
2. Who was Josephus? What did he say about Jesus? Why
might these passages be problematic?
3. Why is a historical reconstruction of the life of the Jesus so
difficult to create?
Section 2-3New Testament Basics
Although often difficult for us as Christians to accept, we

cannot approach the New Testament, especially the gospels, as
history or biography. Like the books contained in the Old
Testament, the New Testament is composed of what would best
be described as Faith Documents, writings which have the goal
of bringing about belief in the reader. Although, at times, history
is contained in these works, we must remember that historical
narrative is not the primary goal of any of the New Testament
authors, who are focused mainly on the issue of Christology.
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Like the early Christian movement that inspired and
produced the writing of the New Testament, the books contained
in this section of the Bible are a product of two distinct cultural
traditions: Judaism and Hellenism. Some New Testament
authors, such as Paul and Matthew, came from a Jewish
background; others, including Luke, were Gentile Christians. This
diversity of backgrounds, and the accompanying diversity of
beliefs, are reflected in the texts.
The 27 books of the New Testament canon, like the

Septuagint to which it was originally added as a supplement,
were all written in Koinē Greek, which was the "common" Greek
of Roman times and the lingua franca of the eastern
Mediterranean world. These books were written between
approximately 50 C.E. (1st Thessalonians) to 150 C.E. (2 Peter)
and include the following:
Gospels
The word gospel is the English rendering of the Greek word

euangelion, which means "good news." The term seems to have
been originally used to describe the oral message about Jesus;
with the writing of the Gospel of Mark, which is the oldest of the
four canonical gospels, it comes to refer to written stories of the
life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth which act as the
primary sources for information about him. While the New
Testament contains four such gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and
41
John), it is important to note that many other gospels were
written during the early Christian era; some of these gospels,
such as the Gospel of Thomas, were of a very different
character than the canonical gospels (Thomas is a list of Jesus'
sayings), and may pre-date the New Testament gospels. All
gospels reflect individual understandings of Jesus and, as such,
are essentially christological writings.
Acts of the Apostles
Acts of the Apostles is the second part of a two volume

work, a continuation of the Gospel of Luke. It is a history of the
early Jesus movement, which becomes known as the Christian
church. As such, Luke is telling a much larger story than the
other evangelists, or gospel authors. The story begins with
Jesus' Ascension into heaven (which is where Luke's Gospel ends)
and continues up to Paul's arrival in Rome. Luke primary focus is
the missions of Peter and Paul, two of the most important
figures in early Christianity, and the westward expansion of
Christianity and establishment in the imperial capital.
Epistles
An epistle is a letter or correspondence, and the New

Testament contains 21 such writings, all of which were written by
or attributed to early Church leaders. Thirteen of these letters
are called the Pauline Epistles, which were written by or
credited to Paul; of these thirteen letters, scholars only agree on
42
the authenticity of seven. These letters were written to specific
churches or individuals. Seven of the epistles are called the
Catholic or General Epistles; the word catholic means
"universal," and these letters are, for the most part, written to all
Christians. Also included among the epistles is the Letter to the
Hebrews, which is more of a sermon, and is aimed at
encouraging Christians to maintain faith in the face of
persecution.
The Book of Revelation
The Book of Revelation is an example of apocalyptic

literature, which are highly symbolic writings which develop out
of Jewish prophecy. The Greek word apocálypsis means "an
uncovering or revealing," primarily of secret knowledge from God.
This genre of writing, which was popular among both Jews and
Christians, is often meant to give courage to the oppressed,
assuring them that God will "make things right." The Book of
Revelation does exactly this, assuring Christians that, at the
eschaton ("end times") God will overthrow the present evil age
and establish the perfect Kingdom of God.
The writings of the New Testament contain various beliefs

and attitudes, not always agreeing on issues such as the role of
Judaism in Christianity, Jesus' human vs. divine nature, and the
relationship between Christianity and secular authorities; the
43
books were also written at different times, in different places, and
by different people. But the idea which unifies the diverse books
contained in the New Testament is the supreme value of Jesus
who, either directly or indirectly, is the primary focus of each.
Questions
1. Of what type of writing are the books of the New

Testament? How are they related to the concepts of
"history" and "culture?"
2. Name and briefly describe each of the four divisions of the
New Testament.
3. How are the writings of the New Testament both diverse and
unified?
Section 2-4The Development of New

Testament
Although there is a clear consensus among Christians of the

canon of the New Testament, the process of establishing that
canon was a long and difficult one. Additionally, the exact
development of the canon itself, as well as the books it contains,
is not always clear. Since many of the books in the New
Testament were edited, Textual Criticism must be employed to
determine what the original text was for each book. Scholars
have suggested that some changes made to the texts, such as
the addition of post-Resurrection appearances to the Gospel of
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Mark, may cloud the authors’ intentions and obscure early
Christian beliefs. The challenge of deciphering the original form
of these books is also strengthened by the lack of very early
copies of the texts; the oldest fragments of New Testament
writings date to the 2nd century of the Common Era (including a
fragment from the Gospel of John dating to 125 C.E.), and the
oldest complete copies are even younger, going back to the 4 th
century C.E..
One must always keep in mind that early Christianity was

not a unified phenomenon. Without the luxury of an organized
church hierarchy, mass communication, and two thousand years
of traditions, most early Christian communities developed their
own beliefs about Christ, which led to both the production of
differing books and the acceptance of different books.
The Process of Canon Formation
The process by which the New Testament took the form it

has today is complicated, and there was no moment when church
leaders made the decision to “create” a canon. There are,
however, certain milestones on the road to formation that can be
identified. The following represents a rough outline of that
process:
 Near the end of the 1st century, Paul’s letters were collected
into a single volume which, by the middle of the 2nd century,
was considered Scripture by some Christians.
45
 By the end of the 2nd century, the Christian church as a
whole decided to accept the four gospels (Matthew, Mark,
Luke, and John) as Scripture. Up to this point, most
churches only accepted one gospel, which varied church to
church. In choosing four, Christianity had effectively
rejected the numerous other gospels which had been written
in the first two centuries of the Common Era (most of which
survive today only in fragments).
 Although the four Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, and many of
Paul’s letters were universally accepted by the end of the 2nd
century, other books (Hebrews, Revelation, the General
Epistles) took much longer to be accepted.
 During the middle of the 2nd century, a wealthy Greek
Christian named Marcion championed the idea of rejecting
the entire Old Testament and only accepting an edited
version of the Gospel of Luke and the Pauline Epistles as
Scripture. Marcion was influenced by Gnosticism.
Gnosticism refers to a variety of beliefs, both Christian and
non-Christian, which emphasized the acquisition of “secret”
knowledge to achieve salvation, the divine “spark” inside
each individual, andthe dual nature of the universe.
Christian Gnostics often rejected Jesus’ humanity, viewing
him as a god who chose to enter the imperfect material
realm, which was the creation of the “imperfect” god YHWH.
These beliefs lead Christian Gnostics to seek a complete
46
break from the Jewish tradition. In answer to Marcion’s
beliefs, the Christian Church rejected both Gnosticism and
its negative view towards Judaism, labelling the movement
heretical.
 The closest thing to a conclusive act in forming the Christian
Testament occurred in the 4th century C.E. when St. Jerome
translated both the Old and New Testaments into Latin. This
work, known as the Vulgate, became the official Bible of the
Catholic Church, and the books Jerome decided to include in
his translation became the complete canon of the Christian
Bible.
 The canon of the Bible, both Old and New Testaments, was
reaffirmed during the 16th century during the Council of
Trent, one of the most important ecumenical councils in the
history of the Roman Catholic Church.
By creating a single, universal canon of Scripture, the Church had

