Solar Photovoltaic technology and its

Applications

Dr.N.Kalaiselvan
Department of Energy and Environment
National Institute of Technology -
Tiruchirappalli
 What is Solar Energy?

• Originates with the

thermonuclear fusion
reactions occurring in
the sun.
• Represents the entire
electromagnetic
radiation (visible light,
infrared, ultraviolet, x-
rays, and radio waves).
 Content
• PN junction diode / solar cell
• PV cell technology
• Basic structure of solar panel
• Rating of PV module
• Shading in solar panel
• Stand alone PV
• Grid connected PV
How much solar energy?
PN junction ?
PN junction operation
 Solar Lighting system
(Photovoltaic Technology)
 Solar Electric Systems
• Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert light energy
directly into electricity. Commonly known as “Solar
cells.”
• The simplest systems power the small calculators we
use every day. More complicated systems will
provide a large portion of the electricity in the near
future.
• PV represents one of the most promising means of
maintaining our energy intensive standard of living
while not contributing to global warming and
pollution.
 PV cell basic
• Solar cells are usually made of two thin pieces of
silicon, the substance that makes up sand and the
second most common substance on earth.
• One piece of silicon has a small amount of boron
added to it, which gives it a tendency to attract
electrons. It is called the p-layer because of its
positive tendency.
• The other piece of silicon has a small amount of
phosphorous added to it, giving it an excess of free
electrons. This is called the n-layer because it has a
tendency to give up negatively charged electrons.
 Photovoltaic Effect
• When sunlight hits the
semiconductor, an electron springs
up and is attracted toward the n-
type semiconductor. This causes
more negatives in the n-type
semiconductors and more positives
in the p-type, thus generating a
higher flow of electricity. This is
the photovoltaic effect.
 How Does it Work?
• Sunlight is composed of photons, or bundles of
radiant energy. When photons strike a PV cell, they
may be reflected or absorbed (transmitted through
the cell). Only the absorbed photons generate
electricity.

• When the photons are absorbed, the energy of the

photons is transferred to electrons in the atoms of
the solar cell.
 PV technology
• 1. Wafer based Si solar cell
• 2. Thin film Amorphous Si
• 3. Thin CdTe and CIGS
• 4. Thin film crystalline Si
• 5. Organic solar cell/ Dye sensitised / Light
concentrating Ga As
Basic types panels
 Types of Photovoltaic Cell
• First Generation PV Cell
– Single crystalline silicon
– Multi-junction cell (different band-gap materials)
• Second Generation PV Cell
– Thin film silicon (amorphous silicon)
– CdTe (Cadmium Telluride)
– CuInSe2 (Copper Indium Diselenide)

• Third Generation PV Cell

– Ultra-High Efficiency concepts (>80%)
– Ultra-low Cost
• Polymer cells with quantum dots or nanostructures

Carbon nano tube on Si

for more efficient solar power

CdTe rods in polymer

Theoretical Efficiency of Photovoltaic Cell

High band gap PV cell provides higher voltage

Typical efficiency of commercial PV is around 12%
Solar cell structure
Rating of PV panel
 Shading on solar cell
• Solar panels are silicon based semiconductor materials
that generate a current when light is incident on it.
• Each PV panel is made up of smaller sized solar cells
which are connected in series to increase maximum
voltage that can be generated from it.
• When another object in the vicinity obstructs a direct
path from the sun, a shadow is cast on some of the cells
in the panel. Now, the cells without any incident
radiation will act as resistance to the current flow. This
heats up the cell, generating a hotspot.
• This will damage the cell and render the entire PV panel
useless.
Role of bypass diode
• A bypass diode is added which is placed in parallel
with the panel to avoid the hotspots.
• If a shadow is cast then the current flows through
this diode and the panel is rendered useless.
• In other words, the panel is switched off.
• Solar Inverters have MPPT based tracking that search
for the tip of the above PV graph (right). During
partial shading, when some cells in a particular panel
have shadow, the inverter might get stuck on the
wrong tip and generate less power than optimum.
Voltage and Current curve
 Principle, construction and working of Solar cell

Principle: The solar cells are based on the principles of

photovoltaic effect. The photovoltaic effect is the photo
generation of charge carriers in a light absorbing materials as a
result of absorption of light radiation.
Construction
• Solar cell (crystalline Silicon) consists of a n-type
semiconductor (emitter) layer and p-type semiconductor
layer (base). The two layers are sandwiched and hence
there is formation of p-n junction.
• The surface is coated with anti-refection coating to avoid
the loss of incident light energy due to reflection.
• A proper metal contacts are made on the n-type and p-
type side of the semiconductor for electrical connection . 33
Working:
• When a solar panel exposed to sunlight , the light energies
are absorbed by a semi conduction materials.
• Due to this absorbed Energy, the electrons are liberated
and produce the external DC current.
• The DC current is converted into 240-volt AC current using
an inverter for different applications.

• The electrons that leave the solar cell as current give up their
energy to whatever is connected to the solar cell, and then re-
enter the solar cell. Once back in the solar cell, the process begins
again.

34
Mechanism:
• First, the sunlight is absorbed by a solar cell in a solar
panel.
• The absorbed light causes electrons in the material to
increase in energy. At the same time making them free
to move around in the material.
• However, the electrons remain at this higher energy for
only a short time before returning to their original
lower energy position.
• Therefore, to collect the carriers before they lose the
energy gained from the light, a PN junction is typically
used.
35
 Reasons to Consider a Photovoltaic System

➢ Central and State governments offer considerable subsidies to

offset cost of system.
➢ Incentives span small residential systems through large
commercial power plants
➢ Systems typically offer 25 years of energy production.
➢ Protect against rising electricity costs.
➢ Offers the ability to reduce or completely eliminate electric bills
➢ No emissions
➢ No fuel required
➢ Many project have excellent payback profiles
Solar PV system
❖ Solar PV is a semiconductor device which
converts sunlight directly into electricity.
❖ Therefore, a solar PV panel or a solar PV
module when exposed to sunlight generates
voltage and current at its output terminal.
❖ This voltage and current can be used for our
electricity requirements.
❖ The amount of electricity a solar PV module
can generate depends on the amount of
sunlight available to it.
❖ The higher is the intensity of the sunlight, the
more will be the electricity generated from it.
❖ When no sunlight falls on a solar PV module,
no electricity is generated.
❖ The amount of electricity generated from a
PV module also depends on the size of the
module; larger is the size of the module higher
will be the amount of electricity generated from it.
❖ The electricity that is generated from a PV
module is DC ( Direct Current ) in nature.
❖ The conventional supply available to us is AC (
Alternating current ) in nature.
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) module produces
electricity when Exposed to the sunlight
❖ We use electricity in many ways to run
appliances in our house and industry.
❖ We need electricity to run light bulbs, TV, fan,
refrigerator, mixer, washing machine etc.
❖ The electricity generated by a solar PV panel
can be used for any of these purposes.
❖ Even the solar PV power can also be used for
large applications like running a water pump
of very large capacity.

Electricity produced by the solar PV panel can

be used for any purpose that requires electricity
❖ Solar PV panel produces DC electrical power,
which is different from AC power that we
received from our electrical grid supply.
❖ The direct current (DC) does not change its

direction of flow while an alternating current

(AC) changes its direction of flow 50 times in

a second.

❖ There are both type of appliances that use

either DC power or AC power for their

operation.

❖ Most of the equipment used in our homes

use AC power.
❖ Therefore, it is often required to convert DC

power into AC power.

❖ The conversion of DC power to AC power can

be achieved using a device called inverter (or

DC to AC converter).

❖ It is also possible to convert AC power into

DC power using rectifier.

A solar PV module produces DC power, which

can be converted to AC power using inverter
 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE TECHNOLOGY
❖ Sunlight can be converted to electricity due to the
photovoltaic effect discovered in 1839 by Edmund
Becquerel, a French scientist.
❖ Sunlight is composed of photons, or packets of energy.
❖ When photons strike a solar cell ( technically a
semiconductor p - n junction device), they get
absorbed in solar cell resulting in generating of
electrons and generation of voltage across the solar
cell which can deliver current and thus power to run a
electrical load.
Typical structure of a solar cell, showing the p-n junction, the front and
rear metal contacts and antireflective coating
❖ In order to collect the generated current from a
solar cell, metal contacts are deposited at the front
and rear side of a solar cell.
❖ At the rear side, the metal contact is continuous
but at the front side, it is in the form of metal lines.
❖ This is required in order to allow the light to enter the
cell.
❖ When light falls on a smooth surface a major portion is
reflected back.
❖ An antireflective coating is put on the cells to ensure
that most of the light that falls on solar cell enters the cell
and gets absorbed.
Protection of solar cells in solar PV modules
by encapsulation
❖ The blue colour of the commercially available silicon
solar cells is their anti – reflective coating.
❖ Historically, it has been about 50 years since the
first operational silicon solar cell was demonstrated in
1950s.
❖ However, the last 15 years have seen large
improvements in the solar cell technology, which
is mainly based on the use of material called silicon.
❖ The two main parameters of solar cell technology
are the efficiency of solar cells and the cost of
production.
❖ Over the year, solar cell efficiencies have been
improved and the cost of solar cell production
have decreased.
❖ The efficiencies of solar cells available in the
market is in the range of 13 to 16 %.
❖ Silicon based solar cell modules are not the only
one available in the commercial market.
❖ There are solar PV modules that are made of
other technology, called thin – film technologies,
like thin – film amorphous silicon, thin – film
cadmium telluride, etc.
Variation in the output power of 40 W and 75 W (rated power)
silicon PV modules as a function of temperature
Interconnection of solar cells to obtain solar PV modules and PV modules
to obtain PV module array for generating large power
Block diagram of a PV system
A typical PV water pumping system
Solar Home Lighting System
• Solar Home Lighting Systems are basically 12 Volt,
Direct Current (DC), stand alone systems that use SPV
to electrify rural homes.

