At Right Angles Vol 2 No 1 March 2013

A publication of Azim Premji University
together with Community Mathematics Centre,
Volume 2, No. 1
March 2013
Rishi Valley and Sahyadri School, Pune
Features
Slicing a cube
Sum of Cubes and Square of a Sum
One equation . . . many connects
Harmonic Triples
Tech Space
Exploring geometry problems
using Geogebra
In the Classroom
Connecting trigonometry, coordinate
geometry, vectors and complex numbers
One Problem, Six Solutions
Strategies
George Pólya - In his own words
Reviews
When you don't know the E
solution to a problem A C
P LA L U E
LLO
UT V
P U
Notes on the Cover Image
The Butterfly Theorem

The figure illustrates a beautiful result called the Butterfly Theorem: In a circle with centre O,
let PQ be any chord, and let M be its midpoint. Let AB and CD be chords of the circle passing
through M. Let chords BC and AD meet line PQ at points E and F, respectively. Then M is the
midpoint of EF as well.
The figure reminds us of a butterfly, and that explains the name of the theorem. It is a
challenge to prove the theorem! Numerous mathematicians have succumbed to its lure, and
many beautiful proofs as well as extensions of the theorem have been found over the
decades. The theorem dates to 1815 when it was published by a mathematician named
William Horner, known for a method for solving equations ('Horner's method').
If the sentence “Let chords BC and AD meet line PQ at points E and F, respectively” is replaced
by “Let chords BD and AC meet line PQ at points E and F, respectively” (so the points E and F
now lie outside the circle), the result remains true! That is, the midpoint of the new segment
EF is still M.
From The
Chief Editor’s Desk . . .
I n the December 2012 issue of At Right Angles we talked of the ‘secret

garden’ which mathematics possesses. In this issue we feature more
offerings from this garden. Shiv Gaur kicks off, showing how to make an
Origamic skeletal dodecahedron using paper, with no use being made of
scissors or adhesives. Giri Kodur follows by describing how a well known and
familiar identity involving the cubes, often used to illustrate proof by
induction, generalises in a non-obvious way. B Sury describes a crucial result
in the art and science of counting – the principle of inclusion and exclusion,
nicknamed ‘PIE’ – and showcases some of its many implications. Following
this we have an article on a lesser known cousin of the Pythagorean triples -
‘Harmonic Triples’, which too have a geometric origin.
This issue has many pieces featuring the theme of meaningful education. In
‘Classroom’, J Shashidhar explores the possibilities offered by a small school,
in an environment where learning is not driven or motivated by fear,
competition, reward and punishment. Following this we have a sample of the
writings of George Pólya, in which he expounds in his simple and
straightforward way on his ‘Ten Commandments to Math Teachers’. The
‘Review’ section has a review, by K Subramaniam, of one of Pólya’s most
famous books, and a review of a successful website. Elsewhere in ‘Classroom’
we learn about a new way to convert from the Celsius scale to the Fahrenheit
scale, and about a problem in geometry that can be solved in a half-dozen
different ways. Ajit Athle continues on his ‘Problem Solving in Geometry’
series. In the ‘Pullout’ for this issue, Padmapriya Shirali offers tips and
insights into the teaching of place value.
In ‘Tech Space’, Sneha Titus and Jonaki Ghosh describe the use of Geogebra
(software package for Dynamic Geometry) in tackling a problem in geometry.
This package which is barely ten years old has already made deep inroads
into the educational world; not only is it very well designed and user friendly,
it is also freely available and Open Source. It is clearly a package with a great
future, and this country must exploit its potential to the fullest extent. It
potentially has a great role to play in the mathematical education of teachers,
but for this to happen, careful deliberation is required by the concerned
Government departments and by the community of teacher educators.
We close the issue by describing the contents of a heart-warming letter

received from Prof Michael de Villiers of South Africa, which underscores
how mathematics is a subject without boundaries in either space or in time:
how it can happen that the same discovery can be made in unconnected
places at different points in time. It also brings to attention the great
importance of encouraging exploration at the school level. The common
feature between the occurrences is that both feature the use of Dynamic
Geometry software: Geometer’s Sketchpad in one case, and GeoGebra in the
other. That, surely, is telling us something.
- Shailesh Shirali
Chief Editor Associate Editor
Shailesh Shirali Sneha Titus
Community Mathematics Centre, Azim Premji University
Sahyadri School (KFI)
Editorial Committee
Athmaraman R D D Karopady Srirangavalli Kona
Association of Mathematics Azim Premji Foundation, Rishi Valley School
Teachers of India, Chennai Bangalore
K. Subramaniam
Giridhar S Padmapriya Shirali Homi Bhabha Centre for Science
Azim Premji University Sahyadri School (KFI) Education, Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research, Mumbai
Hriday Kant Dewan Prithwijit De
Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur. Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Tanuj Shah
Education, Tata Institute of Rishi Valley School
Jonaki B Ghosh Fundamental Research
Lady Shri Ram College for Women,
University of Delhi, Delhi. Shashidhar Jagadeeshan
Centre For Learning, Bangalore
Design & Print

SCPL
Bangalore - 560 062
+91 80 2686 0585 Please Note:
+91 98450 42233 All views and opinions expressed in this issue are those of the authors and
www.scpl.net Azim Premji Foundation bears no responsibility for the same.
At Right Angles is a publication of Azim Premji University together with Community Mathematics Centre, Rishi Valley School
and Sahyadri School (KFI). It aims to reach out to teachers, teacher educators, students & those who are passionate about
mathematics. It provides a platform for the expression of varied opinions & perspectives and encourages new and informed
positions, thought-provoking points of view and stories of innovation. The approach is a balance between being an ‘academic’
and 'practitioner’ oriented magazine.
At Right
Angles
A Resource for School Mathematics
A Publication of Azim Premji University
Contents
Features In the Classroom

This section has articles dealing with This section gives you a 'fly on the wall' classroom
mathematical content, in pure and applied experience. With articles that deal with issues of
mathematics. The scope is wide: a look at a topic pedagogy, teaching methodology and classroom
through history; the life-story of some teaching, it takes you to the hot seat of
mathematician; a fresh approach to some topic; mathematics education. 'In The Classroom' is
application of a topic in some area of science, meant for practising teachers and teacher
engineering or medicine; an unsuspected educators. Articles are sometimes anecdotal; or
connection between topics; a new way of solving a about how to teach a topic or concept in a
known problem; and so on. Paper folding is a different way. They often take a new look at
theme we will frequently feature, for its many assessment or at projects; discuss how to anchor a
mathematical, aesthetic and hands-on aspects. math club or math expo; offer insights into
Written by practising mathematicians, the remedial teaching etc.
common thread is the joy of sharing discoveries
and the investigative approaches leading to them.
Paper play Towards mathematical disposition

05 Making a Skeletal Dodecahedron
24 Notes from a Small School
Slicing a cube In his own words
11 Sum of Cubes and Square of a Sum 30 George Pólya
Set theory A plethora
16 As easy as PIE
35 One Problem, Six Solutions
One equation. . . many connects Triangles with Sides in a
20 Harmonic Triples 39
Progression
An application of graphs
41 Centigrade Fahrenheit Conversion
At Right
Angles
Publication of Azim Premji University
Contents contd.
Tech Space Reviews

‘Tech Space’ is generally the habitat of students,
and teachers tend to enter it with trepidation. This Polya to the rescue
section has articles dealing with math software 60 When You Don't Know the Solution
to a Problem
and its use in mathematics teaching: how such
software may be used for mathematical
exploration, visualization and analysis, and how it 64 Numberphile
may be incorporated into classroom transactions.
It features software for computer algebra,
dynamic geometry, spreadsheets, and so on. It Letter
will also include short reviews of new and
emerging software. 67 Cousin to Viviani's Theorem
In a dynamic geometry environment

44 Exploring Problems in Geometry
Poem
Problem Corner 68 The Mathematical ‘i ’
49 Fun Problems
53 Problems for the Middle School

Pullout
Place Value
56 Problems for the Senior School
3DSHUSOD\
0DNLQJD6NHOHWDO
IHDWXUH
'RGHFDKHGURQ
$VROLGJHRPHWU\H[SHULHQFH

!
69:;
<=>
$

!
"

#

$
!
%
&

'#

!
(

#

!
)*

#+
,

-)

+
.

!/
/00++$+00110
23-%456-)0 +7#/
8

/

$

+

6

+
8

/

$
!

&

$#+
. /
!
#
?
!3
3#

!"
3#

!3
"#

!3
@#

!@
3#

+
A

$+
,

/

+
A

+
B

!#

3*

+
4

+
,

CD4

E,

B

/
/00++0F?G$H3IBJ+

3*

&

!

#

,

&
/
Ͳͳ
K

Ͳʹ
L

A

6
*)
!

2

#/
Ͳ͵
,

ͲͶ
A

!

#+
J

*"

&

!

#+
"
#$

,
3

+
,

+
8

3

+
6

+
,

+
,

M

+
+
,

A

A

L

+
,

,

,

!A

#'

A

A

+
K

+
,

K

,

'

/00++0F?G$H3IBJ
!"" " " #$%&'( )" * + , ")-*
#," #./0%1$2+
, "- ,
%&3#!"% - --45(,6 "# 7.&- 1$"*, "
-+,.8,4&4 ,34*- 2 1+ $ 9: 4
"4;(*-2"2)9%"+ 3 4;2,!6 ).<
" 157="$(7"-*) %%> 42,+ >%!#74- 4
"4"- 4-$4,2"7- ?44

6OLFLQJDFXEH
6XPRI&XEHVDQG
IHDWXUH
6TXDUHRID6XP
8QGHUVWDQGLQJ\RXULGHQWLW\
"

!

'

&
(
)

*
+

,

-

.

.

+
:>:
RST=>
,

/

!-#
-3
N
)3
N
33
N
+++
N
3
?
!-
N
)
N
3
N
+++
N
#)
L
$

%
)

&
O

%
3

&
3%+
,

&
1

+
G
/

&

&

'
B
!-#

&

!

$

#+
,

+
B

!

(@

P-Q

P)Q#+
,

4

$

$
+

ͳǤ I

1
-
× -
× -
3
8

×
×
)
× )
× )
3
× 3
× 3
+
+
+

×
×

3

-
× -
× -+
8

&

L
)+
!8

&

!-

#

3M
+#
I

×
× -

)

+

+
8

+
8

L
)

!-#

&

+
L

&

0)
×
× -+
L
-

-
N
)
N
3
N
+++
N

?
-
)
3
"
@+
U

-3
N
)3
N
33
N
+++
N3
?
!-
N
)
N
3N+++
N
#)+

+ B

+
V

7

'
U

+
8

$
/

+
ʹǤ
L

!-#

/
/

-
)
3
+
+
+

.

.

+
,

/
Ǥ
0

1

.

.

2
B

6K66
!

&
&

#
+
.

W

+
B

L

G
4
!-(*OX
-(()#

4

4+
ͳǣ
6

3+
ʹǣ
4

3

-

0%&'!
8-2+2

3+
. "@ A7 #1
͵ǣ
L

+
Ͷǣ
,

6K66
'
,
W

!

'
8
$

#

$
0%&'! 2B- *C
+
!B

Y

("""7<D"-2 ""

"++ ,. "@ A7 #1

#

ͳǤ
4
I
?
-*+
B

-)@-*

,
&

!

#+
.

!-
N
)
N
)
N
3
N
"
N
3
N
%
N
%
N
O#)
?
3%)
?
-)O%+

F
.

$
I

&

3+

/
,

7

d 1 2 5 10

Divisors of d {1} {1, 2} {1, 5} {1, 2, 5, 10}

+
B

# divisors of d 1 2 2 4

1

3+
8

/
!#
3

7

8

/
-
)
)
"+
4

!#
3

6K66

/ +

,

-3
N
)3
N
)3
N
"3 A

?
-
N
(
N
(
N
%"
?
(-+

/

,
&

!-
N
)
N
)
N
"#)
?
Ǥ
L
$

O)
?
(-+

)

)+
B
3

ʹǤ4
3
?
-)+
B

-
)
3
"

.

%
-)
!$

#+
.

3

+

F
8

/
Ǥ
D

d 1 2 3 4

Divisors of d {1} {1, 2} {1, 3} {1, 2, 4} '

6

3
%

# divisors of d 1 2 2 3

+
6

d 6 12

Divisors of d {1, 2, 3, 6} {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}

N
-
/
# divisors of d 4 6
-

)
3
+
+
+

+
,

-
)
)
3
"
%+
A

.

F
-

6K66

/ 7
-

)

!-

#
)

3

!-

)#
3

"

!-

)

,

-3
N
)3
N
)3
N
33
N
"3
N
3#
+
+
+

N
-
+
6

%3
?
-
N
(
N
(
N
)Z
N
%"
N
)-%
?
3)"+

4
W

,
&

/
!-
N
)
N
)
N
3
N
"
N
%#)
?
-()
?
3)"+
-
)
3
+
+
+

N
-+
͵Ǥ4
3
?
3%+
B

-
)
3
"
%
M

6K66
F
,

O
-)
-(
3%
!
#+
K

!