achieved two major goals. First, the collected documents helped
define Christian belief and defend against heresies, or false
beliefs, including Gnosticism. Second, by standardizing the
canon, the Church had established a sense of unity in what had
been a very diverse religious movement.
Questions
47
1. In terms of Scripture, what was the major result of the
diversity of early Christianity? How did the creation of a
canon change this?
2. Who was Marcion? What was Gnosticism? Why was it
considered a heresy?
3. Briefly outline the process by which the New Testament
canon was created.
Section 2-5 The Gospels: An Introduction
In spite of the fact that they are not the earliest Christian
writings, which are Paul’s letters, the Gospels act as the heart of
the New Testament canon. The four canonical gospels (Matthew,
Mark, Luke, and John) are stories of the life, death, and
resurrection of Jesus. Although these are faith documents which
were not intended to be viewed as biography, the gospels
nonetheless are the primary source for historical information
about Jesus of Nazareth, and they express the foundational
beliefs of Christianity.
A major question that has arisen in both scholarly and

religious circles over the past few hundred years has been the
question of how one should approach the gospels. Overall, three
different approaches have developed:
48
1. The first method, the fundamentalist approach, views the
gospels, and the entire Bible, as literal, historical truth.
Fundamentalists contend that, as the word of God, the Bible
cannot be approached in any other way.
2. The second method is essentially the opposite of (and a
reaction to) fundamentalism. Those that embrace this
approach would occupy the other extreme, claiming that the
gospels are essentially works of fiction, and should be read
as parables that, at best, teach a lesson.
3. The third approach, which is the approach of the Catholic
Church, is a middle ground between the two extremes.
While the Church recognizes the primary role of the gospels
as statements of faith and Christology, it also embraces the
idea that, within the gospels, there is historical information.
Essentially, the gospels are religious biographies that
contain both historical tradition and theological
interpretation.
The Church discourages Catholics from embracing an “all or

nothing” approach, and encourages the faithful to be both
reflective and thoughtful when reading the text.
What, then, can be said about the Evangelists, or gospel

authors? Essentially, they are interpreters, using both oral
traditions and a variety of written documents to craft their
particular versions of the story of Jesus from their theological
49
perspective, or Christology, with the intent of inspiring faith, not
preserving history. This also explains both the similarities and
differences present in the canonical gospels. Matthew, Mark, and
Luke are known as the Synoptic Gospels. The word
synopticmeans "to see with one eye," a reference to the many
similarities among the three gospels. Scholars have referred to
these similarities as the Synoptic Problem, an issue which will
be discussed later. John, however, is extremely different from
the other three; only about 10% of the material in John is found
in the Synoptic Gospels.
Gospel Development
Scholars have identified three stages in the development of

the gospels:
1. The Historical Jesus (5 BCE - 30 CE): The first stage of

gospel development is the actual life of Jesus of Nazareth,
who lived in 1st century Palestine and was executed by the
Roman procurator of Judea Pontius Pilate.
2. The Oral Tradition (30 - 70 CE): Over the next forty years,
Jesus' disciples, and converts such as Paul of Tarsus (the
first Christian writer), spread the "good news" about Jesus
by word of mouth through all parts of the Roman Empire.
Although there were some Christian writings produced
during this period, including Paul's letters and gospels that
were essentially lists of Jesus sayings or miracles, the gospel
50
message was largely oral. This seems to have been driven
by eschatological concerns, as many early Christians,
including Paul, believed Jesus' return was imminent.
3. The Written Gospels (70 - 100 CE): In the aftermath of the
failure of the First Jewish War, Christians became
increasingly aware of the fact that Jesus' return may not
occur during their lifetimes. In order to preserve the
traditions of their communities, and present Jesus according
to their particular Christologies, Christians began writing
"faith biographies" of Jesus, which come to be known as
gospels. Mark's gospel was the earliest, written around 70
CE. Matthew and Luke wrote in the 80's CE, and John, the
last canonical gospel written, was completed in the 90's CE.
Many other gospels are written in the first two centuries of
the Common Era, but these gospels did not fit mainstream
Christian belief.
The Synoptic Problem
It was mentioned previously that Matthew, Mark, and Luke

share much of the same information. In fact, these gospels are
often identical in Greek, which was not Jesus' native tongue.
Scholars have suggested that these gospels are in some way
dependant on one another; in other words, one or two of these
gospels is copying from one or two of the others. The attempt to
unravel the literary dependence or connection among the three is
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Synoptic Problem. Two major theories have been suggested to
explain the Synoptic Problem, the Greisbach Theory and the
Two Document Theory.
According to the Greisbach Theory, which is named forthe

German biblical scholar Johann Griesbach, Matthew was the first
gospel written, and was used by Luke in writing his gospel. Mark
used both Matthew and Luke as sources, essentially creating a
summary of the two.
The Greisbach Theory
The Two Document Theory presents a different solution to

the Synoptic Problem. According to this theory, Mark's gospel
was the first canonical gospel to be written. Another gospel,
which scholars refer to as Q (short for Quelle, the German word
for "source"), was written before Mark. The Q gospel, which is a
hypothetical document since it has never been found, was not a
gospel in the style of the canonical gospels. Instead, Q was a list
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of Jesus' sayings. Matthew and Luke used both Mark and Q in
writing their gospels. (Note: The theory proposed here also
includes L and M material, unique sources to Luke and Matthew
respectively. This is a variation on the two source idea).
Two Document Theory (with variation)
As was mentioned previous, Q is not a surviving document;

scholars have reconstructed it using the common material in
Matthew and Luke that is not found in Mark. It was most likely
written between 50 and 70 CE by itinerant preachers in the
Galilee or Syria. Consisting of approximately 230 verses, Q is
simply a list of Jesus' sayings and presents him as a prophet and
wisdom teacher. Q did not seem to have much in the way of
narrative, and it probably did not include Jesus' death or
resurrection.
It should be noted that the vast majority of scholars

support the Two Document Theory (or variations on it).
Questions
53
1. Name and briefly describe each of the three approaches to
reading the gospels. Which approach is the most
appropriate for Catholics? Why?
2. What are the three stages of Gospel Development? Why did
it take so long for Christians to write down the story of
Jesus?
3. What is the Synoptic Problem? Name and describe the two
possible solutions.
Section 2-6 The Gospels: An Overview
In future sections, each of the four canonical gospels will be

examined in depth. As we begin our study of the New
Testament, however, it may be helpful to learn some of the basic
information about each of these books.
The Gospel of Mark
The vast majority of scholars believe that The Gospel of