A SHLS includes the following:

• 1. SPV Module
• 2. Battery
• 3. Charge Controller or Balance-of-System Equipment
• 4. Fluorescent lights
• 5. Wiring material, safety disconnects and fuses and
 SPV Module

• The solar modules for a SHLS range between 20-60 Wp.

They are mounted either on a rooftop or a top a pole.
• Both crystalline and thin film technologies are appropriate
for a SHLS.
• Before ordering for a SHLS, it is very important to
determine the number of modules to be used to power the
load to be attached to the system.
• For each peak watt that a SPV module is rated, it will
produce a yearly average of around 6.2 watt hours/ day of
electricity in tropical climate like ours.
 Battery
• The batteries are used for storing electricity for use at
night and for meeting demand loads during the day
when the modules are not generating enough power to
meet the load requirements.
• Basically electrochemical storage (lead acid) batteries
are used to store electricity converted by the solar
module.
• These are deep cycle batteries that are designed to
gradually discharge and recharge 80% of their capacity
hundreds of times
 Charge controller

• A charge controller is utilized to control the flow of electricity

between the module battery and the loads.

• The unit prevents battery damage by ensuring that the battery

is operating within it’s normal charge levels.

• When the load is drawing power, the controller allows charge

to flow from the modules into the load, battery or both,
whereas when the controller senses that the battery is fully
charged, it stops the flow of charge from the modules to the
battery.
 Fluorescent Lights
• Compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs as well as
fluorescent (FL) tube lights are generally used in the
SHLS for lighting purpose.
Wiring material, safety disconnects and fuses and a
grounding circuit
• The SHLS contains additional wiring material for
connections, outlets for connecting electrical loads to the
system, metallic frames for mounting the SPV modules
to a pole or the roof, switches for the lights, safety
disconnects and fuses for providing additional safety to
the user and other additional accessories.
Typical Cost of Solar PV Modules

PV panel rating watt (

No Cost ( Rs )
peak ), Wp

1 10 2000
2 20 4000
3 40 8000
4 75 15000
 TYPICAL COST OF BATTERIES
Battery rating Voltage
Cost
No Amp-hour rating
( Rs )
( Ah ) ( volts )
1 40 12 3300
2 60 12 3400
3 90 12 4650
4 110 12 5000
5 150 12 9500
SPECIFICATION OF AN INVERTER

1000 VA- 9 kVA

Rated Power 5 kVA-8kVA
3000 VA -15 kVA

24 V/36
Input Voltage 12 V/24 V 36 V/48 V
V/48 V

220 V(AC) & 220 V(AC) & 220 V(AC) &

Output Voltage
110 V(AC) 110 V(AC) 110 V(AC)

Output Frequency 50 Hz/60 Hz 50 Hz/60 Hz 50 Hz/60 Hz

Full sine Full sine Full sine

Output Waveform
wave wave wave
Typical Cost of Inverter
No System ( kVA ) Cost ( Rs )
1 1 5000
2 2 7000
3 3 9000
4 4 12000
5 5 15000
 Handle

CFL

Charge On / Off
Solar PV controller switch
panel
Battery

Solar PV Lantern
 Typical Power ratings of common
appliances
Power
Component
Rating

CFL ( watts ) 8 to 18
Fan ( watts ) 60
Tube + Cu choke ( watts ) 55
Tube + Electronic choke ( watts ) 47
In order to design PV system, number of parameters about the
component used in the system should be known. Following
assumptions can be made ( for actual design real data should be
obtained ):
Assumptions:
Inverter converts DC into AC power with an efficiency of about 90
%. Battery charging and discharging cycle efficiency is about 90
%. Also all the charge of a battery cannot be used. And one has
to consider maximum depth of discharge of a battery. This can
vary widely. Here we are assuming 80 % depth of discharge,
meaning only 80 % of the total capacity of the battery is useful.
The combined efficiency of inverter and battery will be calculated
as,
Combined efficiency = inverter efficiency x battery efficiency
= 0.9 x 0.9 = 0.81 = 81 %
Battery voltage used for operation = 12 volts
Battery capacity = 120 Ah
Sunlight available in a day = 8 h / d ( equivalent of
peak radiation )
Operation of lights and fan = 6 h / d on PV panels
• PV panel power rating = 40 Wp
• In the operating condition the actual output power of a PV module
is less. Thus, a factor called ‘operating factor’ is used to estimate
the actual output from a PV module. The operating factor can vary
between 0.60 and 0.90 and 0.90 ( implying that output power is 60 to
80 % lower than rated output power ) in normal operating conditions,
depending on temperature, dust on module, etc. Thus the actual
output power of a 40 Wp PV panel = 0.75 ( operating factor ) x 40 =
30 Watt. Remember Wp, meaning, watt ( peak ), gives only peak
power output of a PV panel.
A solar PV system design can be done in four steps:
1. Load estimation
2. Estimation of number of PV panels
3. Estimation of battery bank
4. Cost estimation of the system

Steps to design a solar PV system

Step 1 : Find out total energy requirement of the system
( total load )
Total connected load to PV panel system
= No. of units x rating of equipment's
= 2 x 18 + 2 x 60 = 156 watts
Total watt-hours rating
= Total connected load ( watts ) x operating hours
= 156 x 6 = 936 watt - hours
STEP 2 : Find out the number of PV panels required
Actual power output of a PV panel
= Peak power rating x operating factor
= 40 x 0.75 = 30 watt
Total power used at the end use is less ( due to lower
combined efficiency of the system )
= Actual power output of a panel x combined efficiency
= 30 x 0.81 = 24.3 watts ( VA )
= 24.3 watts
Energy produced by one 40 Wp panel in a day
= Actual power output x 8 hours / day (peak equivalent)
= 24.3 x 8 = 194.4 watt - hour
Note : Though the day length can be longer, we consider light
equivalent to number of peak hours ( 1000 W / m2 ) for which
solar panel is characterized. For exact value one need to look
at meteorological data for given location .Number of solar
panels required to satisfy given estimated daily load (from step
1)

= Total watt-hour rating ( daily load )

Daily energy produced by a panel

= 936 / 194.4 = 4.81 = 5 ( round figure )

Note : For system of voltage higher than 12 (say 24), 24/12=2,

two modules should be in series to provide 24 volt ( while
total number of panels should be same )
STEP 3 : Find out the battery requirement
Total amp-hour required ( total charge to be stored ), (
battery size should be higher than the actual useful
energy due to less combined efficiency of the system )
= Total W-hour rating
( combined efficiency x battery voltage )
= 936 / 0.72 x 12 = 108.33
Note : One can also decide to design a system with 24
volt or 48 volt. Since typically PV panels and battery are
designed to give 12 volt, series –parallel combination of
panels and batteries will be required to get higher PV
system voltages.
Number of batteries required = Total amp-hour rating
Battery rating under use
= 108.33 / 120
= 0.9 ≈ 1 ( round figure )
Step 4: Find out inverter size
Inverter rating (watts or VA )
Total connected load to PV panel system = 156 watts
= 156 VA
Inverter are available with rating of 100, 200, 500 VA, etc.
Therefore, the choice of the inverter should be 200 VA
In this way, total load and the requirement of number and size of
various solar PV system components can be estimated. The
examples taken here are for small size house. For designing solar
PV systems for large house or for industrial application similar
design approach can be taken.
 MPPT /
inverter
Motor Storage

PV Module

Solar PV Water pumping System

 CASE STUDY
Design of a PV system for pumping 25000 litres of water everyday form a
depth of about 12 metre is considered.
The data required for calculations are following and the calculation in given
below :
• Amount of water to be pumped per day = 25000 litre = 25m3
• Total vertical lift = 12 metres ( 5 m – elevation, 5 m – standing water level,
2 m-drawdown )
• Water density = 1000 kg / m3
• Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2
• Solar PV module used = 75 Wp
• Operating factor = 0.75 ( PV panel mostly does not operate at peak rated
power )
• Pump efficiency = 30 % or 0.30 ( can be between 0.25 and 0.40 )
• Mismatch factor = 0.85 ( PV panel does not operate at maximum power
point )
 Calculations for PV water pumping system