#

-
)
)
3
"
3
%
-3
N
)3
N
33
N
+
+
+
N!
N
-#3
?
!-
N
)
N
3
N
+
+
+
N
!
N
-##)F
%
O+
E

6K66

/
E

'
[

!-#

,

-
N
)
N
)
N
3
N
"
N
3 3 3 3 3

?

N
-+
A

33
N
%3
N
%3
N
O3
?
-)O%+ +
6
4
W

3
?
+

8

͵Ǥ

W
/

+ ͳǣ
'

"

3

I

/

'

"3

.

+
"

3
!I+
,

+#

Ǥ4

L
$

"
?
"
3
?
-@

"3
?
%*+

+
6

,

%*

-*+
8

3

.
!

j
.#+
8

-*
?
)
×
@

)

"

@

+

I

-*

+
αǣ
B

3

/
-

.
.+
,

ʹǣ
'

"

3

&

/
-
)
)
"+
,

6K66

"

4

#

/

3

4

#

"3

5

&

-3
N
)3
N
)3
N
"3
?
(-
?
!-
N
)
N
)
N
"#)+

6
αʹǣ
B

I

$
/
-

.
!-
N
)
N
3
N
+++
#
×
!-
N
)
N
3
N
+++
#+
.
.)
.)+
,

/
-
)
)
"
3
%+
,

L
$

6K66
/ %*
?
"
×
-@

/
!-
N
)
N
"#
×
!-
N
3
N
@
N
-@#

-3
N
)3
N
)3
N
"3
N
33
N
%3
?
3)"
-
×
-
?
-
-
×
3
?
3
-
×
@
?
@
-
×
-@
?
-@
)
×
-
?
)
?
!-
N
)
N
)
N
"
N
3
N
%#)+
)
×
3
?
%
)
×
@
?
-*
)
×
-@
?
3*
"
×
-
?
"
α͵ǣ
B

3

/
-

"
×
3
?
-)
"
×
@
?
)*

"
×
-@
?
%*+
K

.
.
.)
.)
.3
.3+
,

%*

+
/
-
)
)
"
3
%
"
(+
,

6K66
͵ǣ
'

"

3

&
/

7
8

"

-3
N
)3
N
)3
N
"3
N
33
N
%3
N
"3
N
(3
?
O**
3

?
!-
N
)
N
)
N
"
N
3
N
%
N
"
N
(#)+ "3
αʹʹǣ
B

3

/ 8

-

)
.
.
).
.)
.)
).)+
,

+
8

/
-
)
3
)
"
%
3
%
O+
E

!

6K66
/

#+
.

-3
N
)3
N
33
N
)3
N
"3
N
%3
N
33
N
%3
N
O3
?
-)O%

×
.
!

.

#+
?
!-
N
)
N
3
N
)
N
"
N
%
N
3
N
%
N
O#)+ .

×
.
×

!

.

#+
8

4
W

A

+
+
!A

.+
B

E

/
M
4
W

+#

6K66

F
,

+
.

!++
3
?

×
.
×

×
+++

.

+
+
+

+
+
+

,

2+
D7
6
!D
#F
8

A
A1
7
C
V #

&

-

)+

+
E

P-Q
I
D
V+
9

:6
;!

/

4
2AA
-OO3+
P)Q
/00+ 0& 0(("%0
P3Q
k
V
6
*

<
=
/
!6
6#
&%% /:8' "-" + 4 #>% " ! ! $ " -" +
7 - "-<7 4*7 F4 2- ) 4+ 4- 44
$ 4) 4 "- 4 7 " + $ <
A, " 7-",- "* *,$4,2"
7)"- ?44

B

1

!lB

0

>

9

90
•
9
?
9
•
9>m#+
B

!

#

+
4
ΔAVK

+
M

+
I$
$
0

>

0

;

?

>
;

?

+
!8

n
+#
4
"

>

"
⊥
>+
8

+
D

?

0
?

0
?

E
A
?
?

;0
?
@
M
b

"
⊥
>
∴
"
?
>"

0"
?

0
B a C
"
?

@

0
a
>"
?

@

0

>0
?

@

0
F

?0
?

N

;0
%

X

A

>

;?

/
!
p
)0#
?
!
p
#!
N
#
∴
)
?
)
N
)
p)A

Δ0+
8

n
+

q

?
+

Set Theory Revisited
feature
As easy as PIE
The Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion – Part 1
Recall the old story of two frogs from Osaka and Kyoto which meet during
their travels. They want to share a pie. An opportunistic cat offers to help and
divides the pie into two pieces. On finding one piece to be larger, she breaks
off a bit from the larger one and gobbles it up. Now, she finds that the other
piece is slightly larger; so, she proceeds to break off a bit from that piece and
gobbles that up, only to find that the first piece is now bigger. And so on; you
can guess the rest. The frogs are left flat!
W B SURY
e are going to discuss a simple but basic
guiding principle which goes under the name principle
of inclusion and exclusion, or PIE for short. Was it
inspired by the above tale? Who knows . . . . The principle is very
useful indeed, because counting precisely, contrary to intuition,
can be very challenging!
An old formula recalled

Here is a formula which you surely would have seen many times:
If A and B are two finite, overlapping sets, then
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|. (1)
Here, of course, the vertical bars indicate cardinality: |A| is the
cardinality of (or number of elements in) A, and so on. The
formula is rather obvious but may be justified by appealing to
the Venn diagram (see Figure 1).
A∩B
A B
Figure 1

$W5LJKW$QJHV_9R1R
0DUFK

Once one has the basic idea, it is easy to generalize Note the minus-plus-minus pattern of signs: we
the formula to three overlapping finite sets A, B, alternately subtract to avoid over counting, then
C. In order to find the cardinality of A ∪ B ∪ C we add to compensate as we have taken away too
start naturally enough with an addition: much, then again subtract, and so on. The formula
|A| + |B| + |C|. But now several items have been follows from a reasoning known as the principle of
counted twice, and some have even been counted inclusion and exclusion, commonly abbreviated to
thrice (those that lie in all three sets). So we ‘ PIE’.
compensate by subtracting the quantities |A ∩ B|,
Here is how we justify the formula. We start,
|B ∩ C| and |C ∩ A|. But now we have bitten off
naturally, by subtracting N1 + N2 + · · · from N.
too much: the items originally in A ∩ B ∩ C have
Now study the expression N − (N1 + N2 + · · · ).
been left out entirely (see Figure 2). So we
The subtraction of N1 + N2 means that we have
compensate by putting these items back in, and
twice subtracted the number of students who like
now we have the correct formula:
the 1st and 2nd subjects. To compensate for this,
|A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A| + |B| + |C| − |A ∩ B| − we must add N1,2 . Similarly we must add N1,3 ,
N2,3 , and so on.
|B ∩ C| − |C ∩ A| + |A ∩ B ∩ C|.
(2) However, when we add N1,2 + N2,3 + N1,3 + · · · ,
we have included those who like the first three
C subjects (numbering N1,2,3 ) twice. So we must
subtract N1,2,3 . Similarly for other such terms.
Proceeding this way, we get the right number by
alternately adding and subtracting.
A B Divide and conquer counting

The PIE allows us to solve the following problem
in which N is any positive integer. Among the
Figure 2 numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . , N, how many are not divisible
by either 2 or by 3?
Generalizing the formula Here’s how we solve this problem. Among the
How shall we generalize these formulas? We do so given numbers the number of multiples of 2 is
by considering the following problem. Suppose [N/2]. Here the square brackets indicate the
there are N students in a class and a fixed, finite greatest integer function, also called the floor
number of subjects which they all study. Denote function. The meaning is this: if x is a real number,
by N1 the number of students who like subject #1, then [x] is the largest integer not greater than x.
by N2 the number of students who like subject #2, √ example: [5] = 5, [2.3] = 2, [10.7] = 10,
For
and so on. Likewise, denote by N1,2 the number of [ 10] = 3, [−2.3] = −3, and so on. (Note the way
students who simultaneously like the subjects 1 the definition applies to negative numbers.)
and 2, by N2,3 the number of students who Similarly, the number of multiples of 3 in the set
simultaneously like subjects 2 and 3, and so on. {1, 2, 3, . . . , N} is [N/3]. So we subtract both
Similarly, denote by N1,2,3 the number of students these quantities from N. But the numbers
who simultaneously like subjects 1, 2, 3; and so divisible by both 2 and 3 (i.e., the numbers
on. Now we ask: Can we express, in terms of these divisible by 6) have been subtracted twice, so we
symbols, the number of students who do not like add back the number of multiples of 6, which is
any of the subjects? (There may well be a few [N/6]. Hence the answer to the question is:
students in this category!) We shall show that this
number is given by N N N
N− − + .
2 3 6

N − (N1 + N2 + · · · ) + N1,2 + N2,3 + · · ·
We solve the following in the same way: Let N be
− N1,2,3 + · · · + · · · . (3) any positive integer. Among the numbers
9R1R
0DUFK
_$W5LJKW$QJHV

1, 2, 3, . . . , N, how many are not divisible by any By factoring out N we find that the resulting
of the numbers 2, 3, 5? expression can be factorized in a convenient
manner; we get the following:
By alternately ‘‘biting away’’ too much, then

compensating, we see that the answer is 1 1 1
N 1− 1− 1− ··· . (6)
p q r
N N N N
N− − − +
2 3 5 6 For example, take N = 30. Since 30 = 2 × 3 × 5,

N N N we see that the number of positive integers not
+ + − . exceeding 30 and relatively prime to 30 is
10 15 30

1 1 1
Here 30 is the LCM of 2, 3, 5 (if a number is 30 1 − 1− 1−
divisible by 2, 3 and 5 then it must be divisible by 2 3 5
30; and conversely). 1 2 4
= 30 · · · = 8.
2 3 5
The general formula. From this reasoning we
arrive at the following general formula. If N is a This is easily checked. (The positive integers less
positive integer, and n1 , n2 , . . . are finitely many than 30 and relatively prime to 30 are 1, 7, 11, 13,
positive integers, every two of which are relatively 17, 19, 23 and 29.)
prime, then the number of elements of Formula (6) defines the famous totient function
{1, 2, 3, . . . , N} which are not divisible by any of which we associate with the name of Euler. The
the numbers n1 , n2 , . . . is symbol reserved for this function is ϕ(N). So we
may write:
N N
N−
n1
+
n2
+ ··· 1

ϕ(N) = N 1− , (7)
N N N p
+ + + + ··· p|N
n1 n2 n1 n3 n2 n3
the product being taken over all the primes p that
− ··· . (4)
divide N; that is why we have written ‘ p | N ’ below

the product symbol. (The symbol is used for
You should now be able to provide the formal
justification for the formula on your own. products in the same way that is used for sums.)
Corollary: a multiplicative property

Euler’s totient function The formula for ϕ(n) gives us another property as
There is a special case of the above formula which a bonus — the property that Euler’s totient
is of great interest in number theory. We consider function is multiplicative: if m and n are relatively
the following problem. prime positive integers, then ϕ(mn) = ϕ(m)ϕ(n).
For a given positive integer N , what is the number Example: Take m = 4, n = 5, mn = 20. We have:
of positive integers not exceeding N which are ϕ(4) = 2, ϕ(5) = 4; next, by applying formula (6)
relatively prime to N? we get: ϕ(20) = 20 × 1/2 × 4/5 = 8. Hence we
have ϕ(20) = ϕ(4) · ϕ(5).
The numbers which are relatively prime to N are
exactly those which are not divisible by any of the It is an interesting exercise to prove this
prime divisors of N . Let us denote the primes multiplicative property without using formula (6).
dividing N by p, q, r, . . . . Now we apply the idea (It can be done, by looking closely at the definition
described in the last section. We conclude that the of the function.)
required number is:
In closing: relation between GCD and LCM
N N N
N− + + + ··· To demonstrate how unexpectedly useful the PIE
p q r
formula can be, we mention here a nice
N N N application of the formula. However we shall leave
+ + + + ··· − ··· . (5)
pq qr pr it as a question without stating the actual result,