Mark was the first of the canonical gospels to be written.
According to Christian tradition, this gospel was composed by an
early Christian writer named John Mark, who was a companion
of both Paul and the Apostle Peter, and that John Mark wrote the
gospel based on Peter’s remembrances. Modern biblical scholars,
however, are unsure of the identity of the author; consequently,
the author of the book remains anonymous.
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The Gospel of Mark is the shortest canonical gospel and was
probably written around 70 CE, during or shortly after the failure
of the First Jewish War, a fact that is evident in Mark’s concern
for eschatology. The gospel seems to have been written for a
group of Gentile Christians, since Mark translates Aramaic words
and phrases and explains Jewish customs. The gospel was most
likely written in Rome, but locations in Syria-Palestine have also
been suggested.
The overarching Christology of Mark’s Gospel is Jesus as the

Suffering Servant. This is evident in the so-called Messianic
Secret, an important feature in Mark. Jesus does not want news
of his miracles to spread, and his identity as Messiah is meant to
be hidden until the time of his Passion. This also indicates that
Mark’s audience consists of Christians who are undergoing
suffering and persecution, and Mark seeks to assure them that
Jesus experienced the same thing.
The Gospel of Matthew
The Gospel of Matthew was traditionally identified as the

first gospel to be written, and the author of the book was
Matthew/Levi, one of the Apostles and a former tax collector.
Modern scholars, however, have rejected both ideas, concluding
that Matthew was written by an unknown author who based the
work largely on the Gospel of Mark.
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Most likely written during the 80’s CE in Antioch, Syria, the
Gospel of Matthew was written to a group consisting of Jewish-
Christians and Torah-observant Gentile-Christians. Matthew’s is
the most Jewish of the four canonical gospels, but is also more
antagonistic towards Judaism than its predecessor, Mark.
Matthew’s concern for the connection between Judaism and
Christianity is reflected in his Christology, which presents Jesus
as Israel’s true Messiah and a New Moses who is accepted by
Gentiles and rejected by Jews. Interestingly, the Gospel of
Matthew is the only gospel to deal explicitly with the idea of
ekklesia, or “church.” This explains its importance within the
Church’s tradition.
The Gospel of Luke
The Gospel of Luke is unique among the four canonical

gospels; in so much as it tells a much larger story than Matthew,
Mark, and Luke. Luke and Acts of the Apostles form one
continuous narrative that tells a story that begins with the John
the Baptist and ends with Paul’s arrival in Rome. For Luke, Jesus
is the centerpiece of the story, but he is not the entire story. This
two volume work accounts for more than a quarter of the New
Testament.
According to tradition, Luke-Acts was written by a physician

named Luke, who was a travelling companion of Paul. This
identification is problematic, since the author does not seem to be
56
familiar with Paul’s particular theology or his letter writing.
Modern scholars view the work as having been written in the late
80’s CE by an anonymous, highly-educated Gentile-Christian,
most likely in the city of Ephesus in Asia Minor. His audience also
seems to be Gentile-Christians, which is reflected in his
Christology. For Luke, Jesus is the universal savior (a uniquely
Greco-Roman word) who has a special concern for the poor and
marginalized.
The Gospel of John
The only non-Synoptic gospel in the New Testament, the

Gospel of John has been acknowledged as unique since the days
of the early Church. Often called the “Spiritual Gospel,”
approximately 90% of John’s material is unique to his gospel, and
often this material is in conflict with that found in the Synoptic
Gospels. John also contains the highest Christological view of the
four evangelists.
According to tradition, John was written by one of the

Apostles (John, the son of Zebedee). Modern scholars have
refuted this idea, suggesting that the gospel was not written until
near the end of the 1st century (probably in the 90’s CE) when
Christians were being expelled from the Jewish synagogues.
Although John’s community is definitely Jewish-Christian, the
author displays a similar antagonism towards Judaism as that
found in Matthew. John’s community is often referred to as the
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Community of the Beloved Disciple, and the gospel seems to
have been produced by and for this group. John has been
traditionally identified as the unnamed “Disciple whom Jesus
loved,” a character that is mentioned in the gospel; but, much
like the author, the true identity of this Beloved Disciple remains
unknown.
Most likely originating in Syria-Palestine, John’s gospel

presents Jesus as the incarnate Word of God, with a much
greater stress on Jesus’ divinity than the other canonical gospels.
Jesus is more reflective and philosophical in John, often
employing sayings which begin with the phrase “I am,” a
reference to YHWH and to Jesus’ divine nature.
Questions
Briefly describe each of the four canonical gospels. Be sure to

include:
 Authorship
 Date of Composition
 Place of Composition
 Intended Audience
 Interesting Features
 Christology
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Section 4 – The Gospel
of Mark
Section 4-1Background of Mark’s Gospel
Historical Setting
Although not the earliest Christian writing (Paul’s epistles

and the sayings gospels Q and Thomas are the earliest known),
the Gospel of Mark is the first document to chronicle the life,
death, and resurrection of Jesus. In this sense, Mark is the
creator of the genre of literature commonly referred to as gospel,
or “good news.” As such, the Gospel of Mark is extraordinarily
important for gaining an understanding of the development of
Christianity in the second part of the 1st century of the Common
Era, and Mark’s view of and influence on the story of Jesus has a
lasting impact on the Christian story, as is evident in the Gospels
of Matthew and Luke.
According to the 2nd century Christian writer Papias, Mark

was a disciple of Peter and his interpreter, and that Mark based
his gospel on Peter’s memories as told to him. Christian tradition
holds that the author was this Mark, known as John Mark, who
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was connected to both Paul and Peter and is mentioned Acts of
the Apostles (12:12). The 4th century Christian historian
Eusebius claimed that Mark did not know the historical Jesus.
Modern scholars, however, have come to the conclusion that
there is no way to know the true identity of the author of the
Gospel of Mark and, although the author is referred to as Mark for
the sake of simplicity, the true writer remains unknown and
anonymous. Tradition maintains that it was written in Rome, but
due to its emphasis on the First Jewish War, some scholars have
suggested it may have been composed in Syria-Palestine.
Regardless of location, the Gospel of Mark seems to have been
written by a Jewish Christian author between 66-70 CE, during
the time of the revolt and contemporaneous to the destruction of
the Jerusalem Temple by Rome.
The gospel seems to have been written for a Gentile