Step 1 : Determine total daily water requirement

Daily water requirement = 25 m3 / day

Step 2 : Determine total dynamic head

Total vertical lift = 12 m

Frictional losses = 5 % of the total vertical lift

= 12 x 0.05 = 0.6 metre

Total dynamic head ( TDH) = 12 + 0.6 = 12.6

Step 3 : Determine the hydraulic energy required per day
Hydraulic energy required to raise water level
= mass x g x TDH
= density x volume x g x DH
= ( 1000 kg / m3 ) x ( 25 m3/day ) x ( 9.8 m/s2 ) x 12.6
= ( multiply by 1/3600 to convert second in hours )
= 857.5 watt-hour / day
Note : Potential energy of the water is raised due to pumping,
which must be supplied to the pump
Step 4 : Determine solar radiation data
Solar radiation data in terms of equivalent peak sunshine
radiation ( 1000 W/m2 ) varies between about 5 and 8 hours. For
exact hours, meteorological data should be used.
= 6 h / d ( peak of 1000 W/m2 equivalent ),
actual day length is longer ( this is equivalent
of solar radiation of 180000 watt-hours / month
at a given location )
Step 5 : Determine the number of PV panel and
pump size
Total wattage of PV panel
= Total hydraulic energy
No. of hours of peak sunshine / day
= 857.5 / 6 = 142.9 watt
Considering system losses
= Total PV panel wattage
Pump efficiency x Mismatch factor
= 142.9 / 0.3 x 0.85 = 560 watt
Consider operating factor for PV panel
= Total PV panel wattage after losses
operating factor
= 560 / 0.75 = 747.3 watt
Number of solar PV panel required of 75 Wp each
= 747.3 / 75 = 9.96 ≈ 10 (round figure)
Power rating of the motor
= 747.3 / 746 ≈ 1 HP motor
In this way, a solar PV water pumping system can be designed.
 Govt. of India’s Assistance for SPV Programme
• Solar Radiation Resource Assessment stations have been
installed across India by the solar PV, Ministry of New
and Renewable Energy(MNRE) to monitor the
availability of solar energy.
• The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy provides
70 percent subsidy on the installation cost of a solar
photovoltaic power plant in North-East states and 30
percentage subsidy on other regions.
• The Government has announced an allocation of 10
billion (US$182 million) towards the Jawaharlal Nehru
National Solar Mission and the establishment of a clean
energy fund the-East states and 30 percentage subsidy
on other regions.
Solar Lanterns
 Solar Lanterns
• solar lamp is a portable light fixture composed of
an LED lamp, a photovoltaic solar panel, and
a rechargeable battery.
• Outdoor lamps may have lamp, solar panel and battery
integrated in one unit.
• Indoor solar lamps with separately-mounted solar panels
are used for general illumination where centrally
generated power is not conveniently or economically
available.
• Solar-powered household lighting may displace light
sources such as kerosene lamps, saving money for the
user, and reducing fire and pollution hazards.
 Best Place For Solar Panels?

• South Facing roof, adequate

space
• No shading (time of year,
future tree growth)
• Roof structure, condition
 Geometrical Parameters
• Concentration Ratio : The ratio of the
collector area and the receiver is called as
Geometric Concentration Ratio (GCR).
• Tilt angle :
It is the angle at which tilt the panel
produce maximum collectable output.
• Acceptance Angle
It is the maximum angle at which incoming
sun rays can be captured by concentrator optics.
 • Declination Angle

It is the angle between the rays of the sun and plane of earth’s
equator. It varies according to season due to the tilt of earth on its rotation of axis
and rotation of earth around sun.

The declination δ, in degrees for any day of the year (N)

Calculate the declination angle on May 10. Solution

𝛿 = 23.45 sin [360/365(284+130)] = 17.52°

• Azimuth Angle
It is the compass direction from which the sun light is
coming. The sun is directly south in northern hemisphere and
directly north in the southern hemisphere at noon. Normally at
equinoxes only the sun rises in East and sets in the West. At all
other times it makes azimuth angle from 90 o to 270 o according
to the latitude of the location and the time of year.
sin (z) = cos (δ) sin (h) / cos(α)
 Hour Angle
• The hour angle, h, of a point on the earth’s
surface is defined as the angle through which
the earth would turn to bring the meridian of
the point directly under the sun.
h = ± 0.25 (Number of minutes from local
solar noon)
 Applications of Photovoltaic system
• Water Pumping: PV powered pumping systems are excellent
simple, reliable – life 20 years.
• Commercial Lighting: PV powered lighting systems are
reliable and low cost alternative. Security, billboard sign,
area, and outdoor lighting are all viable applications for PV.
• Consumer electronics: Solar powered watches, calculators,
and cameras are all everyday applications for PV
technologies.
• Telecommunications
• Residential Power: A residence located more than a mile from
the electric grid can install a PV system more inexpensively
than extending the electric grid (Over 500,000 homes
worldwide use PV power)as their only source of electricity)
Solar Thermal
Applications
 Outlet, warm Make-up cold
water water

Tank

Insulation

Absorber Warm water for

use
Inlet, cold water

Schematic diagram of flat plate hot water system

 One-dimensional concentration Two-dimensional concentration
( line focus cylindrical parabolic ) (point focus parabolic )

Possible Way of Light Concentration

Types of Solar Radiation
Absorber Plate

Absorber Metal Sheet Pipe or Water Channel

Solar Heating Systems Used for Various
Applications

Name of the Operating

Typical Applications
Systems Temperature

Domestic and industrial water

Flat plate collector Ambient - 70°C heating, air heating for drying,
space heating.

Evacuated tube Domestic and industrial water

Ambient - 100°C
Collector heating

Concentrating
Collector
100 - 400°C Industrial Processes
Evacuated Tube Construction

Glass tube
Absorber
Water
channel

Vacuum
 Typical Temperature Range & Efficiencies of
Heating Systems

Temperature Efficiency
Name of System Useful Radiation
Range (°C ) (%)

Flat plate hot water Global

heating (direct+diffused)
40 to 60 40
Evacuated tube water
heating
Global 50 to 80 50
Evacuated tube with
other fluid and low Direct 100 to 200 50-60
concentration ratio
Cylindrical parabolic
collector
Direct 100 to 400 50-60

Parabolic point focus Direct Up to 1000 70-80

Step - 1
Find out useful solar heat energy

Daily available solar radiation = 5.5 kWh / m2 -day

Useful solar heat energy ( which is actually used in

raising temperature of water )

= Daily solar radiation X solar water heater efficiency

= 5.5 X 0.4 = 2.2 kWh / m2 -day

( converting Wh to joules, 1 Wh = 3600 joules )

= 7920 kJ / m2 -day
Step - 2
Heat required to bring the water from the ambient to
desired temperature
Heat capacity of water = 4.18 kJ/kg per degree rise in
temperature
The ∆ or rise in temperature required
= Required temperature – ambient temperature
= 80 – 30 = 50°C
The mass of the water ( 1 litre = 1 kg ) = 250 litres
Heat energy required to raise water temperature to desired
level, everyday
= 4.18 X m X ∆T kJ
= 4.18 X 250 X 50
= 52250 kJ required per day
Step - 3
Total area of the collector required to
fulfil the requirement
Collector area required
= Required heat energy
Useful heat energy
= 52250 / 7920

= 6.60 = 7 m2
Calculations for Concentrating Collector

Similar calculations can be done for

concentrating collectors also. In the
case of concentrating collectors one has
to consider the concentration ratio,
aperture area of the concentrator,
system efficiency of the concentrator,
aperture area of the receiver, etc.
•The concentration ratio is defined as follow;
• Concentration ratio, R = Aperture area of
collector / aperture area of the receiver
• Using concentration ratio, R, the useful heat
energy can be calculated as:
= Daily solar radiation X Concentration ratio
X System efficiency
• Other calculation can be done following similar
calculation as shown in the table above.
Costing of solar hot water heater
In order to estimate the cost of solar water heaters,
following rules can be used.

• The typical price of a collector is about Rs 5000 per

square metre
• Tank and other installation cost is about 50 % of the
collectors cost
• 50 litres of hot water per day requires 1 square metre
of collector area
Thus, cost of a 100 litre hot water per day system is:
= 2 square metre x ( 5000 + ½ x 5000 ) = Rs 15000
What is solar cooking?