$W5LJKW$QJHV_9R1R
0DUFK

and discuss the problem in detail in a sequel to for three integers a, b, c? For four integers
this article. a, b, c, d? . . .
Here is the context. We all know the pleasing In Part II of this article we use the PIE to find a
formula that relates the GCD (‘‘greatest common generalization of formula (8). Alongside we
divisor’’, also known as ‘‘highest common factor’’) discuss a problem about a seemingly
and the LCM (‘‘lowest common multiple’’) of any absent-minded but actually mischievous secretary
two positive integers a and b: who loves mixing up job offers sent to applicants
so that every person gets a wrong job offer (for
GCD (a, b) × LCM (a, b) = ab. (8) which he had not even applied!), and another
problem concerning placement of rooks on a
You may have wondered: The above formula chessboard. And, venturing into deeper waters,
relates the GCD and LCM of two integers a, b. we also mention a famous currently unsolved
What would be the corresponding formula problem concerning prime numbers.
Exercises
(1) Show how the factorization in formula (6) follows from formula (5).
(2) Explain how formula (7) implies that the totient function ϕ(N ) is multiplicative.
(3) Let N be an odd positive integer. Prove directly, using the definition of the totient function (i.e., with invoking the
property of multiplicativity), that ϕ(2N) = ϕ(N ).
(4) What can you say about the family of positive integers N for which ϕ(N ) = N/2? For which ϕ(N ) = N/3?
(5) Try to find a relation connecting LCM (a, b, c) and GCD (a, b, c).
Further reading
• V Balakrishnan, Combinatorics: Including Concepts Of Graph Theory (Schaum Series)
• Miklos Bona, Introduction to Enumerative Combinatorics (McGraw-Hill)
%685GJRWKLV3K'LQ0DWKHPDWLFVIURP>%050XPEDL$HKDVEHHQZLWKWKH%QGLDQ6WDWLVWLFD%QVWLWXWH

%DQJDRUH VLQFH
$H KDV EHHQ LQWHUHVWHG LQ HFSRVLWRU\ ZULWLQJ DW VFKRR DQG FRHJH H7H DQG LQ
LQWHUDFWLQJZLWKPDWKHPDWLFD\WDHQWHGVWXGHQWV$HLVWKHUHJLRQDFR<RUGLQDWRUIRUWKH0DWK2\PSLDGLQ
/DUQDWD)DDQGDPHPEHURIWKHHGLWRULDFRPPLWWHHRIWKHQHZVHWWHURIWKH5DPDQXMDQ0DWKHPDWLFD6RFLHW\
$LVUHVHDUFKLQWHUHVWVDUHLQDJHEUDDQGQXPEHUWKHRU\0DWKHPDWLFDLPHULF)VDUHDQDELGLQJLQWHUHVW$H
PD\EHFRQWDFWHGDWVXU\#LVLEDQJDFLQ$LVSURIHVVLRQDZHESDJHLVZZZLVLEDQJDFLQHIVXU\
7KHTXDGUDWLFZDVVROYHGZLWKHDVH
7KHTXDGUDWLFZDVVROYHGZLWKHDVH
7KHFXELFDQGELTXDGUDWLFGLGWHDVH
7KHFXELFDQGELTXDGUDWLFGLGWHDVH
EXWZHUHVROYHGQRWORQJHUH
EXWZHUHVROYHGQRWORQJHUH
,WZDVWKHTXLQWLFZKLFKPDGHLWFOHDU
,WZDVWKHTXLQWLFZKLFKPDGHLWFOHDU
WKDWDOJHEUDGHYHORSHGE\GHJUHHV
WKDWDOJHEUDGHYHORSHGE\GHJUHHV
²%6XU\
²%6XU\
9R1R
0DUFK
_$W5LJKW$QJHV

. . . Many Connects
One Equation
feature
Harmonic Triples Part–1

Can the same simple equation be hidden in the relationships between the side
of a rhombus and the sides of the triangle in which it is inscribed, the width of
a street and the lengths of two ladders crossed over it, and the lengths of the
diagonals of a regular heptagon? Read on to find the magic.
SHAILESH A SHIRALI
W
e are all familiar with the notion of a primitive
Pythagorean triple, which is the name given to a triple
(a, b, c) of coprime positive integers satisfying the
equation a 2 + b2 = c2 ; we studied this equation in Issue-I-1 and
Issue-I-2 of this magazine. What is pleasing about this equation is
its rich connections in both geometry and number theory.
Now there are other equations of this kind which too have nice
connections in geometry and number theory. (Not as rich as the
Pythagorean equation, but to compare any theorem with the
theorem of Pythagoras seems unfair, like comparing a batsman
with Bradman . . . .) Here are three such equations:
√ 1/a +
1/a + 1/b = 1/c, 1/b2 = 1/c2 and
2
√ √
(1/ a) + (1/ b) = (1/ c).
Remarkably, each of these equations surfaces in some geometric
context, and each has something number theoretically
interesting about it.
In this three part article we focus on the first of these:
1/a + 1/b = 1/c, called the harmonic relation because of its
occurrence in the study of harmonic progressions. (It implies
20 At Right Angles | Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013

that c is twice the harmonic mean of a and b.) You the sum of the areas of P QS and P SR, and
may recall seeing such relations in physics: QP S = 60◦ , SP R = 60◦ , QP R = 120◦ , we
have:
• The relation 1/u + 1/v = 1/f for concave and
convex mirrors, where u, v, f denote distance 1 1
ac sin 60◦ + bc sin 60◦
of object, image and focus (respectively) from 2 2
the mirror; 1
= ab sin 120◦ .
• The relation 1/R1 + 1/R2 = 1/R for the 2
effective resistance (R) when resistances R1 Now sin 60◦ = sin 120◦ . On cancelling the
and R2 are in parallel. common factors in the above relation we get
There are other occurrences of the harmonic ac + bc = ab. Dividing through by abc, we get the
relation in physics. See [1] for a list of more such relation we want right away:
instances. 1 1 1
+ = ,
If a triple (a, b, c) of positive integers satisfies the a b c
equation 1/a + 1/b = 1/c, we call it a Harmonic It is interesting to note the key role played by the
Triple. Two examples: the triples (3, 6, 2) and equality sin 60◦ = sin 120◦ . (This is just one of
(20, 30, 12). As with Pythagorean triples, our many results in geometry which depend on this
interest will be on harmonic triples which have no simple equality. In some results a similar role is
common factor exceeding 1; we shall call them played by the equality cos 60◦ = − cos 120◦ , or by
primitive harmonic triples, ‘PHT’ for short. So the equality cos 60◦ = 1/2.)
(20, 30, 12) is harmonic but not primitive, and
(10, 15, 6) is a PHT. (Note one curious feature of You may prefer to see a proof that avoids
this triple: 10 and 15 are not coprime, nor 15 and trigonometry; but we shall turn this question back
6, nor 6 and 10; but 10, 15 and 6 are coprime.) on you. Try to find such a proof for yourself!
In Part I of this article we showcase the 2. Rhombus in a triangle

occurrence of this equation in geometry; we dwell
Given any ADB, we wish to inscribe a rhombus
on four such contexts. In Parts II and III (in later
DP QR in the triangle, with P on DB, Q on AB,
issues of At Right Angles), we explore the number
and R on DA (see Figure 2). It turns out that
theoretic aspects of the harmonic relation: how to
precisely one such rhombus can be drawn. For
find such triples, discovering some of their
now, we shall not say how we can be so sure of
properties, and so on.
this. Instead we ask you to prove it and figure out
how to construct the rhombus.
1. Triangle with a 120 degree angle
Let P QR have P = 120◦ . Let P S be the
D
bisector of QP R, and let a, b, c be the lengths of c

• DB = a
P Q, P R, P S respectively (Figure 1). We shall c
P
• DA = b
show that 1/a + 1/b = 1/c.
R • DP, PQ, QR,
P c a− c RD all have
b− c c length c
a b
c
A Q B
FIGURE 2. Rhombus inscribed in a triangle

Q S R
FIGURE 1. Angle bisector in a 120◦ triangle In this configuration let the lengths of DB and DA
be a and b, and let c be the side of the rhombus (as
The proof involves a computation of areas, using in the diagram); we shall show that
the trigonometric formula for area of a triangle 1/a + 1/b = 1/c. The proof is quickly found once
(‘‘half the product of the sides and the sine of the one notices the similarities
included angle’’). Since the area of P QR equals BP Q ∼ QRA ∼ BDA, which follow from
Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles 21

the relations P Q DA and RQ DB. These yield Next, from the similarity RQS ∼ T U S we get:
the following proportionality relations among the b c b m
sides: = , ∴ = .
m+n m c m+n
a−c c a
= = . Since m/(m + n) + n/(m + n) = 1 it follows that
c b−c b
c/a + c/b = 1, and hence:
The second equality yields, after
1 1 1
cross-multiplication, bc = ab − ac, hence + = .
ac + bc = ab. On dividing the last relation by abc, a b c
we get 1/a + 1/b = 1/c as claimed. Remark. There are some unexpected features of
interest in Figure 3. For example, the similarity
3. The crossed ladders P T S ∼ QT R yields a/m = b/n (for the ratio
The ‘crossed ladders problem’ is a famous one. In of base to altitude must be the same in both the
Figure 3 we see two ladders P Q and RS placed triangles), which implies that P U S = RU Q
across a street SQ, in opposite ways; they cross and hence that P U T = RU T . Thus a ray of
each other at a point T , and U is the point directly light proceeding from P to U will be reflected off
below T . The problem usually posed is: Given the the street at U towards R.
lengths of the two ladders, and the height of their
point of crossing above the street, find the width of 4. Diagonals of a regular heptagon
the street. In one typical formulation we have The last occurrence of the harmonic relation we
P Q = 40, RS = 30, T U = 12, and we must find shall feature concerns a regular heptagon; i.e., a
QS. The problem has a deceptive appearance: it regular 7-sided polygon. If you examine such a
looks simple but in fact presents quite a challenge, heptagon carefully, you will find just three
involving a lot of algebra. For example, see [2] different lengths within it! — its various diagonals
and [3]. come in just two different lengths, and there is the
side of the heptagon. (See Figure 4.)
P
Let a, b, c be (respectively) the lengths of the
longer diagonal, the shorter diagonal, and the side
of the heptagon, so that a > b > c. Then we find
that 1/a + 1/b = 1/c. For this reason, a triangle
with sides proportional to a, b, c (and therefore
R with angles 720◦ /7, 360◦ /7, 180◦ /7) is called a
a harmonic triangle. But this time we shall leave the
T task of proving the harmonic relation to you.
b
c
m n
S U Q c
FIGURE 3. The crossed ladders a
Our interest here is in something much simpler.

Let the lengths of P S, RQ, T U be a, b, c,
b
respectively. Then we claim that 1/a + 1/b = 1/c.
For the proof we introduce two additional lengths: FIGURE 4. A regular heptagon and an inscribed harmonic
SU = m and QU = n. There are many pairs of triangle
similar triangles in the diagram. From the
similarity P SQ ∼ T U Q we get: In Part II of this article we provide the proof of the
a c c n above claim and then study ways of generating
= , ∴ = .
m+n n a m+n primitive harmonic triples.

References
[1] James Mertz, The Ubiquitous Harmonic Relation, Universities Press, Hyderabad.
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossed ladders problem
[3] http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CrossedLaddersProblem.html
SHAILESH SHIRALI is Head of the Community Mathematics Centre in Rishi Valley School (AP) and Director of
Sahyadri School (KFI), Pune. He has been in the field of mathematics education for three decades, and has
been closely involved with the Math Olympiad movement in India. He is the author of many mathematics
books addressed to students; serves as an editor for the undergraduate science magazine Resonance; and
engages in outreach projects in teacher education. He is a keen nature enthusiast and enjoys trekking and
looking after animals. He may be contacted at shailesh.shirali@gmail.com
62/87,21)25
2,88/ *",
1 2
2 8
3 4 5 6
1 1 9 2 1 7
7 8 9
6 0 9 0 1 6 4
10 11 12 13
8 1 9 2 3 5
2 6
14 15 16 17
3 1 2 1 0 2
18 19 20
4 6 4 5 9 4 4
21 22 23 24
2 2 1 6 6 6
4 3