Christian audience, unfamiliar with the Aramaic phrases and
Jewish customs Mark takes the time to explain, who were being
persecuted for their belief in Christ. Mark presents Jesus as the
Suffering Servant who, like his audience, understood pain,
suffering, and persecution. As both a writer and editor, Mark
seems to have woven together various oral traditions and written
documents about Jesus, his sayings, and his deeds, and molded
them into a new type of narrative, emphasizing Jesus’ death and
resurrection, and looking forward to the Parousia ("Presence,
Arrival"), or the Second Coming of Christ.
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Jesus' Family and Friends
One of the most striking features of the Gospel of Mark is

the author's treatment of those closest to Jesus, his family and
friends. Modern biographers would view these people as
significant and important sources of information, but Mark
presents them as obstacles to Jesus' mission and ignorant of his
true nature.
Since Mark lacks an infancy narrative of the type found in

the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, the information he presents
about Jesus' family is limited to his adulthood. Mark's attitude
towards both Jesus' family and his neighbors in Nazareth is
predominantly negative:
He came home. Again [the] crowd gathered, making it

impossible for them even to eat. When his relatives heard of
this they set out to seize him, for they said, “He is out of
his mind.” (Mark 3:20-21)
His mother and his brothers arrived. Standing outside they

sent word to him and called him.A crowd seated around him
told him, “Your mother and your brothers [and your sisters]
are outside asking for you.”But he said to them in reply,
“Who are my mother and [my] brothers?”And looking
around at those seated in the circle he said, “Here are my
mother and my brothers.[For] whoever does the will of God
is my brother and sister and mother.” (Mark 3:31-35)
Jesus' family does not understand him, his teachings, or his

mission; in fact, they are concerned that he has gone crazy.
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Mark's treatment of Jesus' friends, in particular the Twelve or
the Apostles("Delegate"), Jesus closest disciples, is similarly
negative. They are portrayed as dull-witted, inept, unreliable,
cowardly, and, in the case of Judas Iscariot, treacherous:
On that day, as evening drew on, he said to them, “Let us

cross to the other side.”Leaving the crowd, they took him
with them in the boat just as he was. And other boats were
with him.A violent squall came up and waves were breaking
over the boat, so that it was already filling up.Jesus was in
the stern, asleep on a cushion. They woke him and said to
him, “Teacher, do you not care that we are perishing?”He
woke up, rebuked the wind, and said to the sea, “Quiet! Be
still!” The wind ceased and there was great calm.Then he
asked them, “Why are you terrified? Do you not yet have
faith?”They were filled with great awe and said to one
another, “Who then is this whom even wind and sea obey?”
(Mark 4:35-41)
In spite of everything they see and hear while following Jesus, his
disciples do not understand who Jesus is. It takes a Roman
centurion, a Gentile, to identify Jesus' divine nature:
When the centurion who stood facing him saw how he

breathed his last he said, “Truly this man was the Son of
God!” (Mark 15:39)
It is unclear why Mark presents Jesus' family and friends in this

way. It may be a reflection of the tensions between Jewish and
Gentile Christians during Mark's time, or perhaps as a method of
magnifying Jesus by comparison.
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Mark's Structure
While it is not entirely clear if Mark's presentation of the

Jesus story is historical, his decisions as to the chronology and
structure of the story have a tremendous and lasting impact of
the Christian understanding of Jesus and the writing of Matthew
and Luke's gospels. The Gospel of Mark is structured as follows:
I. Prelude to Jesus’ Public Ministry (1:1-13)
II. The Galilean Ministry (1:14-8:26)
III. The Journey to Jerusalem (8:27-10:52)
IV. The Jerusalem Ministry (11:1-15:47)
V. Postlude: The Empty Tomb (16:1-8)
The Gospel of Mark has a bipolar structure, insomuch as the

story is focused on two locations: the Galilee and Judea. In the
first part of the story, in the Galilee, Jesus is successful,
authoritative, and powerful, performing amazing miracles and
attracting followers. In the second half of the story, in Judea,
things spiral out of control for Jesus, who is rejected and killed as
the helpless and powerless Son of Man, a title Jesus seems to
prefer for himself which emphasizes both his present suffering
and future eschatological role. This structure will later be
followed by both Matthew and Luke in composing their gospels.
Questions
63
1. What is known about the Gospel of Mark in terms of
authorship, place and date of composition, and intended
audience? How is Mark an innovator?
2. Describe Mark's attitude towards Jesus' family and friends?
Why might he approach them in this way?
3. How is Mark structured? How does geography play an
important role in Mark?
Section 4-2Prelude to Jesus’ Public Ministry

(Mark 1:1-13)
***Read Mark1***
Mark announces the theme of his writing in the very first

line: “The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ [the Son of
God] (Mark 1:1). The concern is not history or biography, but
gospel; Mark seeks to share the “good news” of and about Jesus
with his reader. Interestingly, Mark uses two titles for Jesus that
rarely appear in his narrative: Christ and Son of God. The first,
Christ, is rarely used due to Mark’s Christology and his concern
about the potential misunderstanding of messiahship. The
second, Son of God, will only appear again on the lips of the
centurion at the moment of Jesus’ death, an indication that his
divine identity can only be recognized in his suffering.
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Although writing for Gentile-Christians, Mark places Jesus’
story in a distinctly Jewish context.The first words of the gospel
are reminiscent of the beginning of the Book of Genesis (“In the
beginning…”), equating the saving actions of Jesus with a new
creation. In the preaching of John the Baptist, Mark both the
prophets Isaiah and Malachi, transforming Deutero-Isaiah's post
exilic prophecy of restoration and Malachi's
eschatological/messianic language into prediction of the coming
of Jesus.
John the Baptist, who is introduced at the very beginning

of the Gospel of Mark, is portrayed also through the language of
the Hebrew Scriptures:
John was clothed in camel’s hair, with a leather belt around

his waist. He fed on locusts and wild honey. (Mark 1:6)
They replied, “He wore a hairy garment with a leather belt

around his waist.” “It is Elijah the Tishbite!” he exclaimed.
(2 Kings 1:8)
From Mark's perspective, John represents the return of the

prophet Elijah, predicted to return by the prophet Malachi "before
the Day of the Lord comes" (Malachi 3:23) to usher in the
Messianic Age. Mark's identification of John's ministry in the
desert of Judea as a return of the spirit of Elijah to Israel both
anchors the story in the Jewish tradition of the past and sets the
stage for the future eschatological event brought about by Jesus'
65
ministry, death, and resurrection. It is also interesting to note
that John centers his activities, calling for Israel's repentance, at
the Jordan River, the very place where Joshua (Jesus is a
variation on the same name) leads the Israelites into Canaan
following the liberation of the Exodus and establishment of the
Sinai Covenant.
Interestingly, one of the most problematic passages for