• Principle of solar cooking: Sunlight

is converted to heat energy which is
retained for cooking.
• Clean cooking technology.
• First design of solar cooker:
Nicholas de Saussure (1740-1799)
built a black insulated solar cooker
• Worldwide numerous organizations
working with solar cookers (SCI
founded in 1987)
 Back coating
Reflector
Glass cover

Thermal
Vessel
insulator

Box Type Solar Cooker

 System Specifications
Comments
Components
Material Properties
Reflector Glass Reflectivity should Mirrors are
Flat mirror or Aluminium be high to ensure more reflective
metal foil the increase in but costlier and
temperature of fragile.
cooking utensil
Box GI Aluminium Enough to maintain Low cost
1. Outter box sheet FRP stability & insulation materials like
2. Inner box cardboard can be
used
Aluminium or Coated with non- Paint must be
copper (high toxic black paint to non - toxic when
heat absorb the heat dry
conductivity)
 System Specifications
Comments
Components Material Properties
Transperent Glass or Glass traps the Glass cover
Cover plastics infrared radiation, should be well
avoid heat loss from sealed to prevent
top heat loss from
the gap
Insulation Wool, cotton, Space between the Must be free
feathers, or outer and inner box from volatile
even including bottom of materials.
crumpled the tray must be
newspapers insulated to reduce
heat losses from the
cooker
Cooking Aluminium, Must be coated with Lightweight,
Utensils copper black material to shallow pot must
or stainless absorb more heat be used
steel
 Basic principal
• Solar panel and solar box cookers use an enclosed space,
a transparent cover and a black pot to capture, absorb
and concentrate infrared light and convert it slowly
and evenly into heat all around the pot.
• Light colored cooking pots will not work in these solar
cookers because their shiny surfaces reflect rather than
absorb sunlight.
• Parabolic solar cookers quickly generate intense heat
for frying and boiling by focusing a single beam of light
on the (black) bottom of a cooking pot.
 Experimental investigation

Schematic diagram of the constructed box-type solar cooker.

Absorber plate with one vessel (Model I)
7/22
 Experimental investigation

Schematic diagram of the constructed box-type solar cooker.

7/22
Absorber plate with one vessel (Model I)
• The first figure of merit, F1 is the ratio of optical
efficiency to heat loss factor of the cooker, and is based
on the energy balance equation as
 Panel Solar Cookers

• The panel cooker is the least expensive type of solar

cooker.
• It is designed to reflect sunlight over the entire surface
of a lightweight cooking pot painted black on the outside
with non-toxic paint.
• It can reach temperatures up to 250ºF (121ºC).
• It is easy transportation and storage, making it an ideal
design for stressed, mobile populations.
• Most Cook its currently used in Chad are made with
inexpensive cardboard, which must be protected from
moisture.
Panel Solar Cookers
 Advantages
• Sunlight is reflected off of multiple panels onto a pot
under a glass lid or in a bag
• Can be built quickly and at low cost
• Many different varieties
Disadvantage :
A major disadvantages is that wind can affect the
cooking temperatures a little more than a box cooker
and can grab the reflector panels like a sail on a boat, so
it is necessary to anchor this cooker if there is a breeze.
 Parabolic Solar Cookers

Parabolic solar cookers operate

at a much higher temperature
than panel and box cookers.
They focus a narrow beam of
sunlight on the bottom of a
cooking pot that sits on a metal
stand.
This light instantly generates
temperatures as high as 450º-
500ºF. (232º-260º C), which is as
hot as an open fire or a gas
burner.
Parabolic Solar Cookers
 Solar radiation
Scheffler disc
( south facing )

Kitchen Sun-tracking
arrangement

Heat Transfer type of solar cooker

Solar
Drying
 Principles Employed in a Solar dryer
• Converting light to heat: Any black on the inside of a solar
dryer will improve the effectiveness of turning light into heat.
• Trapping heat: Isolating the air inside the dryer from the air
outside the dryer makes an important difference.
• Using a clear solid, like a plastic bag or a glass cover, will
allow light to enter, but once the light is absorbed and
converted to heat, a plastic bag or glass cover will trap the
heat inside.
• This makes it possible to reach similar temperatures on cold
and windy days as on hot days.
• Moving the heat to the food. Both the natural convection dryer
and the forced convection dryer use the convection of
the heated air to move the heat to the food.
 Classification of solar dryer
• The classification of solar dryer based on
❖Mode of Air movements
❖Exposure to insulation
❖Direction of air flow
❖Arrangement of the Dryer
❖Status of solar contribution

Further classification
1.Active Solar Dryer( termed hybrid solar dryer)
2.Passive Solar Dryer(Natural circulation dryer)
 Classification Description
Open air Food is exposed to the sun and wind by placing in trays, on
racks or on the ground. Food is rarely protected from
Predators.

Direct Sun Food is enclosed in a container with a clear lid allowing sun
to shine directly in food. Vent holes allow for air circulation.

Indirect Sun Fresh air is heated in a solar heat collector & then passes
through food in the drier chamber. In this way the food is
not exposed to direct sunlight.

Mixed Mode Combines the direct and indirect types; a separate collector
preheats air and direct sunlight adds heat to the food and air.

Hybrid Combines solar heat with other source such as fossil fuel or
biomass.
Fueled Uses electricity or fossil fuels as a source of heat and
ventilation.
Direct Solar Dryer
 Tent Dryer

❖ Consist of wood poles

covered with plastic sheet.

❖ The food to be dried is placed

on a rack above the ground.

❖ Main purpose is to protect

from dust, rain, wind and
predators.

❖ Disadvantage of being easily

damaged by rain.
Tent dryer
 Hybrid Solar Dryer(HSD)
• The HSD-module comprises:
• a solar heat collector, reducing fuel consumption
• a drying chamber with variable recirculation, minimizing the
use of energy and optimizing product quality;
• a burner using biogas to bridge periods without sunshine;
• heat exchangers to indirectly heat the air and reuse energy,
increasing energy efficiency;
• a processing space for pre- and post-drying treatment and for
handling and packing dried products;
• a small scale digester, turning 250 kgs of daily waste into
biogas, providing energy for about 12 hours of nighttime
drying.
Solar Furnace 131
 Solar furnace
A solar furnace is any device that creates heat by
concentrating sunlight through the use of reflectors.
There are many different sizes of solar furnaces
that you can purchase or build yourself.
The term "solar furnace" has also evolved to refer
to solar concentrator heating systems using parabolic
mirrors or heliostats where 538 °C (1,000 °F) is now
commonly achieved.
The largest solar furnace is at Odeillo in the
Pyrenees-Orientales in France, opened in 1970.
Solar Furnace:
It is an original equipment to get high
temperature by concentrating solar radiations on a
specimen.

Primary components:

Concentrator:

Heliostat

Sun tracking
133
 Solar Power Towers: Sandia CRTF

5 MW power
Flux to 280 W/cm2
Each heliostat is separately
driven to focus its beam on
the receiver
Missile nosecones have
been tested in the hot spot

• The Receiver Tower has multiple target areas

030214
 Solar Power Towers: Sandia CRTF

• The large tank

stores energy
to use during
cloud passage
or at dusk
• The output
power is
extracted at a
constant rate

090211
 Solar Power Towers: Barstow CA

• Flat mirrors are aimed to melt salt at the receiver target

030207
 Solar Power Mirrors

• Disks of thin aluminized mylar are pulled into

rings under slight vacuum to form a
050210
paraboloidal surface
 Fixed Vs Tracking
A tracking collectors are controlled to follow the sun
throughout the day.

A tacking system is rather complicated and generally only

used for special high-temperature applications.

Fixed collectors are much simpler - their position or

orientation, however, may be adjusted on a seasonal
basis. They remain fixed over a day’s time

Fixed collector are less efficient than tracking

collectors; nevertheless they are generally preferred as
they are less costly to buy and maintain.
Solar Heliostat: A
solar tracking device
capable of reflecting
sunshine in a constant
direction throughout
the day

139
This heliostat is being powered
by a small 12 volt garden tractor
battery being recharged by a 5
watt solar battery charger. The
dual axis solar tracking circuitry
consumes only 8 milliamps of
current , each actuator draws
about 500 milliamps at 12 volts.
In 8 hours each actuator operates
for about 3 minutes tracking the
sun and then returning to the
morning preset position. On
average each heliostat consumes
about .2 watts. This suggests that
a five watt solar panel could
provide enough power for a field
of 25 of these heliostats.
140
X solar concentrating
heliostat focused on flat
plate collector.

9 square foot heliostat =

836 watts of potential solar
energy.

