URINARY SYSTEM  Three regions revealed in a longitudinal section

o Renal cortex - outer region

Functions of the Urinary System  Renal medulla - deeper region
 Renal (medullary) pyramids - triangular regions of tissue
 Kidneys dispose of waste products in urine
in the medulla
o Nitrogenous wastes
o Renal columns - extensions of cortexlike material that separate the
o Toxins
pyramids
o Drugs
o Renal pelvis—medial region that is a flat, funnel-shaped tube
o Excess ions
 Calyces form cup-shaped “drains” that enclose the renal
 Kidneys’ regulatory functions include:
pyramids
o Production of renin to maintain blood pressure
 Calyces collect urine and send it to the renal pelvis, on to
o Production of erythropoietin to stimulate red blood cell production
the ureter, and to the urinary bladder for storage
o Conversion of vitamin D to its active form
 Organs of urinary system
o Kidneys
o Ureters
o Urinary bladder
o Urethra

 Kidneys
 Location and structure
o The kidneys are situated against the dorsal body wall in a
retroperitoneal position (behind the parietal peritoneum)
o The kidneys are situated at the level of the T12 to L3 vertebrae
o The right kidney is slightly lower than the left (because of position of
the liver)

 Kidney structure
o An adult kidney is about 12 cm (5 in) long and 6 cm (2.5 in) wide
o Renal hilum
o A medial indentation where several structures enter or exit the
kidney (ureters, renal blood vessels, and nerves)
o An adrenal gland sits atop each kidney
 Blood supply
 One-quarter of the total blood supply of the body passes through the
kidneys each minute
 Renal artery provides each kidney with arterial blood supply
 Renal artery divides into segmental arteries → interlobar arteries →
arcuate arteries → cortical radiate arteries
 Venous blood flow
 Cortical radiate veins → arcuate veins → interlobar veins → renal vein
 There are no segmental veins
 Renal vein returns blood to the inferior vena cava
 Nephrons
 Structural and functional units of the kidneys
 Each kidney contains over a million nephrons
 Each nephron consists of two main structures
o Renal corpuscle
o Renal tubule

 Three protective layers enclose the kidney

o Fibrous capsule encloses each kidney  Renal corpuscle consists of:
o Perirenal fat capsule surrounds the kidney and cushions against 1. Glomerulus, a knot of capillaries made of
blows podocytes
o Renal fascia is the most superficial layer that anchors the kidney o Podocytes make up the inner
and adrenal gland to surrounding structures (visceral) layer of the glomerular
capsule
o Foot processes cling to the
glomerulus
o Filtration slits create a porous
membrane—ideal for filtration
2. Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule is a cup-shaped structure that surrounds
the glomerulus
o First part of the renal tubule
 Renal tubule
o Extends from glomerular capsule and ends when it empties into the
collecting duct
o From the glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule, the subdivisions of the
renal tubule are:
a. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
b. Nephron loop (loop of Henle)
c. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
 o Nitrogenous waste products are poorly reabsorbed, if at all
o Tend to remain in the filtrate and are excreted from the body in the
urine
 Urea—end product of protein breakdown
 Uric acid—results from nucleic acid metabolism
 Creatinine—associated with creatine metabolism in muscles
 In 24 hours, about 1.0 to 1.8 liters of urine are produced
 Urine and filtrate are different
o Filtrate contains everything that blood plasma does (except proteins)
o Urine is what remains after the filtrate has lost most of its water,
nutrients, and necessary ions through reabsorption
o Urine contains nitrogenous wastes and substances that are not needed

Urine characteristics

 Clear and pale to deep yellow in color

 Yellow color is normal and due to the pigment urochrome (from the
destruction of hemoglobin) and solutes
o Dilute urine is a pale, straw color
 Sterile at the time of formation
 Slightly aromatic, but smells like ammonia with time
 Slightly acidic (pH of 6)
 Specific gravity of 1.001 to 1.035