Christians occurs right at the beginning of the Gospel of Mark
(and most likely points to historical reality). The Baptism of
Jesus by John at the Jordan River is probably taken for granted
as "just another part of the Jesus story" by most modern
Christians. But, from a theological perspective, the ramifications
of Jesus seeking a baptism which, according to the text, is aimed
at "repentance for the forgiveness of sins" (Mark 1:4) are
potentially extraordinary. Why would Jesus, who is believed by
Christians to be the Son of God and sinless, require such a
baptism? And why would Jesus allow himself to appear inferior to
John?
Two points should be noted in regard to Jesus' baptism and

his relationship to John. First, the modern theological response
to Jesus' baptism centers on the idea of Jesus' desire to identify
with the people he was sent to save. By going through the act of
repentance, Jesus is fully entering into the human experience,
one that is often defined by mistakes and sins and, by extension,
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the need to repent. Second, the fact that the baptism is included
by Mark (Matthew and Luke both include it as well, while John
omits it) is an indication of its historicity. Jesus appears to have
been a follower of John the Baptists for a time, a fact that may
have been uncomfortable for early Christians, especially when
confronted by John's followers who may have believed him to be
Israel's messiah. Mark may have been compelled to include this
problematic passage for the simple reason that it was undeniable
historical truth.
At the conclusion of Jesus' baptism, the spirit of God

descends on Jesus in the form of a dove, which becomes symbolic
of the Holy Spirit as a part of the Trinity. The voice from heaven
announcing Jesus' divine status as the Son of God is interesting,
as it fully establishes Jesus' identity for the reader; in
comparison, the Gospel of Mark is full of situations in which
people seem incapable to truly recognizing Jesus.
In many ways, Mark's Jesus represents a new Israel. Just

as Israelite nationhood began with the 40 years of wandering in
the desert, the Temptation of Jesus lasts 40 days. This period,
not described in detail in Mark, establishes Jesus as a new Israel,
one who will make the right decisions and follow God's plan,
rejecting the undocumented temptations of Satan (‫)שׂטן‬, a
Hebrew word meaning "adversary;" by the 1st century C.E., the
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word had taken on the image of the devil with which we are
familiar today.
Mark has set the stage for Jesus' public ministry in a very
direct and concise way, establishing Jesus' connection to Israel,
identifying him as both Christ and Son of God, and pointing
forward to his mission to "baptize...with the Holy Spirit" (Mark
1:8).
Questions
1. What is Mark's purpose in writing the story of Jesus? How

does he establish this?
2. How does Mark root his gospel in the Jewish tradition and
Hebrew Scriptures? How is Jesus a "new Israel?"
3. Why is Jesus' baptism problematic? How can this problem
be explained, and to what fact does its inclusion in Mark
point?
Section 4-3 The Galilean Ministry (Mark 1:14-

8:26)
***Read Mark2-8***
Mark's Jesus begins his public ministry with a simple,

startling statement:
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After John had been arrested, Jesus came to Galilee
proclaiming the gospel of God: “This is the time of
fulfillment. The kingdom of God is at hand. Repent, and
believe in the gospel.” (Mark 1:14-15)
Jesus' message is urgent; the time to repent is now, and God's

Kingdom is imminent. This urgency is reflected in the gospel
itself. Events happen quickly, one following the other. Often,
these episodes are connected with a simple use of the word Then.
Also, Mark often uses the word Immediately, further adding to
the breathless nature of his account. It is unclear if this urgency
originated with Jesus, or if this is Mark's vision of the events.
Regardless of its origin, Mark's eschatological urgency is

obvious throughout his narrative, and gives the gospel an
apocalyptic element. As has been mentioned previously, the
word apocalypse is a Greek word meaning "an unveiling or
revealing." In this case, it refers to the revelation of unseen
realities and the disclosure of events leading up to God's final
intervention in history. During both Jesus' baptism (Mark 1:11)
and his death (Mark 15:37-38), the heavens are "torn open,"
bringing the spiritual and material realms together, a reflection of
apocalyptic duality. In both his words and deeds, Jesus is
fighting against the cosmic forces of evil, and he represents God's
ultimate revelation to humanity.
For Mark, Jesus is the Son of Man, a title that refers to both
an earthly figure who teaches with authority and a future
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eschatological judge, but is mainly meant to refer to the servant
who embraces suffering. While not an full example of apocalyptic
literature itself, the Gospel of Mark's eschatological concerns add
an element of apocalyptic to the story, one which was molded
during or shortly after the First Jewish War, a time when the
eschaton seemed to be at hand.
Jesus' primary method of teaching in Mark is through the

parable, a word the means "comparison." These are often
deceptively simplistic, open ended stories which, at their core,
are invitations to the audience to think about the comparison.
The most basic parables are similes, a comparison using like or
as. An example of such a parable is the Parable of the Mustard
Seed:
He said, “To what shall we compare the kingdom of God, or

what parable can we use for it?It is like a mustard seed
that, when it is sown in the ground, is the smallest of all the
seeds on the earth.But once it is sown, it springs up and
becomes the largest of plants and puts forth large branches,
so that the birds of the sky can dwell in its shade.” (Mark
4:30-32)
While the parable does not explain what the Kingdom of God is, it
does stress the unexpected evolution of the Kingdom, something
that starts small and becomes immense. But, just like the
mustard plants that farmers fear will infest their fields, the
Kingdom of Heaven may not be what many people expect or
desire.
70
Other parables take the form of allegory, a story in which
each element has a symbolic value. The Parable of the Sower is
such a allegorical parable:
“Hear this! A sower went out to sow. And as he sowed,

some seed fell on the path, and the birds came and ate it
up.Other seed fell on rocky ground where it had little soil.
It sprang up at once because the soil was not deep.And
when the sun rose, it was scorched and it withered for lack
of roots.Some seed fell among thorns, and the thorns grew
up and choked it and it produced no grain.And some seed
fell on rich soil and produced fruit. It came up and grew and
yielded thirty, sixty, and a hundredfold.”He added,
“Whoever has ears to hear ought to hear.” (Mark 4:3-9)
Although Jesus does not normally explain the parables, Jesus (or
Mark) takes the time in this case to explain the symbolic
elements of the story, which reflect the various ways that people
hear and act upon the gospel message. This explanation is
probably Mark's, as Jesus' parables seem to have been
notoriously open to interpretation.
At one point, Mark states that Jesus' parables were meant to

mislead the audience:
He answered them, “The mystery of the kingdom of God

has been granted to you. But to those outside everything
comes in parables,so that
‘they may look and see but not perceive,
and hear and listen but not understand,
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in order that they may not be converted and be
forgiven.’” (Mark 4:11-12)
Here, Mark has Jesus quote Isaiah in an attempt to explain why

most Jews did not follow Jesus and eventually become
Christians. This is probably not historical to Jesus, but is a
reflection of Mark and his community's experience and the rise
of Gentile Christianity.
Central to Mark’s eschatological concern are the stories of