141
 75 kW Solar Thermal Test Facility

• These Sandia trackers have a paraboloidal dish

surface similar to a radar antenna
050210
 Need for desalination
• In the light of increased water usage and depleting natural
water supplies, the world is facing an impending water
shortage.
• To combat this, many countries have turned to desalination
to derive usable water from the sea.
 Insulators Condensed droplets
Transparent cover

Make-up water
inlet Vapoures
Brine depth Distilled water
outlet

Excess make-up
water outlet
Tank Absorber Condensate channel

Schematic Diagram of a Single Basin Solar Still

The Components of Solar Distill & Their Specifications
System Specifications
Components Material Purpose
Water basin / tank Cement concrete Container of saline water
or fiberglass ( brick - cement can be used
for basin, tank should be
insulated at the base to avoid
thermal loss ).
Insulation Polyurethane Foam To prevent heat losses
( PUF ), putty, tars, ( should not become brittle,
silicon sealant cracks may form resulting in
vapour leakage ).
Transparent cover Glass or To transmit solar energy
polyethylene ( glass is heavy, prone to
mechanical damage.
Polyethylene has low
transmittivity and requires a
special layer to make it water
wettable.
The Components of solar distill & their specifications
System Specifications
Components Material Purpose
Absorber Black butyl To absorb the heat
rubber, black ( should be able to
polyethylene or withstand temperature
ink or dye up to 100°C ).
Condensate Aluminium To collect droplets of
channel galvanized iron water
Make up water PVC pipe To supply the saline
inlet water
Excess make- PVC pipe To drain the water
up water outlet
Storage pot Glass, plastic To store distilled water
 The President’s Message: Independence

• Cut down energy losses

• Utilize technologies to provide a
diverse supply of environmentally
friendly energy
• “We must achieve Energy
Independence by 2030”, including
a cut down in ALL sectors
• Increase the power generated
through renewable energy sources
from 5% to 25%
• This is the nation’s “first and
highest priority”
 President’s Solar Message
• Kalam pushes solar as a key
part of the 2030 energy
independence plan
• Agricultural sector - both for
powering farms and for
desalination plants to bring in
fresh water
• Nanotechnology research --
something that India has
already embraced -- to a drive
to improve solar efficiencies.
 Rural Needs are Simple

• Fuel for cooking

• Water for drinking
• Light for studying
• Television and telephone for entertainment and
connectivity
 Rural Electrification
• Rural electrification is the process of
bringing electrical power to rural and remote areas.

• Electricity is used not only for lighting and household

purposes, but it also allows for mechanization of many
farming operations, such as threshing, milking, and
hoisting grain for storage.

• In areas facing labor shortages, this allows for greater

productivity at reduced cost.
 India Has a Lot of Sunlight
• Sunlight on the surface of earth is the radiation
received from sun.
• India has adequate sunshine available for most parts
of the year, including rural areas.
• The amount of solar energy impacting the surface of
earth is 1000 watts per square meter, which is about
32.8 million MW every second on the Indian land
mass.
• A large part of the incident heat is reflected to the
outer space or radiated back to space.
 Solar: Easy Energy In Rural India

• Solar energy is practically

inexhaustible
• Widely distributed
• Environment friendly
• Cost free in raw form
• No need to transport raw
materials to villages
• No towers, heavy cabling,
etc.
 Governmental Rural Initiative:
Solar Cooking Project
• Current sources available for
cooking are firewood, crop
residues and animal dung in
rural areas
• Promoted by the Government
of India
– Parabolic Dish Solar
Cookers
– Solar Box Cooker
– Community Solar Cooker
– Solar Steam Cooking
System
 Private Initiative:
Solar Loans from Selco India

• Customers: poor daily-wage

laborers to institutions

• All buy solar panels at the

same rate: about $450 for a
40-watt system that can light
several 7-watt bulbs for four
hours between charges.

• Persuaded rural banks to lend

hundreds of dollars to rural
people
 Governmental Rural Initiative:
Solar Farms

• 100 MW sized Very

Large Scale Solar
Photovoltaic (VLSPV)
Stations
• Program to develop
efficiency of solar cells
from 15% to 50%
• Make farmers “farm the
sun”
 Private Initiative:
Tata Power makes life Solar

• Sunbank, a customized package for rural banks

• Coming soon : ATMs
• Suraksha, a solar-powered communication
system, helps police stations function
effectively
 Private Initiative:
Tata Power contd.

• Solar powered vaccine

refrigerator manufactured
indigenously by the
company and approved by
the World Health
Organization (WHO).
• Low cost solar lantern
 Private Initiative:
Tata Power contd.
• Currently powering houses, schools, police stations, etc.
 Disadvantages of Solar Energy for Rural India

• Low intensity or dispersion

• Its unpredictability, which varies with the whims of
weather (Monsoon Season)
• Cost of Solar Equipment for the poor – Financing
schemes
– Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency
(IREDA) - a Public Limited Company, providing
revolving fund to financing and leasing companies
offering affordable credit for the purchase of PV
systems
 Conclusion
700 Million Rural People
x
80% of total energy for these needs
___________________________________
Making India’s rural population and India
more energy independent
Thank you
ENIR11 - ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING

Wind Energy
Course content

• Power and energy from wind turbines

• India’s wind energy potential
• Types of wind turbines
• Offshore Wind energy
• Environmental benefits and impacts.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 2

 Power and Energy from Wind Turbines

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 3

History of Wind-Mills:
• The wind is a by-product of solar energy. Approximately 2% of the
sun's energy reaching the earth is converted into wind energy.
• The surface of the earth heats and cools unevenly, creating
atmospheric pressure zones that make air flow from high-to low-
pressure areas.
• The wind has played an important role in the history of human
civilization .
• Harvesting wind power isn’t exactly a new idea – sailing ships,
wind-mills, wind-pumps, grinding.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 4

History – Early Systems
• 1st Wind Energy Systems
• Ancient Civilization in the Near East / Persia
• Vertical-Axis Wind-Mill: sails connected to a vertical
shaft connected to a grinding stone for milling
• Wind in the Middle Ages
• Post Mill Introduced in Northern Europe
• Horizontal-Axis Wind-Mill: sails connected to a
horizontal shaft on a tower encasing gears and axles for
translating horizontal into rotational motion
• Wind in 19th century US
• Wind-rose horizontal-axis water-pumping wind-mills
found throughout rural America

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 5

Brief History - Rise of Wind Powered Electricity
• 1888: Charles Brush builds first large-size wind
electricity generation turbine (17 m diameter wind
rose configuration, 12 kW generator)
• 1890s : Lewis Electric Company of New York sells
generators to retro-fit onto existing wind mills
• 1920s-1950s: Propeller-type 2 & 3-blade
horizontal-axis wind electricity conversion systems
(WECS)
• 1940s – 1960s: Rural Electrification in US and
Europe leads to decline in WECS use

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 6

Evolution of Wind Turbine

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 7

Introduction
• The conversion of wind energy to electrical energy is one of the most
successful renewable energy technology
• The kinetic energy of a moving body is proportional to its mass (or weight).
• The kinetic energy in the wind thus depends on the density of the air, i.e. its
mass per unit of volume.
• In other words, the "heavier" the air, the more energy is received by the
turbine.
• All over the world the annual wind market is growing with over 30% rate.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 8

Introduction Cont.,
• Wind power is one of the fastest-growing renewable energy technologies.
• Global installed wind-generation capacity onshore and offshore has increased
by a factor of almost 75 in the past two decades, jumping from 7.5 gigawatts
(GW) in 1997 to some 564 GW by 2018, according to IRENA's latest data.
• Production of wind electricity doubled between 2009 and 2013, and in 2016
wind energy accounted for 16% of the electricity generated by renewables.
• Many parts of the world have strong wind speeds, but the best locations for
generating wind power are sometimes remote ones.
• Offshore wind power offers tremendous potential.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 9

Installed capacity worldwide

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 10

Installed capacity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power_by_country#cite_note-WWEA-15
04-01-2022 Wind Energy 11
Wind Physics Basics: What is Wind and How Wind is Generated
• Wind is atmospheric air in motion.
• Wind is an indirect action of solar radiation falling on earth, as they are generated
primarily by temperature differences within the air layer due to differential solar heating.
• Thus, wind energy can be considered to be a form of solar energy, a renewable energy
resource.
• The wind is caused by differences in pressure.
• Generally, the two major driving forces that drive large-scale winds are the different
heating between the equator and the poles and the effect of the Earth's rotation.
• Closer to the Earth's surface, friction causes the wind to be slower.
• Theoretically, at the Earth's surface, the wind blows from high-pressure areas to low
pressure areas. However, at the intermediate and higher latitudes, its direction is
modified by the earth's rotation.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 12

Wind Physics Basics
• In the northern hemisphere, the wind rotates counter-clockwise around
cyclonic areas and clockwise around anticyclonic areas. In the southern
hemisphere, these wind directions are reversed.
• The velocity of the air motion defines the strength of wind and is directly
related to the amount of energy in the wind, i.e., its kinetic energy.