Urine Formation and Characteristics

 Solutes normally found in urine

 Sodium and potassium ions
 Urea, uric acid, creatinine
 Ammonia
 Bicarbonate ions
 Solutes NOT normally found in urine
 Glucose
Urine Formation and Characteristics  Blood proteins
 Red blood cells
 Glomerular filtration  Hemoglobin
o The glomerulus is a filter  WBCs (pus)
o Filtration is a nonselective passive process  Bile
 Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced
through glomerular capillary walls
 Proteins and blood cells are normally too large to pass
through the filtration membrane
 Once in the capsule, fluid is called filtrate
 Filtrate leaves via the renal tubule
 Glomerular filtration (continued)
o Filtrate will be formed as long as systemic blood pressure is
normal
 If arterial blood pressure is too low, filtrate formation
stops because glomerular pressure will be too low to form
filtrate
 Tubular reabsorption
o The peritubular capillaries reabsorb useful substances from the
renal tubule cells, such as:
 Water
 Glucose Ureters
 Amino acids
 Ions  Slender tubes 25–30 cm (10–12 inches) attaching the kidney to the urinary
 Some reabsorption is passive; most is active (ATP) bladder
 Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule o Continuous with the renal pelvis
o Enter the posterior aspect of the urinary bladder
o Run behind the peritoneum
 Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport

 Tubular secretion
 Reabsorption in reverse
Urinary Bladder
 Some materials move from the blood of the peritubular capillaries into the renal
tubules to be eliminated in filtrate  Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac situated posterior to the pubic symphysis
o Hydrogen and potassium ions  Stores urine temporarily
o Creatinine  Trigone—triangular region of the urinary bladder base based on three
 Secretion is important for: openings
o Getting rid of substances not already in the filtrate o Two openings from the ureters (ureteral orifices)
o Removing drugs and excess ions o One opening to the urethra (internal urethral orifice)
o Maintaining acid-base balance of blood  In males, the prostate surrounds the neck of the urinary bladder
 Materials left in the renal tubule move toward the ureter
 Nitrogenous wastes
  Urge to void is felt
 The external sphincter is voluntarily controlled, so micturition can usually
be delayed

Developmental Aspects of the Urinary System

 Wall of the urinary bladder
o Three layers of smooth muscle collectively called the detrusor
muscle
o Mucosa made of transitional epithelium
o Walls are thick and folded in an empty urinary bladder
o Urinary bladder can expand significantly without increasing
internal pressure
 Capacity of the urinary bladder
o A moderately full bladder is about 5 inches long and holds about
500 ml of urine
o Capable of holding twice that amount of urine
 The kidneys begin to develop in the first few weeks of embryonic life and
are excreting urine by the third month of fetal life
 Common congenital abnormalities include polycystic kidney and
hypospadias
 Common urinary system problems in children and young to middle-aged
adults include infections caused by fecal microorganisms, microorganisms
causing sexually transmitted infections, and Streptococcus
 Control of the voluntary urethral sphincter does not start until age 18
months
 Complete nighttime control may not occur until the child is 4 years old
 Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are the only common problems before old
age
o escherichia coli (E. coli), a bacterium, accounts for 80 percent of
UTIs
 Renal failure is an uncommon but serious problem in which the kidneys are
unable to concentrate urine, and dialysis must be done to maintain chemical
homeostasis of blood
 With age, filtration rate decreases and tubule cells become less efficient at
concentrating urine, leading to urgency, frequency, and incontinence
 In men, urinary retention is another common problem
 Problems associated with aging
o Urgency—feeling that it is necessary to void
o Frequency—frequent voiding of small amounts of urine
o Nocturia—need to get up during the night to urinate
o Incontinence—loss of control
o Urinary retention—common in males, often the result of
hypertrophy of the prostate gland

Urethra

 Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of
the body by peristalsis
 Function
o Females—carries only urine
o Males—carries urine and sperm
 Release of urine is controlled by two sphincters
1. Internal urethral sphincter - Involuntary and made of smooth muscle
2. External urethral sphincter- Voluntary and made of skeletal muscle

 Length
o In females: 3 to 4 cm (1.5 inches long)
o In males: 20 cm (8 inches long)
 Location
o Females - anterior to the vaginal opening
o Males - travels through the prostate and penis
 Prostatic urethra
 Membranous urethra
 Spongy urethra

Micturition

o Voiding, or emptying of the urinary bladder

o Two sphincters control the release of urine, the internal urethral
sphincter and external urethral sphincter
 Bladder collects urine to 200 ml
 Stretch receptors transmit impulses to the sacral region of the spinal cord
 Impulses travel back to the bladder via the pelvic splanchnic nerves to cause
bladder contractions
 When contractions become stronger, urine is forced past the involuntary
internal sphincter into the upper urethra