Jesus’ miracles, in which Jesus battles the unseen forces of evil in
the world. Both healing miracles and exorcisms, stories in
which Jesus drives a demon or demons out of a person, are
attacks on evil and confirm Jesus’ role as God’s agent for bringing
out his Kingdom. These miracles require faith, as evidenced by
Jesus’ inability to perform miracles in his hometown of Nazareth,
where the inhabitants lack faith (Mark 6:4-6), and the often
extreme behavior of those seeking Jesus’ healing powers,
whether lowering a paralyzed man through a roof or grabbing at
Jesus’ clothes as he passes by.
The exorcisms require some additional analysis. Exorcisms

are extremely important in Mark’s gospel; in fact, Jesus’ first
miracle in Mark is an exorcism (Mark 1:21-28). These stories are
a reflection of Mark’s apocalyptic thought and are integral to
Mark’s story. Jesus is engaged in a cosmic battle between the
supernatural forces of good and evil, a conflict which will
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culminate in the eschaton, which Mark’s sees as a coming reality,
perhaps in the events of the First Jewish War. It is also
interesting to note that demons recognize Jesus’ divine identity,
calling him the “Holy One of God.” (Mark 1:24).
The irony that the demons recognize Jesus’ divinity when

those closest to him, his family and friends, do not is part of the
overarching ironic vision of the Gospel of Mark. Irony is a term
used to describe a situation in which the opposite of what one
would expect is actually the truth. The Gospel of Mark is steeped
in irony. Jesus is accepted by strangers, but rejected by those
who know him. The demons that fight against Jesus recognize
his true nature, but his friends do not understand who he is.
Nature obeys Jesus (The Calming of the Storm in Mark 4:35-41),
but his disciples are disloyal. But perhaps the greatest irony in
Mark’s gospel is the nature of Jesus’ messiahship; it is only in
Jesus’ suffering and powerlessness that his true power becomes
clear.
Questions
1. What apocalyptic elements does Mark contain? Why might

these be included by the author?
2. What is a parable? What purpose do they serve in Jesus’
teaching style?
3. What is the symbolic meaning behind Jesus’ miracles? Why
are exorcisms so important in Mark’s gospel?
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4. What is irony? How does Mark employ irony in his gospel?
Section 4-4The Journey to Jerusalem (Mark

8:27-10:52)
***Read Mark9-10***
The section of the Gospel of Mark that chronicles Jesus’ last

(and, in Mark’s story, only) journey to Jerusalem begins and ends
with stories about Jesus curing a man suffering from blindness:
When they arrived at Bethsaida, they brought to him a blind

man and begged him to touch him.He took the blind man by
the hand and led him outside the village. Putting spittle on
his eyes he laid his hands on him and asked, “Do you see
anything?”Looking up he replied, “I see people looking like
trees and walking.”Then he laid hands on his eyes a second
time and he saw clearly; his sight was restored and he could
see everything distinctly.Then he sent him home and said,
“Do not even go into the village.” (Mark 8:22-26)
They came to Jericho.And as he was leaving Jericho with his

disciples and a sizable crowd, Bartimaeus, a blind man, the
son of Timaeus, sat by the roadside begging.On hearing that
it was Jesus of Nazareth, he began to cry out and say,
“Jesus, son of David, have pity on me.”And many rebuked
him, telling him to be silent. But he kept calling out all the
more, “Son of David, have pity on me.”Jesus stopped and
said, “Call him.” So they called the blind man, saying to him,
“Take courage; get up, he is calling you.”He threw aside his
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cloak, sprang up, and came to Jesus.Jesus said to him in
reply, “What do you want me to do for you?” The blind man
replied to him, “Master, I want to see.”Jesus told him, “Go
your way; your faith has saved you.” Immediately he
received his sight and followed him on the way. (Mark
10:46-52)
Mark’s decision to frame the journey narrative with stories of

physical blindness represents the spiritual blindness of people,
who fail to see Jesus’ true identity and divine nature. Jesus’
method of curing the blind man in Mark 8 is interesting, in that it
is indicative of the folk medicine used at the time.
After Jesus cured the blind man at Bethsaida, he instructed

him not to “go into the village.” At other times, after performing
a miracle, Jesus instructs those present “not to tell anyone” (Mark
7:36). Jesus’ reluctance to allow news of his miracles to spread
is known as the Messianic Secret. Although found in Matthew
and Luke (as a result of both using Mark’s gospel in their
compositions), the Messianic Secret is a major component of the
Gospel of Mark and is central to his Christological viewpoint.
Although some have suggested that the historical Jesus made no
messianic claims, and that Mark’s use of the secret is merely a
reflection of this reality, most modern scholars view the secret as
Mark’s creation. Essentially, because the mainstream
expectations of the messiah (warrior king) were radically different
from Mark’s view of Jesus’ actualmessiahship, which was focused
on suffering, it would be impossible for people at the time to
75
recognize Jesus’ messianic identity without a complete and utter
misunderstanding of his messianic role. Mark, therefore, stresses
the idea that Jesus did not want anyone to use the term in
reference to him until he entered into his suffering.
An excellent example of such a potential misunderstanding

occurs in Mark 8, when Peter “identifies” Jesus as the Christ:
Now Jesus and his disciples set out for the villages of
Caesarea Philippi.Along the way he asked his disciples, “Who
do people say that I am?”They said in reply, “John the
Baptist, others Elijah, still others one of the prophets.”And
he asked them, “But who do you say that I am?” Peter said
to him in reply, “You are the Messiah.”Then he warned them
not to tell anyone about him. (Mark 8:27-30)
At first glance, Peter seems to have correctly recognized Jesus’

true identity. As the passage continues, however, it becomes
clear that Peter has misunderstood Jesus’ identity and the nature
of messiahship:
He began to teach them that the Son of Manmust suffer

greatly and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and
the scribes, and be killed, and rise after three days.He spoke
this openly. Then Peter took him aside and began to rebuke
him.At this he turned around and, looking at his disciples,
rebuked Peter and said, “Get behind me, Satan. You are
thinking not as God does, but as human beings do.” (Mark
8:31-33)
76
Peter rebukes Jesus when the idea of suffering is introduced; his
definition of messiahship is incompatible with such an idea. He
believes Jesus to be the warrior king expected by mainstream
Judaism. Jesus has to set him straight, calling him Satan, a
reference to both the potential temptation to leave the path of
suffering, as well as the fact that Peter and this attitude act as
obstacles to Jesus’ mission.
As Jesus points out, he is not the only one who must walk
the path of suffering:
He summoned the crowd with his disciples and said to them,