7RZDUGVPDWKHPDWLFDOGLVSRVLWLRQ
1RWHVIURPD
LQWKHFODVVURRP
VPDOOVFKRRO
6XSSRUWLYHOHDUQLQJVSDFHV
čĆĘčĎĉčĆė ĆČĆĉĊĊĘčĆē

ǡ
Ǥ
Ǥ
ǡ
Ǥϐ
ǡ
ǡǤǡ
Ǥ
Ǥ
Ǥǡ
Ǥ

Ǯǯ

ǨǤ
ǡǦ
Ǩǡ
E

ǳǤǤ

Ǥ ǡǦ

ȋǤϐǤȌ
Ǩǡ
ͳͻͻͲǦ

ǡ
Ǥ
Ǥ
ʹ͸ǡͳ͹
ǡ ϐ

ǡ Ǥ
Ǧ

ǤǯȂ
ǡ
Ǩ

ǣϐ

Ǥǯ
ǡǦ
ǦǤ
ϐ
Ǧ
Ǥ
Ȅ
Ȅ
ǫ Ǧ
Ǥ

ǡǡ
Ǥ
ǮǯǦ
ǡǮ
ǯǤ
ʹͲͲͲ
ǲǯ
ǳ
ǤͳʹǦͳ͵Ǧ #- @~
* "-"2,)"* 4+ 4
ǡǡ ǡ 8 #-5) "8 ,
ǲǦ

Ǥ ǡǦ
Ǥ
ǡ
Ǥ
ǡϐ
Ǧ
Ǥ
ǯϐǤ

ǡ
#- @~
* "-"2,)"* 4+ 4
Ǥ
8 #-5) "8 ,

ǡǦ
Ǥ Ǥ
ǮǯǤ ǡ
Ǥ
Ǩǡ ǡǤ
ǯ
Ǥ Ǥ
ǡǦ Ǧ
ǡ ǡǡ
Ǥ
Ǥ
ǦǦ
ǦǤ Ǥ
ǦǦǡ
Ǥ
Ǧ
ʹȂʹαȋȂȌȋΪȌǡ
ǡǤ
Ǥ

ǡϐǡǦ ʹȂʹǡȂαͳǤǦ
ǡʹȂʹαΪǤ
Ǥ
ǨǦ
ǡ ʹȂʹǡȂαʹǤ
Ǥ ʹȂʹʹȋΪȌǤǡ
Ǥ Ǥ

ȂǤ
ͳͻͺͲȋȏʹȐȌ ʹȂʹαȋȂȌȋΪȌǤ
Ǧ
ǡ Ǯǯȋ
ǮǯȌǤ
Ǥ
x x

x-y x-y

Ǥ x
y y
y y y y
Ǥ
x-y y x-y y

ǡ
Ǧ
y x

ǤǦ x-y x-y

ǣǡ
x y
ǡ

ͳʹǦ
ǣ Ǣ
ǡǮǯǡ Ǥ
ǡ
ǡ
Ǩǡǡ
Ǥ ǡ
ǡ

Ǥ ǡ
ǡ
Ǧ ǡ
Ǥ ǡǡ
Ǥ ǡ
ȏʹȐ
Ǥ Ǥ

ϔ
ǡǲϐǢ

ǳǤ
Ǥ
ǡ

Ǧ
ϔǣ
Ǥ
ͳǤ Ǧ ǡ
ǡǡǡǡ Ȁ
Ǥ
ʹǤ ǡǤǤǡ ǡ
ǡǦ ϐǤǯ
ϔǣǡ
Ǥ ǡ
Ǥ
͵Ǥ Ǧǡ̹Ǧ
ǡ
ǡ̹Ǧ
ǡ
ȋǤǤǡ
ǯǤ
̹
ϐ

ǡ
ȌǤ
ǡ
ͶǤ Ǧǡ Ǥ
ǡ
ǡ ǲǥǦ
Ǥ ǡ
Ǣ
ͷǤ ǦǡǤǤǡ̹Ǧ

ȋ̹Ǧ

Ȍǡ

̹ȀǦ
Ǥ
ȋ̹Ǧ
ǡ

ǡǦ
ȌǤ
ǤǳǦȏ͵Ȑ

ǡǡ Ǧ
Ǥ ǯǡ
ǡ Ǥ
ǯǤ ǡǦ
ǡǡ
ǡǦ Ǥǡ
Ǥ ǫ
ϐǨ ǡǫ
ǡ
ǡǤ ϐϐ
ǡ Ǥǡ
Ǥ ǡ
Ǥ
ǡǯ
Ǥǡ
ǡǮǯ ǯǤ
Ǥ
Ǧ
ǡ
Ǣ

Ǥ
ǤǤ
ǤǦ
Ǣϐ
Ǥ Ǩ
ǡ ǡ

ǡ
ǡ ǤǦ
ǡϐ ǡ
Ǯǯ ǡ
Ǥǡȋ ǡ
Ȍ Ǥ

ϐǤ
Ǧ
Ǧ ǡǤ
Ǥ
Ǥ ǡǦǦ
ǤǤ

͸ͳͺǤ
ͳǣͺ
ͳǣͶǤ
ǡ Ǧȋǡ
ǡǡ
ͺ͵Ψ
ͳͲͳʹǡ ǦͶͷΨȌǨ

Ǧ
Ǥ
Ǧ
ǡ ǫ
Ǥǡ
ǡǡ

ǡ
Ǥ ǡ
ǡǦ Ǥ
ǤǦ
ȋȌǡ Ǥ
Ǥ
ǡǣ
ǣ Ǩ
ǮǯǦ ϐǤ
ǫǦ ǡ
ǯȋǡǡ
Ǥ ȌǤ

ȏͳȐ Ǯǯǯ ǡ
Ͷ͵ǡ͸ͷǦͻͶǡʹͲͲͲǡ
ȏʹȐ ǯǦǤǡ
ǡ ȋƬȌǡǦ
ǡ
ȏ͵Ȑ ǡǡǤǤ Ǧ
Ǥǡ

Ǥ ͺȋʹȌǤͳͺͳǦʹͲ͹̹ʹͲͲͲǤǡǤ
ȏͶȐ ǣǯ
ǡǡͳͻͻͻǡǡǤ
#$#$%8$&8!!#$ 7"58+ 4#, -'7 ,

E$2
44+ , $+ 427 447 ,-4"7- "
7,2-,+44-"""4
*2 7 4( " A, 44$-
+7 - 2)+ "( "-A-
"$4,2"A" ?44

LQWKHFODVVURRP
*HRUJH3yO\D
,QKLVRZQZRUGV

×ϔ
͸ͶǤ
Ȅǡ
ǡǡǡǤ

Ǥ
ǡ
ǡȋ
ȌǤȋ
ÚȌϔ
Ǥ
×ǯ
Ǥȋ
ǤȌ
̺
ǡ
̺Ǥ

×ǡͳͺͺͺȂͳͻͺͷ

Ǥ Ǧ
ǢǤǦ Ǥ

Ǥ ǡ
Ǥǡ
Ǧ
Ǥ Ǥ
Ǥ Ȅǡǡ
Ǣǡ
ǡǡ Ǥ
Ǥ ǡ
ǡ ǡǦ
Ǥϐ Ǥ
Ǥ
ǡǡ
Ǥ Ǥ
ǤǤǤǤ
ǡ

Ǥǡǡ

ϐ
ǡǤǡ
ǤǡǡǤǦ

Ǥ

ǯ Ǥǡ
ǯǤǦ Ǥ
ǡ ǲǤǳ
Ǥ ǡ
ȏȐǣ Ǣ
ϐǡ ǡ
ǤϐǤ ǢǦ
Ǥ
ǲǳǦ
ǲǤǳ
ǡ
ǡǦ
Ȅ
ǡ
Ǥ
Ǧ
ǲǳ Ǥ
ǡ
Ǧ ǡ
ǣǡ
ǡǤ Ǥ
ǡǡ
Ǥ
ǤǤǤǤ
ǡǤ
ǡ

Ǥ
Ǥ
ǣ
ǡǡǦ
Ǥ
ǡ
ǡ

ǡ ǡ
Ǥ ǡǤ
ȋǫȌ
Ǥǣ
Ǥ

ȏȐ
ϐ
ǯǣ
Ǥ
ǡ

ǡ
ǡ
Ǥ

ǤȏȐ ϐǡ
ǲǳǤ
ǡǡǦ
Ǥ ǡ
ǡǤ
ǡǢ
Ǧ
ǯ
ǤǦ

Ǥ ǡ
ǣ ǡ
Ǥ Ǥ
ǣ
Ǥ
ǡǡ
Ǥ Ǥǡ
Ǧ ǡ
ǣ ϔǡ ǤǦ
Ǥ

Ǥ Ǥ
Ǥ
ǡǤ Ǥ
Ǥ
Ǥ
ǡ

ǡǤǦ

ǤǢ

ǡ
Ǥǡ
ǡ

Ǥ
ǡǡǦ

Ǥ
Ǧ
Ǥ Ǥ
ǣ

ǡǦ
Ǥϐ Ǥ
͓ͳ͓ʹǡϐ
ǡǡ
Ǥ ǡ
Ǧ
ǡ
Ǥ
ǡǡ
͵Ǥ ǣ
ǡǤ
Ǥ

ͶǤ ǡ

ϔǡ
Ǥ
Ǥ
ǢϐǦ
ǡǡǡ ͷǤ
ǡǲǦ
ǡ ǳǡǡ
Ǥ Ǥ
͸Ǥ Ǥ
Ǥ
͹Ǥ Ǥ

ǫǡ ͺǤ
ǦǦ
ǦǤ Ȅ
Ǥ
ǡǡ ͻǤ ǡ
Ǥ Ǣ
ͳǤ Ǥ ϔǤ
ǣ ǣ
ǡ Ǥ
Ǥ ͳͲǤ ǡǤ
ʹǤ Ǥ ǣ
ǡǡ Ǣ
ǤǦ Ǥ
Ǣǡǡ Ǣ
ϐǤ Ǥ
ǡǡ ǡ
Ǥ

Ǥ ǡ͓ͷ͓͸ǣ

ǡǦǡǡǢ
ǤǫǦ
ǫǮǯǫǦǫǦ
Ǥ

×
ͳǤ ǣ
ʹǤ ǣǡ
͵Ǥ ǣǡ
ͶǤ ǣǡ
ǡ Ǥ
ǡ ǡ
Ǥ
ǯ
ǣ
ǡ

ϐǫ
ǤϐǤ
Ǥ
Ǥ̷ǤǤ
Ǥ
E

A Plethora
One Problem,
in the classroom
Six Solutions
Connecting Trigonometry, Coordinate Geometry,
Vectors and Complex Numbers
Most mathematics teachers have a soft corner for math problems which, in a
single setting, offer a platform to showcase a variety of different concepts and
techniques. Such problems are very useful for revision purposes, but they
offer much more: they demonstrate the deep and essential
interconnectedness of ideas in mathematics, and their consistency.
I
n this article we study a simple and easily stated problem (see
Figure 1) which can be solved in a multiplicity of ways — half
a dozen at last count. After presenting the solutions we find a
bonus: an unsuspected connection with Pythagorean triples!
A E B
Problem.
ABCD is a square; E and
F are points of trisection of the
sides AB and CB respectively,
with E closer to A than
F to B, and F closer to C than
to B (so AE/AB = 1/3 and
θ CF /CB = 1/3). Segments DE
D C and DF are drawn as shown.
FIGURE 1. Statement of the problem Show that sin EDF = 4/5.

I. First solution, using the cosine rule
We take the side of the square to be 3 units; then AE = CF = 1 unit, and BE = BF = 2 units. Let
EDF be denoted by θ. Join EF .
A E B
• Using the Pythagorean theorem we get DE 2 =

DF 2 = 10, and EF 2 = 8.
• In EDF we have, by the cosine rule: EF 2 =
DE 2 + DF 2 − 2 DE · DF · cos θ.
• So cos θ = (10 + 10 − 8)/(2 × 10) = 3/5.
F
•
Since θ is acute, sin θ is positive. Hence: sin θ =
1 − 32 /52 = 4/5.
θ
D C
II. Second solution, using the trig addition formulas

As earlier, we take the side of the square to be 3 units.
A E B
• Let ADE = α; then F DC √ = α too.
• Since
√ AE = 1 and DE √ 10 we have sin α =
=
1/ 10 and cos α = 3/ 10.
• Since cos 2α = cos2 α −sin2 α, we get cos 2α =
9/10 − 1/10 = 4/5.
• Since {2α, θ} are complementary angles, the
F
sine of either one equals the cosine of the other
α
one.
θ α • Hence sin θ = 4/5.
D C
III. Third solution, using slopes

−→ −→
Let D be treated as the origin, ray DC as the x-axis, and DA as the y-axis.
A E B
• The slope of line DF is 1/3.