04-01-2022 Wind speeds at three heights 13

Nature of winds
• The behavior and structure of the wind varies from site to site depending on
the general climate of the region, the physical geometry of the locality, the
surface condition of the terrain around the site and various other factors.
• Rapid fluctuations in the wind velocity over a wide range of frequencies and
amplitudes, due to turbulence caused by mechanical mixing of lower layers
of atmosphere by surface roughness are commonly known as gusts.
• The Beaufort scale, a wind speed classification, gives a description of the
effect of the wind.
• It was initially designed for sailors and described the sea state, but has been
modified to include wind effects on land. It is a useful guide to wind speed

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 14

Description of wind based on Beaufort scale
Beaufort Wind speed Observable effects Wind
number m/s km/h Description

0 0.0–0.4 0.0–1.6 Smoke rises vertically Clam

1 0.4-1.8 1.6-6 Smoke drifts but vanes unaffected Light
2 1.8-3.6 6-13 Leaves move slightly but vanes unaffected Light
3 3.6-5.8 13-21 Leaves in motion, flags begin to extend Light
4 5.8-8.5 21-31 Small branches move, dust raised, pages of book loosen Moderate
5 8.5-11 31-40 Small trees sway, wind noticeable Fresh
6 11-14 40-51 Large branches sway, telephone lines whistle Strong
7 14-17 51-63 Whole tree in motion Strong
8 17-21 63-76 Twigs break off, walking difficult Gale
9 21-25 76-88 Slight structural (e.g. chimneys) damage Gale
10 25-29 88-103 Trees uprooted, much structural damage Strong gale
11 29-34 103-121 Widespread damage Strong gale
12 >34 >121 Disastrous conditions, countryside devastated, only occurs in tropical Hurricane
cyclones

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 15

 The Wind Rose Diagram
• The strong winds usually come from a particular direction.
• To show the information about the distributions of wind speeds, and the
frequency of the varying wind directions, one may draw a so-called wind rose
as shown in Fig. on the basis of meteorological observations of wind speeds
and wind directions.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy

https://www.indianclimate.com/show-data.php?request=KQHFIXJ3EY 16
Wind Flow

Warm air Warm air

Equator

Cold air
North pole South pole

04-01-2022 Motion of air due to uneven heating of earth by sunrays 17

Wind Flow

• The sun’s energy falling on the earth surface creates large-scale motion of the air
due to uneven heating of the earth surface.
• The rising air at the equator moves southwards and northwards
• These motions of air stop when air cools down at about 30° north and 30° south
latitude
• At these latitudes, air begins to sink down and flows towards the equator through
lowest layer of the atmosphere, in this way the air completes one cycle
• The motion of earth around its axis has an effect on the direction of the wind flow
• The factors affecting wind speed and directions are
1. heating and cooling rate difference of earth surface and sea water,
2. Presence of local obstacles like trees, buildings, mountains, valleys, etc.
04-01-2022 Wind Energy 18
04-01-2022 Wind Energy 19
Wind Speed vs Height
• Wind speed changes with height
• Under normal conditions a wind speed is greater larger heights (surface features,
turbulence, the degree of cloud, roughness of the terrain and angle of the sun in the sky)
• Vertical variable of wind speed is given by a power law
𝛼
𝑉 ℎ
=
𝑉𝑜 ℎ𝑜
➢ V is the wind speed at the required height h
➢ Vo is the wind speed at the original height ho
➢ 𝛼 is the surface roughness coefficient (0.143 for flat coastal region, less than 0.1 for tops of steep hills
and 0.25 for sheltered locations)
• Almost all renewable energy(except geothermal power) ultimately comes from the sun

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 20

Wind energy
• Wind is used to produce electricity using the kinetic energy created by air in motion.
• This is transformed into electrical energy using wind turbines or wind energy conversion
systems.
• Wind first hits a turbine’s blades, causing them to rotate and turn the turbine connected to
them.
• That changes the kinetic energy to rotational energy, by moving a shaft which is connected to
a generator, and thereby producing electrical energy through electromagnetism.
• The amount of power that can be harvested from wind depends on the size of the turbine and
the length of its blades.
• The output is proportional to the dimensions of the rotor and to the cube of the wind speed.
• Theoretically, when wind speed doubles, wind power potential increases by a factor of eight.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 21

Fundamental Equation of Wind Power
• The fundamental equation of wind power answers the most basic
quantitative question - how much energy is in the wind
• Wind Power depends on:
1.Amount of air (the volume of air in consideration),
2.Speed of air (the magnitude of its velocity),
3.Mass of air (related to its volume via density).
• Wind power quantifies the amount of wind energy flowing through
an area of interest per unit time.
• The most convenient quantity for the evaluation of the wind
potential of a site is the power of the wind

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 22

How much Power does a Wind Turbine Generate?
Kinetic Energy = ½ 𝑚𝑉2

Where:
M= mass of moving object
V = velocity of moving object
A

What is the mass of moving air? V

d

= density (ρ) x volume (Area x distance)

=ρxAxd
= (kg/m3) (m2) (m)
= kg

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 23

Wind Power cont.,
Power = Work / t
= Kinetic Energy / t
= ½mV2 / t
= ½(ρAd)V2/t
= ½ρAV2(d/t) d/t = V
= ½ρAV3
Power in the Wind =½ρAV3 watt P - power ; 𝜌 -density of air ;
V – wind velocity ; A – Swept area
Power ~ cube of velocity
Power ~ air density
Power ~ rotor swept area A= πr2
04-01-2022 Wind Energy 24
Wind Power cont.,
• Wind power density (WPD) which is equal to the wind power divided by the area,
is given by
𝑃𝑤 1
WPD = = 𝜌𝑉 3
𝐴 2
Tip Speed Ratio
• The tip-speed is the ratio of the rotational speed of the blade to the wind speed.
• The larger this ratio, the faster the rotation of the wind turbine rotor at a given
wind speed.
Tip speed ratio, λ = ω x R / V
ω → angular speed R → radius of rotor
• The efficiency of wind turbines increases with the increase in wind speed but
decreases again at high speeds

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 25

Efficiency in Extracting Wind Power
• Power Coefficient:
• Power Coefficient, Cp, is the ratio of power extracted by the turbine to
𝑃𝑇
the total contained in the wind resource Cp =
𝑃𝑊
Turbine power output
1
• PT = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉 3 𝐶𝑃
2
• The Betz Limit is the maximal possible Cp = 16/27
• 59% efficiency is the BEST a conventional wind turbine can do in
extracting power from the wind

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 26

Betz Limit:
• It is the flow of air over the blades and through the rotor area that makes a wind turbine function.
• The wind turbine extracts energy by slowing the wind down.
• The theoretical maximum amount of energy in the wind that can be collected by a wind turbine's
rotor is approximately 59%.
• This value is known as the Betz limit. If the blades were 100% efficient, a wind turbine would not
work because the air, having given up all its energy, would entirely stop.
• In practice, the collection efficiency of a rotor is not as high as 59%. A more typical efficiency is
35% to 45%.
• A complete wind energy system, including rotor, transmission, generator, storage and other
devices, which all have less than perfect efficiencies, will deliver between 10% and 30% of the
original energy available in the wind.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 27

Power characteristics of wind turbines
• The cut-in speed (typically between 6 and 9
mph) is when the blades start rotating and
generating power.
• As wind speeds increase, more electricity is
generated until it reaches a limit, known as the
rated speed.
• This is the point that the turbine produces its
maximum, or rated power.
• As the wind speed continues to increase, the
power generated by the turbine remains
constant until it eventually hits a cut-out speed
(varies by turbine) and shuts down to prevent
Power and efficiency characteristics of a wind turbine unnecessary strain on the rotor.
04-01-2022 Wind Energy 28
Power Curve of Wind Turbine

• Capacity Factor (CF):

• The capacity factor (CF) of a wind turbine is the actual energy output of a wind
turbine during a given time period, usually one year, compared to its theoretical
maximum energy output.

• The fraction of the year the turbine generator is operating at rated (peak) power

CF = kWh produced / (8760*Nameplate rating of the wind turbine, kW)

• CF is based on both the characteristics of the turbine and the site characteristics
(typically 0.3 or above for a good site)

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 29

Problem
• In an area where a large wind turbine is installed, the speed of the wind is 9.6 m/s, (air density
1.234 kg/m3 ). The wind turbine rotor diameter is 118 m. Estimate the power density of the wind,
the maximum power of the wind turbine and the maximum power output of a real wind turbine
which has a power coefficient equal to 0.45.
• Solution
1 3
𝑊𝑃𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉
2
1
= ∗ 1.234 ∗ 9.6 3 = 546
2
The maximum wind turbine power is estimated at the Betz limit,
1 3
1 𝜋
𝑃𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑧 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 𝐶𝑃 𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑧 = ∗ 1.234 ∗ ∗ 1182 ∗ 9.63 ∗ 0.593
2 2 4
= 3.54𝑀𝑊
The maximum power of a real wind turbine can be estimated
1 1 𝜋
𝑃𝑇 = ∗ 𝜌𝐴𝑉 𝐶𝑝 = ∗ 1.234 ∗ ∗ 118 2 ∗ 9.63 ∗ 0.45
3
2 2 4
= 2.69 𝑀𝑊
04-01-2022 Wind Energy 30
Problem
• A 2.5 MW wind turbine produced 50,00,000 kWh of electrical energy in a
year. Calculate its capacity factor.
• Solution
CF = kWh produced / (8760*Nameplate rating of the wind turbine, kW)

CF = (50,00,000) / (2500*8760)