“Whoever wishes to come after me must deny himself, take
up his cross, and follow me.For whoever wishes to save his
life will lose it, but whoever loses his life for my sake and
that of the gospelwill save it.What profit is there for one to
gain the whole world and forfeit his life?What could one give
in exchange for his life?Whoever is ashamed of me and of
my words in this faithless and sinful generation, the Son of
Man will be ashamed of when he comes in his Father’s glory
with the holy angels.”
For Mark, discipleship, the act of following Jesus, is equated

with suffering. If one wishes to follow Jesus, to be a true disciple,
one must expect suffering, whether at the hands of Jewish
Zealots (which may have happened during the First Jewish War)
or Roman officials.
During the journey to Jerusalem, Jesus predicts his Passion

three different times, each time accompanied by a lack of
77
understanding among his disciples. But for the reader, the truth
of the matter has become plain; Jesus’ mission is to suffer, “to
give his life as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). The cross
casts its shadow over the entire Gospel of Mark.
Questions
1. Why does Mark begin and end the journey to Jerusalem with
the healing of blind men? What is the symbolic meaning?
2. What is the Messianic Secret? Why is it so important in
Mark? How does the episode with Peter in Mark 8
demonstrate its importance?
3. How does Mark view discipleship?
Section 4-5 The Jerusalem Ministry: Part 1

(Mark 11:1-15:47)
***Read Mark11-14***
The section of Mark that takes place in Jerusalem is

essentially a span of only one week, the last week of Jesus’ life,
beginning with his entry into Jerusalem and ending with his
death. It is interesting to note that the Christian Holy Week
corresponds to the Jewish festival of Passover, a fact which adds
to Mark’s ironic view of the Jesus story; no one recognizes that
Jesus’ death represents a new, greater Passover.
78
Mark’s narrative of Jesus’ activities during the last week of
his life begins with his Entry into Jerusalem. This is the only
time Jesus visits Jerusalem in the Gospel of Mark, and the joyful
welcome with which he is received is an interesting contrast to
the rejection, suffering, and death that await him. Many of his
followers, most likely Galileans, welcome him with cloaks laid out
before him and waving branches. Their words are interesting:
“Hosanna!Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord!

Blessed is the kingdom of our father David that is to come!
Hosanna in the highest!” (Mark 11:9-10)
Jesus is welcomed as the restorer of the kingdom of Israel;

essentially, they hail him as a king, as the Messiah. The
Messianic Secret seems to be abandoned, and the story
represents the fulfillment of Zechariah 9:9:
Exult greatly, O daughter Zion!

Shout for joy, O daughter Jerusalem!
Behold: your king is coming to you,
a just savior is he,
Humble, and riding on a donkey,
on a colt, the foal of a donkey.
Jesus’ actions act as a challenge to Jerusalem, as well as to

Roman authority.
During his time in Jerusalem, much of Jesus’ activities focus

on the Temple, where his behavior alienates both the Jewish and
Roman authorities. Jesus overturns the tables of the
79
moneychangers and the sellers of sacrificial animals. Both were
viewed as necessary by the Temple authorities, since the Temple
tax could not be paid in foreign currency (which often bore the
image of emperors/gods), and animals were needed for the
various sacrifices made by pilgrims. Jesus is performing a
symbolic action, a common device among Israel’s prophets, in
which he is physically acting out a prophecy. In this case, the
meaning of the action is made plain by Jesus’ words concerning
the Temple following the event:
As he was making his way out of the temple area one of his
disciples said to him, “Look, teacher, what stones and what
buildings!”Jesus said to him, “Do you see these great
buildings? There will not be one stone left upon another that
will not be thrown down.” (Mark 13:1-2)
Through Jesus, Mark is commenting on the events of his own

time; in particular, this even acts as a prediction of the
destruction of the Temple by the Romans in 70 C.E., which he
refers to as “the desolating abomination” (Mark 13:14), a
reference to the Book of Daniel and the desecration of the Temple
by Antiochus IV. Jesus connects the destruction with the coming
of the eschaton and the Son of Man (another reference to
Daniel):
“But in those days after that tribulation

the sun will be darkened,
and the moon will not give its light,
and the stars will be falling from the sky,
80
and the powers in the heavens will be shaken.
And then they will see ‘the Son of Man coming in the clouds’
with great power and glory,and then he will send out the
angels and gather [his] elect from the four winds, from the
end of the earth to the end of the sky. (Mark 13:24-27)
Connected with all of this is Jesus’ cursing of the fig tree which,
like the Jewish leaders, does not bear fruit. All will be judged by
the eschatological Son of Man, Jesus Christ. Also worth noting is
the fact that the Cleansing of the Temple is one of the few
events recorded in all four canonical gospels, which points to its
historicity. This may also be the event that leads directly to
Jesus’ death.
According to Mark 14:1-2, the Jewish leaders begin to

conspire to have Jesus put to death, but are afraid of the
possibility that this may cause a riot. Jerusalem would have been
extraordinarily full due to the celebration of Passover, the Jewish
holiday commemorating YHWH’s liberation of Israel from slavery
in Egypt. As it turns out, Judas Iscariot, one of the Twelve,
offers his services in turning Jesus in to the authorities.
Jesus celebrates the Passover meal with his disciples in an

upper room in Jerusalem. This meal is referred to as the Last
Supper, which not only serves as a reminder of Israel’s
liberation, but represents a new ritual and covenant. During the
meal, Jesus establishes the Eucharist, the shared meal which is
at the center of Christian worship and, for Catholics, acts as more
81
than a reminder of Jesus; according to Catholic belief, the bread
and wine literally become the body and blood of Jesus.
Following the meal, Jesus retires to Gethsemane with

Peter, John, and James (who were present when Jesus raised the
daughter of Jairus from the dead and at his transfiguration) to
pray. In a demonstration of his lower Christology, Mark presents
a Jesus who asks God to “Take this cup away from me, but not
what I will but what you will” (Mark 14:36). This is the height of
Markan irony: the disparity between Jesus’ powerless appearance
and the reality of his spiritual triumph. Judas’ betrayal, in which
he brings an armed crowd from the Jewish authorities, completes
the scene and sets the climax of Jesus’ story into motion. The
presence of the “naked young man” is puzzling, but may
represent an angel or a similar divine force. Just as Jesus’
disciples have fled, so too does he. Jesus must face his fate
alone.
Questions
1. How do the events of Holy Week correspond to Passover?