• The slope of line DE is 3/1.
• By the ‘angle between two lines’ formula,
tan θ = (3/1 − 1/3)/(1 + 3/1 × 1/3), i.e.,
F tan θ = 4/3. √
• Hence sin θ = 4/ 42 + 32 = 4/5.
θ
D C

IV. Fourth solution, using the vector dot product
−→ −→
Let D be treated as the origin, ray DC as the unit vector i along the x-axis, and DA as the unit vector
j along the y-axis. Recall that if u and v are two vectors, and the angle between them is φ, then
u · v =| u | | v | cos φ.
A E B
−→ −→
• We have: CF = j/3 and AE = i/3.
−→ −→
• Hence DF = i + j/3 and DE = i/3 + j.
−→ −→
• Hence DF · DE = 1/3 + 1/3 = 2/3. √
−→ −→ √
• Also, | DE √ |= 1 + 1/9 = 10/3.
√ |=| DF
j • Hence 10/3 · 10/3 · cos θ = 2/3, giving
F cos θ = 2/3 · 9/10 = 3/5.
• Hence sin θ = 4/5.
θ
D i C
V. Fifth solution, using the vector cross product

The same approach as in the fourth solution, but this time we use the cross product rather than the dot
be the unit vector along the z-direction. Recall that if u and v are two vectors, and the
product. Let k
angle between them is φ, then | u × v |=| u | | v | sin φ.
A E B
−→ −→
• We have: DF = i + j/3 and DE = i/3 + j.
−→ −→ = 8/9 k.
• Hence DF × DE = (1 − 1/9) k

(Remember that i × j = k, and j × i = −k.)
−→ −→
• Hence | DF × DE |= 8/9. √
j −→ −→ √
• Also, | DE
√ |=| DF
√ |= 1 + 1/9 = 10/3.
F • Hence 10/3 · 10/3 · sin θ = 8/9, giving
sin θ = 8/10 = 4/5.
θ
D i C
VI. Sixth solution, using complex numbers

√
Our last solution uses the fact that multiplication by the imaginary unit i = −1 achieves a rotation
through 90◦ about the origin, in the counter-clockwise (‘anti-clockwise’) direction.
Let D be treated as the origin, line DC as the real axis, and line DA as the imaginary axis. Take the side
of the square to be 3 units. Then the complex number representing F is 3 + i, and the complex number
representing E is 1 + 3i.
A E B
• Let z = cos θ + i sin θ. Then |z| = 1, and
multiplication by z achieves a rotation through
θ about the origin 0, in the counter-clockwise
direction.
Im • Hence z·(3+i) = 1+3i. This equation in z may
be solved by multiplying both sides by 3 − i.
F
• Therefore z = (1 + 3i)(3 − i)/(32 − i 2 ) =
(6 + 8i)/10.
θ • Hence sin θ = 8/10 = 4/5.
D Re C

Remark. So there we have it: one problem with six solutions. Is there a ‘best’ among these solutions? We
feel not. On the contrary: they complement each other very beautifully. (And there may be more such
elegant solutions waiting to be found by you . . . .)
A PPT connection
Before closing we draw the reader’s attention to a surprising but pleasing connection between this
problem and the determination of Primitive Pythagorean Triples.
Observe the answer we got for the problem posed above: sin θ = 4/5. Hence θ is one of the acute angles
of a right triangle with sides 3, 4, 5. Don’t these numbers look familiar? Yes, of course: (3, 4, 5) is a PPT.
Is this a happy coincidence?
Let’s explore further . . . . Let us vary the ratio in which E and F divide segments AB and BC, while
maintaining the equality AE/EB = CF /F B, and compute sin EDF and cos EDF each time. We
summarized the findings below.
• If AE/AB = CF /CB = 1/4, we get sin EDF = 15/17 and cos EDF = 8/17. These values point
to the PPT (8, 15, 17).
to the PPT (5, 12, 13).
to the PPT (12, 35, 37).
to the PPT (28, 45, 53).
A PPT on every occasion! The connection is clearly something to be explored further. But we leave this
task to the reader. (Note that we seem to have found a new way of generating PPTs!)
Acknowledgement
We first learnt of this multiplicity of ways from a long time colleague and friend, Shri S R Santhanam
(Secretary, Talents Competition, AMTI).
The COMMUNITY MATHEMATICS CENTRE (CoMaC) is an outreach sector of the Rishi Valley Education Centre
(AP). It holds workshops in the teaching of mathematics and undertakes preparation of teaching materials for
State Governments, schools and NGOs. CoMaC may be contacted at comm.math.centre@gmail.com.

in the classroom
Triangles with sides
in a Progression
A short write up which can spur the motivated teacher to design investigative
tasks that connect geometry and sequences.
A RAMACHANDRAN
I
n AtRiA June 2012 we saw an analysis of right triangles
with integer sides in arithmetic progression. In this context it
is of interest to examine triangles with sides in some definite
progression. In general, the least value for the constant
increment/factor would give rise to an equilateral triangle; the
largest value would lead to a degenerate triangle, with two sides
adding up to the third side. An intermediate value would yield a
right triangle. We consider separately three well known types of
progression.
Sides in arithmetic progression

Take the sides to be 1 − d, 1, 1 + d where d ≥ 0 is the constant
difference. Then:
• The least possible value is d = 0, which yields an equilateral
triangle.
• The case d = 1/4 (obtained by solving the equation
(1 − d)2 + 1 = (1 + d)2 ) yields a right triangle with sides
3/4, 1, 5/4 (this is similar to the triangle with sides 3, 4, 5).

• Since we must have 1 − d + 1 ≥ 1 + d there is a angles is the only acute angle whose cos and tan
maximum possible value of d, namely d = 1/2, values are the same. The angle in question is
which yields a degenerate triangle with sides approximately 38◦ 10 .
1/2, 1, 3/2.
Sides in harmonic progression
The three ‘critical’ numbers 0, 1/4, 1/2 are
themselves in A.P. Three non-zero numbers are in harmonic
progression (H.P.) if their reciprocals are in
arithmetic progression. So for the sides of the
Sides in geometric progression
triangle we may use the values
Take the sides to be 1/r, 1, r where r ≥ 1 is the
constant ratio. Then: 1 1
, 1, ,
1+d 1−d
• The least possible value is r = 1, which yields
an equilateral triangle. where 0 ≤ d < 1. We note the following.
• The condition for the triangle to be right-angled • The least possible value is d = 0, which yields
is 1/r 2 + 1 = r 2 . This is a quadratic equation in an equilateral triangle.
r 2 , and it yields, on applying the quadratic • The condition for the triangle to be right-angled
formula: is 1/(1 + d)2 + 1 = 1/(1 − d)2 , which leads to a
√ fourth degree (‘quartic’) equation:
5+1
r =
2
, r = φ ≈ 1.272, 2 2
2 d − 1 = 4d,
where φ ≈ 1.618 is the golden ratio. ∴ d 4 − 2d 2 − 4d + 1 = 0.
• It may not be obvious that there is a maximum
This unfortunately does not yield to
possible value of r. But we realize it when we
factorization. Solving the equation numerically,
see that the inequality 1/r + 1 > r must fail
we get d ≈ 0.225.
when r is sufficiently large (indeed, it fails
• The greatest value of d is found by solving the
when r = 2). What is the ‘critical’ value beyond
equation
which it fails? To find it we solve the equation
1/r + 1 = r. We obtain r = φ, the golden ratio. 1 1
+1= ,
√ 1+d 1−d
Curiously, the three critical numbers 1, φ, φ are
√
themselves in G.P. which yields d = 2 − 1 ≈ 0.414. For this d,
√ the triangle is degenerate.
The above mentioned right triangle (sides 1/ φ,
√
1, φ) represents the only ‘shape’ that a right Exploring the geometric properties of these
triangle with sides in G.P. can have. One of its triangles would be of interest.
A RAMACHANDRAN has had a long standing interest in the teaching of mathematics and science. He studied
physical science and mathematics at the undergraduate level, and shifted to life science at the postgraduate
level. He has been teaching science, mathematics and geography to middle school students at Rishi Valley
School for two decades. His other interests include the English language and Indian music. He may be
contacted at ramachandran@rishivalley.org.

An application of graphs
Centigrade–Fahrenheit
in the classroom
Conversion
Understanding Algorithms
Which would you rather do? Parrot a formula for temperature conversion or
heat up the class room with the excitement of understanding and using new
concepts such as ‘invariant points’ in the application of a linear function?
Read the article if you choose the latter option . . . .
I
n this note, which is based on an e-mail posted to a mailing
list by noted math educator Prof Jerry Becker, we describe
a striking way of converting from the Centigrade (Celsius)
scale to the Fahrenheit scale and vice versa (see Figure 1).
Input. Temperature
reading (in °C or ° F)
II. If conversion is C
III. Subtract
I. Add 40 to to F, multiply by 9 5;
40 from the
the reading if conversion is F to
result
C, multiply by 5 9.
Output. Converted
temperature reading
FIGURE 1. A ‘symmetric’ C to F and F to C converter: both ways we add

40 at the start, and subtract 40 at the end

Example 1 (C to F) Suppose the reading is 40◦ C. So we have found an alternate expression for f , in
Step I: Add 40; we get 40 + 40 = 80. Step II: terms of its invariant point.
Multiply by 9/5; we get: 80 × 9/5 = 144. Step III:
Subtract 40; we get: 144 − 40 = 104. Hence 40◦ C Such an expression may always be found for the
is the same as 104◦ F. linear form f (x) = ax + b, provided a = 1.
Example 2 (F to C) Suppose the reading is 50◦ F. Note carefully the ‘shape’ of the expression
Step I: Add 40; we get 50 + 40 = 90. Step II: a(x − c) + c: we first subtract the value c, multiply
Multiply by 5/9; we get: 90 × 5/9 = 50. Step III: by the factor a, then add back the value c.
Subtract 40; we get: 50 − 40 = 10. Hence 50◦ F is
the same as 10◦ C. Here is a numerical example. Suppose
f (x) = 2x − 3. The fixed point for this function is
Explanation c = 3, obtained by solving the equation f (x) = x.
The algorithm works because of a basic way in Therefore we can write the expression for f as:
which all linear non-constant functions (i.e., f (x) = 2(x − 3) + 3.
functions of the form f (x) = ax + b where a, b
What makes this finding significant as well as
are constants with a = 0) behave. The graph of
useful is that the inverse function has a very
such a function is a straight line with slope a. Call
similar form. For:
the line ; then is not parallel to the x-axis.
Suppose a = 1. Then is not parallel to the line f (x) = a(x − c) + c,
y = x and hence intersects it at some point P . ∴ a(x − c) = f (x) − c,
Since P lies on the line y = x, its coordinates have f (x) − c
the form (c, c) for some c (Figure 2). ∴ x= +c
a
(remember that a = 0),
x−c
y=x ∴ f (−1) (x) = + c.
a
Note the form of this expression for the inverse
c
function: we subtract c, divide by a, then add back c.
P( c, c) (ﬁxed point of f )
Observe that the prescription for f (−1) has the
same form as the one for f ; in both cases we
subtract c at the start, and add back c at a later
point; the only difference is that ‘multiply’ has
been replaced by ‘ divide’.
c
FIGURE 2 Back to temperature scale conversion

Consider the formula used for C to F conversion:
By construction, f (c) = c. So f maps c to itself.
For this reason, c is called a fixed point or 9C
F = + 32.
invariant point of f . We now cast f in a different 5
form, using the fixed point.
The associated function here is
From f (x) = ax + b we get the following.
9x
f (x) = + 32.
f (x) − c = ax + b − c, 5
∴ f (x) − c = ax + b − (ac + b), The fixed point of f is found by solving the
because c = f (c) = ac + b, equation f (x) = x. A quick computation shows
that the fixed point is c = −40; thus, −40 is the
∴ f (x) − c = a(x − c),
‘common point’ of the two scales: −40◦ C is the
∴ f (x) = a(x − c) + c. same as −40◦ F (this is well known). Hence the

expression for f may be written as: function is:
9(x + 40) 5(x + 40)
f (x) = − 40. f (−1) (x) = − 40.
5 9
This explains the ‘C to F’ conversion rule: Add 40, This explains the ‘F to C’ conversion rule: Add 40,
multiply by 9/5, then subtract 40. And the inverse multiply by 5/9, then subtract 40.
References
This article is based on an e-mail posted by Prof Jerry Becker to a mailing list and a document by François
Pluvinage attached to that mail, in which Pluvinage proves a general result: Every dilation of the number
line is a translation or has an invariant point. Many thanks to Prof K Subramaniam (HBCSE) for bringing
the mail to our attention.