CF = 22.83%

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 31

Problem
How much energy will be generated in a year by a 100 kW rated power in
machine, capacity factor is 0.3.
Number of hours in a year – 8760 hours
Rated power of the wind machine = 100 X 8760
= 876000 kWh
The capacity factor = 30%
Annual energy production = 876000 X 0.3
= 262800 kWh
Estimation of the annual energy output of way wind machine using capacity
factor is an approximate finding and annual output

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 32

India’s wind energy potential
• The PM said the first agenda was to raise the
non-fossil fuel based energy capacity of the
country to 500 GW by 2030.
• Also by 2030, 50% of the country energy
requirements would be met using renewable
energy sources.
• The country will reduce the total projected
carbon emission by one billion tonnes between
now and the year 2030.
• The carbon intensity of the economy would be
reduced to less than 45% by 2030, Modi as the
fourth point.
• As the final agenda, he said the country would
become carbon neutral and achieve net zero
emission by the year 2070.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 33

 India’s wind energy potential

• India has several on shore and off shore wind energy sites.
• India has a lot of scope in terms of harnessing wind power using these sites
• Installed wind power capacity and generation in India as shown in table

Installed wind power capacity and generation in India

Financial year 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 18-19 19-20 20-21
Installed
23,447 26,777 32,280 34,046 35,626 37,669 38,785
capacity (MW)
Generation
28,214 28,604 46,011 52,666 62,036 64,485 59,824
(GWh)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power_in_India

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 34

Electricity generation
• Wind power accounts for nearly 10% of India's total installed power
generation capacity and generated 62.03 TWh in the fiscal year 2018–19,
which is nearly 4% of total electricity generation

04-01-2022 35
State-wise wind power installations

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 36

Wind power by state
Installed wind capacity by state as of 31 October 2019
State Total Capacity (MW)
Tamil Nadu 9231.77
Gujarat 7203.77
Maharashtra 4794.13
Karnataka 4753.40
Rajasthan 4299.73
Andhra Pradesh 4077.37
Madhya Pradesh 2519.89
Telangana 128.10
Kerala 62.50
Others 4.30
Total 37090.03

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 37

Wind Turbines
• The wind turbine technology is a very complex technology involving multidisciplinary
and broad technical disciplines such as aerodynamics, mechanics, structure dynamics,
meteorology as well as electrical engineering addressing the generation, transmission, and
integration of wind turbines into the power system.
• Wind turbine technology has matured over the years and become the most promising and
reliable renewable energy technology today. It has moved very fast, since the early 1980s,
from wind turbines of a few kilowatts to today’s multimegawatt-sized wind turbines.
• The theoretical maximum aerodynamic conversion efficiency of wind turbines, from
wind to mechanical power is 59%.
• However, the fundamental properties of even the most efficient of modern aerofoil
sections, used for blades of large and medium size wind turbines, limit the peak
achievable efficiency to around 48%.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 38

Types of wind turbine
• The two main concepts of wind turbines are the horizontal axis wind
turbines (HAWTs) and the vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs).
• All particular models of wind turbines generally belong to one of these
categories. The world market is dominated however by the HAWT.
• Various designs have been proposed in the past in an attempt to reduce
cost and increase efficiency.
HAWT: Horizontal Axis
• Today the basic system of HAWT starts with a large rotor comprising
two, three or four blades mounted on a horizontal shaft at the top of a
tower.
• The most feasible design offering the lowest cost is the two-bladed
machine, the drawback however of both one- and two bladed machines
is the high level of noise generated.
• Four-blade machines offer a good rotor balance but are heavier and less
cost-effective

04-01-2022 Wind Energy VAWT: Vertical Axis 39

Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines

Small (<10 kW) Intermediate(10-250 kW)

• Homes • Village Power
• Farms • Hybrid Systems
• Remote Applications (e.g., • Distributed Power
water pumping, Telecom
sites, ice making)

Large (250 kW-2+ MW)

• Central Station Wind Farms
• Distributed Power

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 40

Types of Wind turbine

Main types of wind turbines. (a) Horizontal axis wind turbines. (b) Vertical axis wind turbines

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 41

Types of wind turbine
• Nowadays most of the turbines are manufactured with three blades which is a compromise between the
various types as they offer smoother rotational operation, lower noise and not a very high cost.
• The last type of HAWT shown is the farm or California-type wind turbine, used with success some years ago
for water pumping.
• The alternative is the VAWTs. In this case the weight is supported by a ground level bearing an both the
gearbox and the generator can be at ground level, which makes maintenance easier compared to HAWT.
• Another advantage of VAWT is that it operates with wind blowing from any direction and unlike with
HAWTs, no pointing mechanism is required to align with wind direction.
• Several designs of VAWT have been proposed, the most notable are the Darrieus, the Savonius and the H-
rotor machines
• Vertical-axis machines are good for pumping water and other high torque low-speed application and are not
usually connected to the electric power grid.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 42

Classifications of wind turbines
The other classifications of wind turbines are possible and these can be
according to:
(1) Direction of rotation - clockwise rotation (seen from the wind direction)
dominates the market.
(2) Rotor control by stall-controlled (or fixed blades) or variable pitch blades.
(3) Electrical generators which may be of the induction type or of the DC
generators with converter type.
(4) Transmission system which may include a gearbox in connection with
induction generators, direct-drive operation with no gearbox in connection
with multi-pole induction or synchronous generators or variable-speed
generators.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 43

Wind Turbine Components
• A wind turbine consists of a tower and a nacelle that is mounted on the top
of a tower.
• The nacelle contains several components, which contribute with their specific
function in the energy conversion process from wind energy into electrical
energy.
• The main components of a wind turbine includes
• the turbine rotor,
• transmission system (gearbox),
• generator,
• power electronics,
• control system,
• transformer, and finally its connection to the grid.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 44

Schematic diagram

Schematic diagram of equipment contained in a nacelle

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 45

Main Components of a wind-mill
Rotor
• The portion of the wind turbine that collects energy from the wind is called the
rotor.
• The rotor usually consists of two or more wooden, fiberglass or metal blades which
rotate about an axis (horizontal or vertical)at a rate determined by the wind speed
and the shape of the blades.
• The blades are attached to the hub, which in turn is attached to the main shaft.
Drag Design
• Blade designs operate on either the principle of drag or lift.
• For the drag design, the wind literally pushes the blades out of the way.
• Drag powered wind turbines are characterized by slower rotational speeds and high
torque capabilities.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 46

Main Components of a wind-mill cont.,
Lift Design:
• The lift blade design employs the same principle that enables airplanes, kites
and birds to fly.
• The blade is essentially an airfoil, or wing.
• When air flows past the blade, a wind speed and pressure differential is
created between the upper and lower blade surfaces.
• The pressure at the lower surface is greater and thus acts to "lift" the blade.
• When blades are attached to a central axis, like a wind turbine rotor, the lift
is translated into rotational motion.
• Lift-powered wind turbines have much higher rotational speeds than drag
types and therefore well suited for electricity generation.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 47

Lift and Drag Forces
• Mainly the rotor of the wind
turbines can be divided in two
categories
• Rotor based on aerodynamic lift
• Rotor based on aerodynamic drag
• Lift is a force that is generated
due to motion of a solid object in
the fluid Wind machines based on drag force :
• the wind machine that use drag force provide high torque
but at low rpm
• Drag is the force that resists the • These machines suitable for water pumping and grinding
movement of a solid object Wind machines based on lift force :
• The characteristic of lift force based machine is low to
through a fluid medium torque but high rpm

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 48

Generator:
• The generator is what converts the turning motion of a wind turbine's blades
into electricity.
• Inside this component, coils of wire are rotated in a magnetic field to
produce electricity.
• Different generator designs produce either alternating current (AC) or direct
current (DC), and they are available in a large range of output power ratings.
• The generator's rating, or size, is dependent on the length of the wind
turbine's blades because more energy is captured by longer blades.
• It is important to select the right type of generator to match intended use.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 49

Transmission:
• The number of revolutions per minute (rpm) of a wind turbine rotor can range between 40 rpm
and 400 rpm, depending on the model and the wind speed.
• Generators typically require rpm's of 1,200 to 1,800.
• As a result, most wind turbines require a gear-box transmission to increase the rotation of the
generator to the speeds necessary for efficient electricity production.
• Some DC-type wind turbines do not use transmissions.
• Instead, they have a direct link between the rotor and generator.
• These are known as direct drive systems.
• Without a transmission, wind turbine complexity and maintenance requirements are reduced.
• But a much larger generator is required to deliver the same power output as the AC-type wind
turbines

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 50

Tower:
• The tower on which a wind turbine is mounted is not just a support structure.
• It also raises the wind turbine so that its blades safely clear the ground and so it
can reach the stronger winds at higher elevations.
• Maximum tower height is optional in most cases, except where zoning restrictions
apply.
• The decision of what height tower to use will be based on the cost of taller towers
versus the value of the increase in energy production resulting from their use.
• Studies have shown that the added cost of increasing tower height is often justified
by the added power generated from the stronger winds.
• Larger wind turbines are usually mounted on towers ranging from 40 to 70 meters
tall

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 51

Energy conversion stage in a wind turbine system (WTS).