How is this ironic?
2. What is the connection between symbolic action and Jesus’
activities in the Temple? How is the Cleansing of the Temple
symbolic?
3. What happens at Gethsemane? How is it ironic?
82
Section 4-6The Jerusalem Ministry: Part 2
(Mark 11:1-15:47)&Postlude: The Empty
Tomb (Mark 16:1-8)
***Read Mark15:1–16:8***
Jesus is initially taken before the Sanhedrin, the Jewish

council consisting of the Sadducees and Pharisees and headed by
the high priest, who at the time was Caiaphas. While Jesus is
being questioned by the Jewish authorities, Peter, who followed
Jesus into the high priest’s courtyard, is also questioned. Jesus is
asked by Caiaphas if he is “the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed
One” (Mark 14:61). This is actually two separate questions, each
carrying with it its own ramifications. Jesus responds to both
with the phrase “I am,” an explicit acknowledgment of his own
divine nature (I AM is a reference to YHWH) and, from the
perspective of the Jewish leaders, an act of blasphemy, the act
of speaking sacrilegiously about God. This brings an end to the
Messianic Secret, since Jesus has entered into his suffering.
Outside, Peter is asked if he is one of Jesus’ disciples, an
accusation he denies three times. Peter’s cowardice is contrasted
with Jesus’ courage.
Jesus is then taken before the Roman procurator Pontius

Pilate. Pilate’s only concern is Jesus’ claim of kingship; this
time, Jesus does not respond to the accusation, merely saying,
83
“You say so” (Mark 15:2). According to Mark, Pilate, in honor of
the Jewish festival of Passover, offered to free a prisoner chosen
by the crowd. This is probably not historical, and the general
presentation of Pilate does not seem to be either (Josephus
describes him as cruel and calculating). Encouraged by the
Jewish leaders, the crowd rejects Jesus and chooses Barabbas,
who was a rebel and murderer. Jesus is convicted of the crime of
sedition, or inciting a rebellion, the very crime of which
Barabbas is undoubtedly guilty. Once again, Mark expresses the
irony inherent in the story.
The method of execution normally reserved for non-Roman

citizens was crucifixion. During a crucifixion, the condemned
was tied or nailed to a wooden cross until they died, usually of
asphyxiation, or suffocation, although exposure to the
elements, blood loss, heart attack, and animal attacks were also
possible. The practice goes back to at least the time of the
Persians, and it probably originated from impalement. Crucifixion
was a slow and painful way to die, lasting from a few hours to a
few days, and was meant not only to kill the victim, but also to
shame and humiliate them. The crucified individual was naked
and vulnerable, on display normally near the entrance of the city.
It was not just a punishment; it was also meant to act as a
warning to others. It should be noted that it is the Romans, not
the Jewish authorities, who put Jesus to death.
84
Jesus was beaten and mocked, dressed in purple with a
crown of thorns placed on his head. The soldiers called him “King
of the Jews;” Mark’s ironic vision is once again being expressed,
since that is exactly who Jesus is. Unable to carry the crossbeam
himself (usually only the crossbeam was carried to the crucifixion
site, since the uprights were permanent), Simon of Cyrene was
forced to assist him. Jesus was crucified at Golgotha, which
seems to mean “Place of the Skull” in Aramaic. This was the
normal site of execution outside Jerusalem. Jesus was crucified
between two criminals, the ironic charge for which he was
convicted placed above his head: The King of the Jews.
According to Mark, Jesus’ last words were a quote from

Psalm 22: Eloi, Eloi, lemasabachthani,” or “My God, my God, why
have you forsaken me?” (Mark 15:34), a Psalm that begins with a
lamentation of God’s apparent absence in the face of persecution,
but ends with words of praise to God. It is in this moment,
feeling abandoned and alone, that Jesus dies, only about six
hours after he was nailed to the cross. With his death, the veil of
the sanctuary is torn in two, bringing together the spiritual and
material realms. The centurion who witnessed Jesus’ death is the
first to correctly recognize him: “Truly this man was the Son of
God” (Mark 15:39). In his suffering and death, Jesus’ divinity is
recognizable, even to a Gentile (who, in Mark’s time, seem to
recognize Jesus’ importance more than Jews).
85
Joseph of Arimathea, a prominent member of the
Sanhedrin and admirer of Jesus, requests the bod of Jesus from
Pilate. He takes Jesus’ remains and placed them in his own
tomb, a stone rolled in front of the entrance. Only some of Jesus’
female followers, Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James,
and Salome, are present at his death and burial, which is done
quickly so as not to go against Sabbath regulations.
The same women, Mary Magdalene, Mary, and Salome, go

back to the tomb on Sunday after the Sabbath is complete to
anoint Jesus’ body and prepare it for burial. When they arrive,
they discover The Empty Tomb and the body of Jesus missing.
A young man dressed in white, who seems to be an angelic figure
like the young man who ran away at Gethsemane, announces
Jesus’ Resurrection:
“Do not be amazed! You seek Jesus of Nazareth, the

crucified. He has been raised; he is not here. Behold the
place where they laid him. But go and tell his disciples and
Peter, ‘He is going before you to Galilee; there you will see
him, as he told you.’” (Mark 16:6-7)
Mark’s narrative abruptly ends in verse 8; the women run away

and do not tell anyone “for they were afraid.” The women, like
Jesus’ disciples throughout the story, are unable to grasp what
has happened, and the story ends with a fearful silence.
Later writers and editors added post-Resurrection

appearances to Mark’s gospel to make it match the other
86
canonical gospels, but in its original form, Mark ended with an
absent Jesus. Mark’s use of the Empty Tomb is puzzling. It is
unclear if it refers to the Parousia, which Mark may feel is
imminent, or if the reader is meant to find the presence of Jesus
for himself or herself. Regardless of his intent, Mark left the
ending of his gospel inconclusive; Matthew, Luke, and John will
take a very different approach.
Questions
1. How does Jesus respond to Caiaphas’ question? How is it

symbolic? In terms of Mark’s story, why is it important?
2. What is crucifixion? How does the victim die? What is it
meant to achieve?
3. How does Mark end his gospel? What might it symbolize?
Section 5 – The Gospel

of Matthew
Section 5-1 Background of Matthew’s Gospel
87

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Religion II

In order to understand and, indeed, appreciate Jesus of

A discussion of the ancient Persian empire must include the

Cyrus' model for empire building was considerably different

Although Persia continued to grow under Cyrus' successors,

Greece and the Rise of Alexander

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1. Why is it important to review the historical events leading

Following Alexander's death, large section of his empire

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The revolt continued for another two years, finally ending at

1. How did Rome come to control Palestine? How did it

Christianity, as it exists today, is the product of two distinct,

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Section 1-6The Political World of 1st Century

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