Ȃǡ ǡ
Ȃ ǡǣ
ǣ

ͳǤ Ǥ
Ǥ

ʹǤ ǡǡ
Ǥ

Ǥ
͵Ǥ ǡ Ǥ

Ǥ Ǥ
ͶǤ Ǥ

ͷǤ Ǣ ǡ
Ǥ ǫ
͸Ǥ ͳǡ
ʹǡͷǦ
ͳͲǤ
͹Ǥ
ǯǤ ǯǡǫ
Ǧ ȋǡ͸ͶͷͶȌ

ǫ 0 ( *

([SORULQJSUREOHPV
WHFKVSDFH
LQJHRPHWU\
,QDG\QDPLFJHRPHWU\HQYLURQPHQW
ēĊčĆĎęĚĘƭ
ĔēĆĐĎ
čĔĘč
,
Q×ǡ
Ǥ
ʹͳǦ
ǡǡ
ǫȋ
Ȍ
Ǧ
Ǥǡ
Ǥǡ
Ǥ
Ǥ
ǡǮǯ
ͳͺͲι
Ǥ
ǡϐ

Ǥ
ǯǤ
ǯ
ǡǦ
Ǥ
×ǯǡ

ȋ
EE

Ȍ
Ǥ

Ǥ

ǤǤȀǤ ǡȋ

Ǥ ϐ Ȍ
ϐǦ

ǡ Ǥ

ǣ

ǤǡǮǯǯ
ǡ
ǤǦ
Ǥ

ǡ
ǡ
Ǥ

ͳǣϐ
Ǥ Ǥͳ
0-
ʹǤǤǤ
Ǥ
͵Ǥ ǡǤǡÖ

Ǥ
Ǣ
Ǥ
ͶǤ
ȋʹȌ
ǤǤ
Ǥϐȋ ǤʹȌǤǦ
ǮǯǤ

E
0-
ȋ Ǥ͵Ȍǣ
0-
ǣ
ǤȋǯǡǤȌ

ǡϐǡǤ
Ǥ
ͷǣǤȋ
ǤȌ
͸ǣϐǤ
ǤǤ
͹ǣǡ
Ǥ Ǥ
Ǥ
ͺǣ ȋ
ȌǤ
ͻǣǡ
ϐǤ
ǡǤ
ϐǤ
E

ȋȌǡ
ǤȋϐǤǯǡǤȌ
ȋ ǤͶȌ
0- E
ǡϐǤϐ
ǡ
Ǥͷ
0-

ǡ ȋ ȌǤ
ǡ ǡǤ
Ǥ ȋǯ
ǤȌ
ǡǤ
ǯ
ǡ

ȋǡ
ǡ
ȌǤǡ
Ǥ
Ǧ
Ǣ
Ǥ
̵
Ǧ Ǥ

ǡǡ
ȋ
ϐǤ

Ȍ Ǥ

ϐ

E
Ǥ ǡ Ǥǡ

Ǣ
Ǥ Ǥȋ
ǡǡ
ǡϐ
ϐ ϐǤȌ
Ǥ

ǡǦ
ǡ ǡ
Ǥ ϐǦ
ǡ Ǥ

ǡǡ
ǡ
ǡ Ǥ
Ǥ

ǡǡǡǡǡ
Ǥ ǡǡ
ǤǦ
ǡǡ
Ǥ
ʹͲͲͳ
ϐǡ
Ǧ
Ǥ
Ǥǡ

ǡ ǡ

Ǥ
Ǥ

Ǧ

ǦǦȏ͵Ȑǡ

Ǥ
Ǥ
ǣȀȀǤǦ

ǤȀȀǤ

Ǥ
ǣȀȀǤǤȀȀǦǤ
# !$ >%>'# + 44 + (, , " + 4 +- 4
A2 " *- - +--"+7+
" 7+4#( )'7 ,- 3 +D45 4A
0-"#4 44 + 4 - ",""-( )*
- 4"-4 + 4 4"- * - , 7 -
+ 44"(4*-DD" ((B-*"472 "
-"#4,2"-?D4* 4A+-"
: /%&$:#$5 + 8*+!4 ,!"-=",# 43'<
7 ,+8( - "4"-#2" 58**"
4+ 44%4'7 , (8" 4 " + 4%%>/*-
# - 44 85# / 5- 4 +
, ( ( -4 -*
=2 >, 3 # " 0-" - ( "- * <
+ "7*4 * 44 + 4 $ * 4 , + - +
,4 -#442 +%"#("6 )& -*4
!"- # - , * * " + # *-2"
* ""A- "- "2)+ -"#4,2"
A)2?44
E

problem corner
Fun Problems
Digital Problems for the Digital Age
Consider all three digit numbers with the digit B, tens digit C and units digit D; and so on.
property that the first digit equals the sum of the We use the bar notation to avoid confusion, for
second and third digits. Examples of such example, between the two digit number AB and
numbers are 413, 615 and 404. We call this the product AB which means A × B.
property ♥. Let X be the sum of all three digit
Notation 2: Given a number with two or more
numbers that have property ♥.
digits, by its ‘TU portion’ we mean the number
Next, consider all four digit numbers with the formed by its last two digits. (‘TU’ stands for
property that the sum of the first two digits equals ‘tens-units’.) For example, the TU portion of 132
the sum of the last two digits. Examples of such is 32, and the TU portion of 1234 is 34.
numbers are 4123, 6372 and 4013. We call this Notation 3: Given a number with three or more
property ♣. Let Y be the sum of all four digit digits, by its ‘H portion’ we mean its hundreds
numbers with property ♣. digit.
Problem: Showing that X is divisible by 11. A three digit
Show that both X and Y are divisible by 11. number ABC has property ♥ if A = B + C.
Observe that if ABC has property ♥, so does
Note that the problem does not ask for the actual ACB. If B = C then these two numbers are the
values of X and Y ; it only asks you to show that same. In this case ACB has the form ABB.
they are multiples of 11. Could there be a way of
proving this without actually computing X and Now observe that BB = 11B is a multiple of 11;
Y ? We shall show that there is such a way. First, so too is BC + CB = 11(B + C). Hence:
some notation. • The sum of the TU portions of ABC and ACB
is a multiple of 11.
Notation 1: AB denotes the two digit number
• The TU portion of ABB is a multiple of 11.
with tens digit A and units digit B; ABC denotes
the three digit number with hundreds digit A, tens It follows that for each fixed value of A, the sum of
digit B and units digit C; ABCD denotes the four the TU portions of the numbers ABC having
digit number with thousands digit A, hundreds property ♥ is a multiple of 11.

Now we shall show that the sum of the H portions such numbers ACD is a multiple of 11. This
of the numbers having property ♥ is a multiple of proof implies that the sum of the A-values of all
11. To show this we adopt a different strategy. numbers A0CD with property ♣ is a multiple
With A = 1 there are two numbers with property of 11.
♥ (101 and 110). With A = 2 there are three such Thus Y is a sum of various multiples of 11, and
numbers (202, 211 and 220). With A = 3 there are hence is a multiple of 11.
four such numbers, with A = 4 there are five such
It is worth reflecting on the solution strategies
numbers, . . . , and with A = 9 there are ten such
used. We did not at any stage attempt to compute
numbers. It follows that the sum of the H portions
the actual sum of all the numbers. Instead we
of the three digit numbers having property ♥ is
grouped them in a way that would make the
(1 × 2) + (2 × 3) + (3 × 4) + (4 × 5) divisibility property perfectly visible.
+ (5 × 6) + (6 × 7) + (7 × 8) + (8 × 9)
Problems for Solution
+ (9 × 10) = 330,
Problem II-1-F.1
which is a multiple of 11. Solve the following cryptarithm:
Since the sum of the H portions of all the numbers EAT + T H AT = AP P LE.
with property ♥ is a multiple of 11, and so is the
sum of the TU portions, it follows that X must be a Problem II-1-F.2
multiple of 11.
Solve the following cryptarithm:
Showing that Y is divisible by 11. We shall use
the same strategy. If ABCD is a number with EART H + MOON = SY ST EM.
property ♣ then A + B = C + D; hence ABDC
too has the property. Since CC = 11C and Problem II-1-F.3
CD + DC = 11(C + D) are multiples of 11, it Given that I V × V I = SI X, and SI X is not a
follows that for each fixed (A, B) pair, the sum of multiple of 10, find the value of I V + V I + SI X.
the TU portions of the numbers ABCD with
property ♣ is a multiple of 11. Problem II-1-F.4
Now we focus on the front two digits. Explain why the following numbers are all perfect
squares:
Suppose that ABCD has property ♣, and B is
non-zero. Then BACD too is a four digit number 1, 121, 12321, 1234321,
with property ♣. The sum of the numbers 123454321, 12345654321, ,... .
associated with the front two digits is
AB + BA = 11(A + B), which is a multiple of 11. Problem II-1-F.5
What if B = 0? Then the number has the form Explain why the following numbers are all perfect
A0CD, with A = C + D. This number can be squares:
matched with the three digit number ACD which
has property ♥. We have already shown (in the 1089, 110889, 11108889,
above section) that the sum of the A-values of all 1111088889, 111110888889, ... .

Solutions of Problems from Issue-I-2
Problem I-2-F.1 By addition we get 3s = 2C + M. Also

Show that in a magic triangle, the difference C + M = 45; hence C = 3s − 45, and we see that
between the number at a vertex and the number C is a multiple of 3; so is M. Next, the least
at the middle of the opposite side is the same for possible value of C is 1 + 2 + 3, and the largest
all three vertices. possible value is 7 + 8 + 9. So 6 ≤ C ≤ 24.
We must prove that u − x = v − y = w − z. We Hence 51 ≤ 3s ≤ 69, leading to 17 ≤ s ≤ 23.

know that u + z + v = v + x + w = w + y + u. Each s-value between 17 and 23 (and hence each
From the equalities we get: u + z − x − w = 0, C-value between 6 and 24 which is a multiple of
hence u − x = w − z. In the same way we get 3) can be ‘realized’ by a suitable magic triangle.
w − z = v − y. Two such possibilities are shown below.
Hence proved. s = 17, C = 6
u
1
z y 5 7
9 6
v x w
2 4 8 3
Problem I-2-F.2
Explore the analogous problem in which the digits s = 23, C = 24
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 are placed along the sides of
a triangle, one at each vertex and two on the 7
interiors of each side, so that the sum of the
numbers on each side is the same.
6 4
Let the configuration be as shown in the figure,
with the numbers x, y, z at the corners of the 2 3
triangle, and the numbers a, b, c, d, e, f on the
interiors of the sides. Then, by requirement, the 9
8 1 5
sums x + y + e + f , y + z + a + b and
z + x + c + d are all equal to some constant s, Problem I-2-F.3
say. Let C = x + y + z be the sum of the corner
Show that the cryptarithm
numbers, and let M = a + b + c + d + e + f be
AT + RI GH T = AN GLE has no solutions.
the sum of the ‘middle’ numbers.
Since the hundreds digits of RI GH T and
x AN GLE are the same, we infer that the addition
of AT to RI GH T has only affected the tens and
e c units digits, with no ‘carry’ to the hundreds digit.
Hence the leading two digits must stay
unaffected; we must have AN = RI . This
f d
violates a basic rule concerning cryptarithms:
that different letters cannot represent the same
y a b z
digit. Therefore the problem has no solution.

Problem I-2-F.4
Solve the following cryptarithm: × 5
CAT S × 8 = DOGS.
Since 8 × S has units digit S, it follows that S = 0.
Since CAT S × 8 is a four-digit number,
If E = 0 then F = 6 or 8. If F = 6 then D = 3,
CAT S < 1250. Hence C = 1 and A = 2 (since 0
leading to C = 5, B = 6 and A = 2 which cannot
and 1 have been ‘used up’), and T = 3 or 4. Only the
be; we already know that A = 1. So the option
first possibility yields an answer (if T = 4 we get
F = 6 does not work. If F = 8 then D = 4, hence
G = 2 = A). So the answer is: 1230 × 8 = 9840.
C = 0; but this means that C = E. So this fails too.
Problem I-2-F.5 Therefore, E = 0. Hence E = 5, and F = 7 or 9.
Solve this cryptarithm: If F = 9 then D = 9 (from 25 + 4 = 29); hence
ABCDEF × 5 = FABCDE. D = F . So this too does not work. The only
We must have E = 0 or 5. We must also have possibility now left is F = 7. This leads to D = 8
A = 1 (since A is the leading digit of a six-digit (from 25 + 3 = 28), C = 2 (from 40 + 2 = 42),
number for which multiplication by 5 yields B = 4 (from 10 + 4 = 14). Everything has now
another six-digit number); and F ≥ 5. If E = 0 worked out, and we have the answer:
then F is even, else it is odd. We now arrive at the 142857 × 5 = 714285.
answer by simultaneously proceeding from ‘each
end’ of the number to the ‘opposite end’. The Remark.
argument is easier to present ‘live’ on a It is not a coincidence that the answer corresponds
blackboard than in print, so you (the reader) will exactly to the repeating part of the decimal
have to set up a multiplication display and follow expansion of 1/7 = 0.142857 142857 142857 . . . .
the reasoning there. But we will elaborate on the connection later.
A B C D E F
× 5
F A B C D E

Problems for the
problem corner
Middle School
Problem Editor : R. ATHMARAMAN
The problems in this selection are all woven respectively. Given that a + b = c + d, show that:
around the theme of GCD (‘greatest common (i) a is a divisor of b; (ii) a 3 + b3 = c3 + d 3 .
divisor’, also called ‘highest common factor’) and
LCM (‘least common multiple’). Problem II-1-M.4
Let a and b be two positive integers, with a ≤ b,
Problem II-1-M.1
and let their GCD and LCM be c and d,
Two-digit numbers a and b are chosen (a > b). respectively. Given that ab = c + d, find all
Their GCD and LCM are two-digit numbers, and possible values of a and b.
a/b is not an integer. What could be the value of
a/b?
Problem II-1-M.5
Problem II-1-M.2 Let a and b be two positive integers, with a ≤ b,
The sum of a list of 123 positive integers is 2013. and let their GCD be c. Given that abc = 2012,
Given that the LCM of those integers is 31, find find all possible values of a and b.
all possible values of the product of those 123
integers. Problem II-1-M.6
Let a and b be two positive integers, with a ≤ b,
Problem II-1-M.3 and let their GCD and LCM be c and d,
Let a and b be two positive integers, with a ≤ b, respectively. Given that d − c = 2013, find all
and let their GCD and LCM be c and d, possible values of a and b.
Solutions of Problems in Issue-I-2