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 52

Offshore Wind energy
• Offshore wind power or offshore wind energy is the use of wind farms constructed in
bodies of water, usually in the ocean, to harvest wind energy to generate electricity.
• Higher wind speeds are available offshore compared to on land, so offshore wind power’s
electricity generation is higher per amount of capacity installed.
• Offshore wind resources are abundant, stronger, and blow more consistently than land-
based wind resources.
• The key barriers to offshore wind development, includes the relatively high cost of energy,
the mitigation of environmental impacts, the technical challenges of project installation,
and grid interconnection.
• With greater potential for corrosion from exposure to seawater, offshore wind systems
must be designed more robustly (i.e., requiring less maintenance) than land-based wind
systems due to the high costs of transporting maintenance crews and replacement
components to and from offshore wind plant sites.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 53

Types of offshore wind turbines
• Fixed foundation offshore wind turbines
• Floating offshore wind turbines
• Vertical axis offshore wind turbines
Fixed foundation offshore wind turbines
• Fixed foundation offshore wind turbines have fixed foundations underwater, and
are installed in relatively shallow waters of up to 50–60 m.
• Types of underwater structures include monopile, tripod, and jacketed, with
various foundations at the sea floor including monopile or multjacketediple piles,
gravity base, and caissons.
• Offshore turbines require different types of bases for stability, according to the
depth of water.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 54

Fixed foundation offshore wind turbines
• To date a number of different solutions exist:
• A monopile (single column) base, six meters in
diameter, is used in waters up to 30 meters deep.
• Gravity base structures, for use at exposed sites
in water 20–80 m deep.
• Tripod piled structures, in water 20–80 m deep.
• Tripod suction caisson structures, in water 20–80
m deep.
• Conventional steel jacket structures, as used in
the oil and gas industry, in water 20–80 m deep.

Monopile foundation

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 55

Floating offshore wind turbines
• For locations with depths over about 60–
80m, fixed foundations are uneconomical or
technically unfeasible, and floating wind
turbine anchored to the ocean floor are
needed.
• Hywind is the world's first full-scale floating
wind turbine, installed in the North Sea off
Norway in 2009.
• Hywind Scotland, commissioned in October Wind turbine foundations
2017, is the first operational floating wind
farm, with a capacity of 30 MW.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 56

Vertical axis offshore wind turbines
• Although the great majority of onshore and all large-scale offshore wind
turbines currently installed are horizontal axis, vertical axis wind turbines
have been proposed for use in offshore installations.
• Thanks to the installation offshore and their lower centre of gravity, these
turbines can in principle be built bigger than horizontal axis turbines, with
proposed designs of up to 20 MW capacity per turbine.
• This could improve the economy of scale of offshore wind farms. However,
there are no current large-scale demonstrations of this technology.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 57

offshore wind turbines

(A) Wind farm with offshore substation , and (B) turbine

tube for cables and electrical collection system. Tripods foundation for offshore wind farm

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 58

offshore wind turbines

(A) Bucket/section caisson; (B) gravity based; (C) monopile; (D) tripod on bucket/suction caisson; (E)
jacket/lattice structure; (F) tension leg platform ; and (G) spar buoy floating concept

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 59

Economics of offshore wind turbines
• The advantage of locating wind turbines offshore is that the wind is much stronger
off the coasts, and unlike wind over the continent, offshore breezes can be strong in
the afternoon, matching the time when people are using the most electricity.
• Offshore turbines can also be located close to the load centers along the coasts,
such as large cities, eliminating the need for new long-distance transmission lines
• However, there are several disadvantages of offshore installations, related to more
expensive installation, difficulty of access, and harsher conditions for the units
• Locating wind turbines offshore exposes the units to high humidity, salt water and
salt water spray which negatively affect service life, cause corrosion and oxidation,
increase maintenance and repair costs and in general make every aspect of
installation and operation much more difficult, time-consuming, more dangerous
and far more expensive than sites on land
04-01-2022 Wind Energy 60
Environmental benefits and impacts.
• Benefits of wind turbines
• Provision for a clean source of energy.
• Sustainability.
• Compatibility with other land uses.
• National security.
• Conservation of water
• Reduction of destructive mining.
• Short commissioning time.
• Cost effectiveness
• Creation of jobs and local resources.
• Diversification of power supply.
• Stability of cost of electricity.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 61

Environmental benefits and impacts.
Provision for a clean source of energy :
• The almost pollution free nature of wind energy is one of the compelling reasons
for its development.
• The relatively small amount of GHG emissions associated with wind turbines is
produced in the manufacture and transport of the turbines and blades.
• It is estimated that a 1 MW wind turbine offsets 2360 tonnes of CO2.
Sustainability :
• Whenever the Sun shines and the wind blows, energy can be harnessed and sent to
the grid.
• With the advent of climate change and global warming (the air molecules are
moving faster), there is more energy in the atmosphere and we can expect stronger
winds in the future.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 62

Environmental benefits and impacts.
Compatibility with other land uses :
• Wind turbines can be erected on pastureland with little disturbance to the
animals and the general farming activities.
• Other areas such as near landfills sites, the sides of motorways and major
roads, where urban development is unlikely to take place, are ideal locations
to consider for wind farms.
National security :
• The wind is a free source of energy.
• Being independent of foreign sources of fuel (e.g., fossil fuel and indeed of
electricity) is a great advantage

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 63

Environmental benefits and impacts.
Conservation of water :
• Traditional power stations using coal, oil, gas, or nuclear fuel all use large
volumes of water.
• The nuclear power plant uses 2660-4180 L (MW h)-1; coal power plant uses
1750-2280 L (MWh) -1, solar uses 855-1976 L (MW h) -1, biomass uses 152,
000- 380, 000 L (MW h)-1and wind uses 170-320 L (MW h)-1
Reduction of destructive mining :
The pumping of oil and gas (especially from ocean beds) and the mining of
coal or uranium all have serious environmental impacts on the sea or land.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 64

Environmental impacts of wind turbines:
Short commissioning time :
• Wind farms can be commissioned over a relatively short time, and 2 or 3
years from conception to electricity production is not impossible.
• This can be compared to the many decades it takes to design, build, and
commission a nuclear power station
Cost effectiveness :
• Over the past decade, the cost of turbines has decreased significantly as a
result of improved designs and mass production, so that today the cost of
producing electricity from wind farms now very competitive with fossil fuel-
derived electricity.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 65

Environmental impacts of wind turbines:
Creation of jobs and local resources :
• The wind turbine industry is a rapidly growing industry and employs thousands of workers in the
manufacture processes, transport of turbines, erection of turbines, and in servicing working turbines.
• Source of income for farmers, ranchers and foresters and grid operators:
• Land for onshore wind farms is leased to electricity supply companies, making a tidy profit for the
landowners who can carry on the normal activity on the land with little interference from the turbines.

Diversification of power supply :

• With our total reliance on electricity it is well worth diversifying our energy sources so that we are not
reliant on one type of energy, be it fossil fuel (which is at the mercy of foreign governments which can raise
prices suddenly as was done in the 1970s), nuclear (again we are at the mercy of countries supplying
uranium), or solar (the Sun does not always shine).

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 66

Environmental impacts of wind turbines:
Stability of cost of electricity :
• Once the wind farm is in place the cost of the electricity to customers should
be stable. It is not a function of the price of imported fuels

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 67

Environmental impacts of wind turbines:
The primary environmental issues related to wind turbines include
• Avian safety,
• Biosystem disturbance,
• Noise,
• Visual pollution,
• Electromagnetic interference,
• And local climate changes.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 68

Environmental impacts of wind turbines: Contd.
• The risk of seabirds being struck by wind turbine blades or being displaced from
critical habitats.
• The underwater noise associated with the installation process of driving monopile
turbines into the seabed.
• The physical presence of offshore wind farms altering the behavior of marine
mammals, fish, and seabirds with attraction or avoidance.
• The potential disruption of the nearfield and far field marine environment from
large offshore wind projects.
• Pollution concerns associated with the extraction of this rare-earth elements.
• Wind turbine blades made of fiberglass has no market for recycling, hence has to be
landfilled.
• Bats may be injured by direct impact with turbine blades, towers, or transmission
lines.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 69

Environmental impacts of wind turbines: Contd.
• Wind farms may affect weather in their immediate vicinity. This turbulence
from spinning wind turbine rotors increases vertical mixing of heat and
water vapor that affects the meteorological conditions downwind, including
rainfall.
• Some turbine nacelle fires cannot be extinguished because of their height,
and are sometimes left to burn themselves out. In such cases they generate
toxic fumes and can cause secondary fires below.
• During winter, ice may form on turbine blades and subsequently be thrown
off during operation.

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 70

 Thank you

04-01-2022 Wind Energy 71