Solution to problem I-M-S.1 Using the digits 9, hence any set of numbers made using these
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 once each, can you make digits and added together will yield a multiple
a set of numbers which when added and of 9. For example, the sum 125 + 37 + 46+
subtracted in some order yields 100? 80 + 9 equals 297, which is a multiple of 9.
So an answer of 100 would be impossible to
If the problem had said only ‘added’ (with
achieve.
subtraction not allowed) the answer is that this
is not possible! For, the sum However with subtraction permitted, the task is
0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + 8 + 9 = 45 is a multiple of possible. Let A represent the part which is ‘added’

and B the part which is subtracted. Then we want inequalities for k we find that
A − B = 100. For reasons already explained, √
A + B ≡ 0 (mod 9); also, A − B ≡ 1 (mod 9). [ 4n] + 1
These two relations yield A ≡ 5 (mod 9) and g(n) = n + .
2
B ≡ 4 (mod 9). Our task now is to partition the
digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 into two subsets,
It turns out that this can be expressed in a much
with sums 5 (mod 9) and 4 (mod 9) respectively,
more pleasing form:
and try to create numbers using the two sets of
digits whose sums differ by 100. One possible
√
approach is to initially leave out the digits g(n) = n + n+ n .
0, 3, 6, 9 and work only with the digits
1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8. After some play we find that the The proof of this surprising equality is left to the
following partition works: {1, 2, 4, 7} and {5, 8}; reader.
observe that 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 = 14 ≡ 5 (mod 9) and
5 + 8 = 13 ≡ 4 (mod 9). A convenient possibility Solution to problem I-M-S.4 Amar, Akbar and
is 72 + 14 − 85 = 1. Now if we can somehow Antony are three friends. The average age of any
create 99 using the remaining digits, our task is two of them is the age of the third person. Show
done. This is possible: 90 + 6 + 3 = 99. So we have that the total of the three friends’ ages is divisible
our answer: 90 + 6 + 3 + 72 + 14 − 85 = 100. by 3. By focusing on the age of the oldest among
the three persons, or the youngest among them
Solution to problem I-M-S.2 To find a formula for (assuming there is an oldest), we easily deduce
the n-th term of the sequence of natural numbers that their ages are identical. Hence the sum of the
from which the multiples of 3 have been deleted: ages is a multiple of 3.
1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, . . . . Solution to problem I-M-S.5 A set of consecutive
We make use of the floor function, defined as natural numbers starting with 1 is written on a sheet
follows: [x] = the largest integer not exceeding x. of paper. One of the numbers is erased. The average
Example: [2.3] = 2, [10.7] = 10, [−1.7] = −2. Let of the remaining numbers is 5 29 . What is the number
f (n) denote the n-th term of the sequence erased? Let the largest number be n, so the sum of
1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, . . . . Then the sequence f (n) − n the numbers is n(n + 1)/2; let the number erased
has the following terms: 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, . . . . be x, where 1 ≤ x ≤ n. Then we have the following
The n-th term for this is easy to work out: it is equation which we must solve for n and x:
simply [(n − 1)/2]. Hence f(n) = n + [(n − 1)/2].
1
n(n+ 1) − x 47
2
= .
Solution to problem I-M-S.3 To find a formula for n−1 9
the n-th term of the sequence of natural numbers
Cross-multiplying and simplifying (we leave the
from which the squares have been deleted:
details to you) we get:
2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, . . . .
We again use the floor function. Let g(n) denote 9n2 − 85n + 94 = 18x.
the n-th term of the sequence
2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, . . . . Then the From this we see that 9 | 85n − 94, hence
sequence g(n) − n has the following terms: 9 | 4n − 4 = 4(n − 1), hence 9 | n − 1. (Recall that
1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, . . . . a | b means: ‘a is a divisor of b’.) Therefore
Note the pattern: two 1s, four 2s, six 3s, eight 4s, n ∈ {1, 10, 19, 28, 37, 46, . . . }.
. . . . The last 1 comes at position 2; the last 2
comes at position 6; the last 3 comes at position Next, since 1 ≤ x ≤ n, it follows that
12; . . . . It is easy to see that the last k must come
at position k(k + 1). Hence g(n) − n = k precisely
1
n(n+ 1) − n 47 1
n(n + 1) − 1
2
≤ ≤ 2
.
when (k − 1)k < n ≤ k(k + 1). Solving these n−1 9 n−1

We solve these two inequalities for n. The one on across the two baskets is
the left gives: 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 101 = 101 × 102/2 = 5151, we
have:
9n(n − 1)
≤ 47(n − 1), ∴ 9n ≤ 94,
2 nx + (101 − n)y = 5151. (1)
∴ n ≤ 10,
After the transfer of marble #40 from A to B, the
since n is a whole number. The one on the right individual basket totals are nx − 40 and
gives: (101 − n)y + 40, and the new averages are,
9(n − 1)(n + 2) respectively:
≥ 47(n − 1), ∴ 9(n + 2) ≥ 94,
2 nx − 40 (101 − n)y + 40
, .
∴ n ≥ 9. n−1 102 − n
Hence n ∈ {9, 10}. Invoking the earlier condition We are told that the new averages exceed the old
we get n = 10, and the number removed is ones by 1/4. Hence:
x = (900 − 850 + 94)/18 = 144/18 = 8. nx − 40 1
−x = ,
Solution to problem I-M-S.6 The average of a n−1 4
certain number of consecutive odd numbers is A. If (101 − n)y + 40 1
the next odd number after the largest one is −y = .
102 − n 4
included in the list, then the average goes up to B.
What is the value of B − A? Hence:
n−1
The sum of k consecutive odd numbers starting nx − 40 − (n − 1)x = ,
with 2n + 1 is (k + n)2 − n2 = k 2 + 2nk, hence the 4
102 − n
average of these numbers is k + 2n. The average (101 − n)y + 40 − (102 − n)y = .
of k + 1 consecutive odd numbers starting with 4
2n + 1 is clearly k + 1 + 2n. The difference These yield, on simplification:
between these two is 1. Hence B − A = 1.
n−1 102 − n
x − 40 = , 40 − y = . (2)
Solution to problem I-M-S.7 101 marbles 4 4
numbered from 1 to 101 are divided between two
We must solve (1) and (2). Substituting from (2)
baskets A and B. The marble numbered 40 is in
into (1) we get:
basket A. This marble is removed from basket A and

put in basket B. The average of the marble numbers n−1 102 − n
n + 40 + (101 − n) 40 −
in A increases by 1/4; the average of the marble 4 4
numbers in B also increases by 1/4. Find the = 5151.
number of marbles originally present in basket A.
(1999 Dutch Math Olympiad.) This yields:
Let baskets A and B have n marbles and 101 − n 101(n + 29)
marbles at the start, and let the averages of = 5151,
2
baskets A and B be x and y, respectively. Then the ∴ n + 29 = 51 × 2 = 102,
totals of the numbers in the two baskets are,
respectively, nx and (101 − n)y. Since the total giving n = 73.

Problems for the
problem corner
Senior School
Problem editors: PRITHWIJIT DE & SHAILESH SHIRALI
We start this column with a problem posed by a reader from Romania.

It looks daunting but turns out on closer examination to be a simple
consequence of a well known fact.
A Cryptarithmic Inequality
Problem posed by Stanciu Neculai first and last digits have simply swapped places
(Department of Mathematics, ‘George Emil (A . . . A and B . . . B on the left side, A . . . B and
Palade’ Secondary School, Buzau, Romania; E- B . . . A on the right side).
mail: <stanciuneculai@yahoo.com>) Let A, B,
Now when you have two pairs of positive
C, D, E denote arbitrary digits. Prove the
numbers with equal sum, which pair has a
inequality
greater product? We can state the same question
ACDEA × BCDEB ≤ ACDEB × BCDEA. geometrically: If we have two rectangles with
(1) equal perimeter, which of the two has greater
area? To guide our number sense we may
Example. Let (A, B, C, D, E) = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). consider various pairs of numbers with sum 20,
The stated relation then reads e.g., (19, 1), (18, 2), (17, 3), (16, 4), . . . . The
products associated with these pairs are 19, 36,
13451 × 23452 ≤ 13452 × 23451, 51, 64, . . . . The trend is easy to spot: The closer
the two numbers, the larger the product. Stated
and this statement is true: the quantity on the left
geometrically: The rectangle which is closer in
side equals 315452852, while the quantity on
appearance to a square has the greater area.
the right equals 315462852.
Solution. Note that the sum of the two numbers We may prove this statement rigorously as
on the left of (1) equals the sum of the two follows. Let p, q be two numbers whose sum is a
numbers on the right: constant. We wish to examine the behaviour of
the product pq. We now draw upon the following
ACDEA + BCDEB = ACDEB + BCDEA. simple identity:
(2)
4pq + (p − q)2 = (p + q)2 . (3)
To see why, note that the middle three digits are
the same in the four numbers (namely: C, D, E), Since p + q is constant, the sum of 4pq and
and they occur in the same order too; and the (p − q)2 is constant; so as one of them increases,

the other decreases by an equal amount. Hence: second pair is 9999|A − B|. Inequality (1)
The larger the difference between p and q, the follows.
smaller the product pq; the smaller the difference,
Comment. We see that the problem is merely a
the larger the product.
special case of a very well known fact: that when
the sum of two numbers is kept constant, their
So we ask: Of the two pairs {ACDEA, BCDEB}
product is larger when they are closer to each
and {ACDEB, BCDEA}, which pair is closer
other. So we may have any number of such
together?
inequalities:
Of course it is the second pair (we assume
AA × BB ≤ AB × BA,
that A = B; if A = B then the two pairs
are identical); for the difference between the ACA × BCB ≤ ACB × BCA,
numbers in the first pair is 10001|A − B| while
the difference between the numbers in the ACDA × BDCB ≤ ACDB × BCDA, ... .
Problem II-1-S.1 Problem II-1-S.3

Drawn through the point A of a common Solve the simultaneous equations:
chord AB of two circles is a straight line ab + c + d = 3, bc + d + a = 5, cd + a + b = 2,
intersecting the first circle at the point C, and the da + b + c = 6, where a, b, c, d are real numbers.
second circle at the point D. The tangent to the
first circle at the point C and the tangent to the Problem II-1-S.4
second circle at the point D intersect at the point Let x, y, and a be positive numbers such that
M. Prove that the points M, C, B, and D are x 2 + y 2 = a. Determine the minimum possible
concyclic. value of x 6 + y 6 in terms of a.
Problem II-1-S.2 Problem II-1-S.5

In triangle ABC, point E is the midpoint of the Let p, q and y be positive integers such that
side AB, and point D is the foot of the altitude CD. y 2 − qy + p − 1 = 0. Prove that p 2 − q 2 is not a
Prove that A = 2 B if and only if AC = 2ED. prime number.
Solutions of Problems in Issue-I-2

Solution to problem I-2-S.1 last two digits, and to compute the number of such
To find the sum of the first 100 terms of the series, numbers.
given that it begins with 2012 and is in AP as well We first show that there are 615 such numbers.
as GP. Let A refer to the block of the first two digits, and
Let r be the common ratio of the geometric B to the block of the last two digits. Let s be the
progression. Since the numbers are in AP and GP, sum of the digits in A (and therefore in B as
the numbers 1, r, r 2 are both in AP and GP, hence well); then 1 ≤ s ≤ 18. We shall count separately
1 + r 2 = 2r; this yields r = 1, implying that the the numbers corresponding to each value of s.
sequence is a constant sequence. Thus the sum of If s = 1 then the digits in A and B must be 1, 0.
the first 100 terms is 201200. For A the only possibility is (1, 0) and for B the
possibilities are (1, 0) and (0, 1); so there are
Solution to problem I-2-S.2 1 × 2 possibilities. If s = 2, the possibilities for A
To find the sum of all four digit numbers such that are (2, 0) and (1, 1); the possibilities for B are
the sum of the first two digits equals the sum of the (2, 0), (1, 1) and (0, 2); hence there are 2 × 3
58 At Right Angles | Vol 1 No 3 March 2013

possibilities. If s = 3 we get 3 × 4 possibilities the three digit numbers for which the first digit equals
same way. This pattern continues till s = 9, with the sum of the last two digits. Hence the desired
9 × 10 possibilities. For s = 10 the zero digit answer is 3349665 − 34815 = 3314850.
becomes unavailable, and we get 92 possibilities;
for s = 11 there are 82 possibilities; and so on
Solution to problem I-2-S.3
down to s = 18, with just 12 possibility. Hence the
To show that no term of the sequence 11, 111, 1111,
total number of possibilities is
11111, 111111, . . . is the square of an integer.
(1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + · · · + 9 × 10) Every integer in the sequence is odd and of the
+ (1 + 2 + · · · + 9 ) = 330 + 285 = 615.
2 2 2
form 100k + 11 for some non-negative integer k.
We know that the square of an odd integer is one
Now we compute the sum of all such numbers; we
more than a multiple of four. But all integers in the
show that the sum is 3314850. But we give the
given sequence are three more than a multiple of
solution in outline form and leave the task of
four. Therefore none of them is the square of an
filling some details to the reader.
integer.
As a first step, we find the sum of all three digit
numbers ABC whose first digit equals the sum of Solution to problem I-2-S.4
the last two digits, i.e., A = B +C or C = A−B. The
The radius r and the height h of a right-circular
number equals 100A+10B +A−B = 101A+9B;
cone with closed base are both an integer number
here 1 ≤ A ≤ 9 and B ≤ A. With A fixed, there
of centimetres, and the volume of the cone in cubic
are A + 1 such numbers, and their sum is
centimetres is equal to the total surface area of the
101A(A + 1) + 9(0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + A) = 211 A+1 2
.
cone in square centimetres; find the values of r and h.
Hence the
sum
of all such
numbers is
211 22 + 32 + 42 +· · ·+ 10 2
= 211· 11
3
= 34815. The given condition leads to the equation
1 2
π r h = π r 2 + π r r 2 + h2 .
Next, we find the sum of all two digit numbers with 3
a given digit sum s. We shall leave it to you to show
that if 1 ≤ s ≤ 9 the sum equals Simplifying we obtain r 2 = 9h/(h − 6). Since
r 2 > 0 we get h > 6.
11(1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + s) = 11 s+12
, while if
10≤ s ≤ 18 the sum equals
We also
write the previous relation as
11 45 − (1 + 2 + · · · + (s − 10) = 11 45 − s−9 2
. r = 9 + 54/(h − 6). Since r is an integer, h − 6
must divide 54 and the expression under the
Now we are ready to compute the sum of all four
square root sign must be a perfect square. Thus
digit numbers for which the sum of the first two
h − 6 ∈ {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 27, 54}. On checking
digits and the sum of the last two digits equal a
these values we find that r is an integer only when
given number s, where 1 ≤ s ≤ 18, but with 0
h − 6 = 2. Hence h = 8 and r = 6.
permitted as the leading digit. Using the result
derived in the preceding paragraph we find that
the sum equals 1111
2
s(s + 1)2 for 1 ≤ s ≤ 9, and Solution to problem I-2-S.5
1111
2
s(19 − s) for 10 ≤ s ≤ 18. Hence the sum of
2 Given a ABC and a point O within it, lines AO,
all such numbers is BO and CO are drawn intersecting the sides BC,
CA and AB at points P , Q and R, respectively;
1111 s=9 18
prove that AR/RB + AQ/QC = AO/OP .
s(s + 1)2 + (19 − s)s 2
2 s=0 10
Denote by [P QR] the area of the triangle P QR
1111
= (2640 + 3390) = 3349665. (see Figure 1). Observe that
2
AQ [ABQ] [AOQ]
This is not the final answer, because in the = =
collection of four digit numbers we have included QC [CBQ] [COQ]
numbers whose leading digit is 0. To get the [ABQ] − [AOQ] [AOB]
= = .
required answer we must subtract the sum of all [CBQ] − [COQ] [BOC]

A Solution to problem I-2-S.6
To show that every triangular number > 1 is the
sum of a square number and two triangular
numbers.
R Q
We consider separately the cases where n is even
and odd. If n is even, there exists a natural number
O
k such that n = 2k. Then:
n(n + 1)
= 2k 2 + k = (k 2 + k) + k 2
B P C 2
k(k + 1) k(k + 1)
= + + k2.
F IGURE 1. 2 2
If n > 1 is odd there exists a natural number k
such that n = 2k + 1. So we can write the nth
Similarly we get AR/RB = [AOC]/[BOC]. Hence
triangular number as
AQ AR [AOB] + [AOC]
+ = . (2k + 1)(k + 1) = k(k + 1) + (k + 1)2
QC RB [BOC]
k(k + 1) k(k + 1)
Now, = + + (k + 1)2 .
2 2
AO [AOB] [AOC]
= = Remark.
OP [P OB] [P OC]
[AOB] + [AOC] [AOB] + [AOC] We have established a stronger result: each
= = . triangular number exceeding 1 can be expressed
[P OB] + [P OC] [BOC]
as the sum of a square number and twice a
Therefore, AQ/QC + AR/RB = AO/OP . triangular number.
Ǯǯ
ϐ ǡ ͵Ǧ
Ǥ ϐ
ǡ

ǫȋ
ǤȌ

3yO\DWRWKHUHVFXH
:KHQ\RXGRQ·W
NQRZWKHVROXWLRQ
UHYLHZ
WRDSUREOHP
7LSVIURPDPDVWHU

!

123456768967
/
LNH

!"
!

#

$

%$
&

'
$
$
(
) $

" $
*

$
$

+,

-./

$

$

0
$

$
,

$

$

$ #

$ %
)

2
$ AGB< $

$

& :

<

$

$

C
2
:

+ :

$

$
FH

$
+
#

$

=> IAJB

$

&$
$
=>
)$ #

$%

*

%
;

$
)

)

)

$

K%
*

)
)

L=>

F0$

:
<

C M

N $
$

$
$

!

E M

0 =>"
EC

"

.?@-A.B
2 M

C
$
$

ECM<

$
$
CKC

$
'

=>$

CL

$
< $

$ C$

*

D$

$ &
:

)
:

=>

"
=>

E F

<

$ <
:
H
I

0

) H#IKHIL

$

:
=>

$
:
<
)

$ <
=> F

. O

: S < $ C

C M

& K< C
M

M
$ L C $
<

:
G P )

M
$
KC
M
)

C
M+
$
&
C C =>

M
$
< &
)
C+L
%
J ;

< ,

:

K<

$ ,

C
:

*

C <
C $

N $
. M
ΔC M$

CML MT
CMT

@ O

KL
$ C M
K<
M
G M
ΔC M$

M
ECM
:
KLC M

CMMC

C MKL
L
J M
ΔC M$

M
- <

K
J

KLC M

@L E

C

@ <

$

C

:

M

Q $
T

$

)

$

: K) **%*+

<

(

- C

& ''
( C
=

. C
$ ) M
$
T

$

=
=

+

KO

:

+L
G C
$ )

$

+ <

J C$

E

=>

$

=
R' + $

N

*

@ C$

E

)

$

'
$

+

=

- C$

E

$

'
=>

+

C

$

$ ,

*
$

$ $

< :

FC

+ )K L

:
)

+
$

$

+C <

+

)

$

;

$ $

$
$

=> $

:

C
2
:

<

Q

;
$

$ "

$
$

$
*:
;

*

C

$

2

) K,

$

)

L" =>

F &

W M

C M$

K2
$
M
C
$

X
L

A.B =>0K.??/L"

,

=

AGB =>0K.?U.L#

$ ,

KM
:

$ L N %
AJB 2
C"K.?UVL=> $

#

- '.K-LGUJ:G?.
/ #' % * + + 44 "- $4 2 3 +
#!"--42$ + D "+ *4""
44)+ "2 ""7*4"+ * +"7*4
+44 $ 7"**,*,
"- " 4 $ 2-" "7*4 + - -<
-4+ 4( )44. 301""7*4+44F2)
* 4 ,7

:(%6,7(5(9,(:E\5DMNLVKRUH3DWQDLN

!
C
: !

N &
:
.??U

$
=
ǤǤF $
$

,
M
KF^^^_M$
SL
FHP
F KF^^^1U.JL
:
;
,

KF^^^1-0
ML

< $

2 F $

:

< F
P

:

O

<
D
N )

$

E
;

D$
F<

1 '

'

P
&

'
2
N$ G/..

'
,$ )

N 2 $ KF^^^Q21L
%<

+<
$

$ JG/?//

: `!K @ :

<
,

:
`
L

C
$ &

YC$
$

"

$

Y,: P(

$ "
F
(

$
$ $

P
`+
H.ZIK [Z

Y

<

[L=

C
I $ SGU
<

< N \
:

M

= =, C

=
] 0 P C N
N N

M K/0
$
%< "

,!2
: 1 L

)
N
:

N
&

$ +

)

$

/%#$:!44- "4-(-44" """2* *<
7 --#:,* ( )!"->,"84D45 4A'7 ,
( ""* +"-+( "-
E

K

$

L

S/a

< G/a

:

" $
:

[<:

M K2L
FH )LJXUH

2IK$

2L

N

$ [
K ( .L
$
=5$ G/a

. ! M KL
M KL# 3
E

!
&

G ! M K3L
M K3CL# 4 ' E

K( GL TG

345

J

J # $

$KO = L
M K3L
# 6
5
@ ! M K4$L
M K$4L# D
$'
56T J
$6T.

]
5 6TGbGb.T-
F
- , =5$ G/a
[
3
tan =EOD = .
2F
$ + 5
O

) F=5$T
h.
B C E J^-i.?./SSa2=5$E G/a
<

)

O A D
K<

)LJXUH#-**" -+
L

$

$
3 --2,# )7)
+8 ( >( )+-"#-2
,+/8 (
>3:' %><>$!>%3#3! >!.331- +,!"-3
.51%"( )*+44"-" )* * +4
+ #&7 4" &:334,2"444 ?44

´:KHQ\RXGRQ·WNQRZWKHVROXWLRQWRDSUREOHPµ
. C
=
E
G C

K<

L
J <

=R
@ C

:

- C
$

<
E
"
+
S <

C
<
)

;

C

M"
F
;C

M+

< .V
< J

ǣ<

ǣ2

:

E 2
2
:

,
/.

)

/

:
<
)

j@ [2
:
P
] <

/"
.

F
. P
] $ F 2 .

J
G

< :

jJ
G P

F
.

J
, $ F
./

@ ]

F
G

- P
] $ F
G

S <F.V

N
G
@

P
] <

.V

LETTER
&RXVLQWR9LYLDQL·V7KHRUHP &ORXJK·V&RQMHFWXUH &ORXJK·V7KHRUHP

In Issue-I-2 of At Right Angles we had presented an account of Viviani’s theorem,
proved it using vector algebra, and found that the proof gave rise to a corollary in an
unexpected and yet very natural way. We called it a ‘cousin’ to Viviani’s theorem:
Let ΔABC be equilateral with side a,

and let P be a point in its interior. Let
perpendiculars PD, PE, PF be dropped
to sides BC, CA, AB respectively. Then
BD+CE+AF = 3a/2 for all positions of P.
It turns out that this result has been known for a decade, and has a curious history
behind it. In the literature it is known as Clough’s Conjecture. We came to know this
through a letter received from Professor Michael de Villiers of the Department of Math
Education, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. He refers us to a paper of his,
“An example of the explanatory and discovery function of proof”. It was presented at
ICME 12 and has now been published in the online journal ‘Pythagoras’ at: http://www.
pythagoras.org.za/index.php/pythagoras/article/view/193.
Readers are urged to download this very readable paper and learn how the result was
discovered empirically by Duncan Clough, a Cape Town grade 11 student, during a dy-
namic geometry session in which the students were exploring Viviani’s theorem and
attempting to prove it; he reported it to his teacher Marcus Bizony, who wrote to de
Villiers; and that’s how it got the name “Clough’s Conjecture” (but it is now a theorem,
proved by de Villiers himself). In the paper, the author notes that the incident provides
an illustration of the fact that the search for proof sometimes uncovers new results.
This is the central thesis of the paper, and it is a matter worth dwelling on as it has im-
portant pedagogic implications. He also provides a few proofs of the theorem, shows
that it follows from the main Viviani theorem, and deduces some extensions, e.g., to a
rhombus and to an equi-angular pentagon.
Many thanks to Prof de Villiers for this communication.
— The Editors
C

THE MATHEMATICAL “L”

=
,
7

8

8

9

#

)

!

7
!
:

7 9
* ; < => < * "
" > 1
$

8

?

->>
"
%
&
:
@(

#

!

A
0

9
B>

0 %@

3 :

&

(

5
9
>
7
%C'
8

; <
'>

@/
7

7

3

7

6

@/
5/

!
/>

!

9

4

9

F B

5 @

7

7

&>(
-
4

5
50
!
%

9

)

:

:

7 @

X F^^

ANNOUNCEMENTS
TIME 2013 + ATCM 2013, a joint session of 18th Asian Technology Conference in
Mathematics and 6th Technology & Innovations in Math Education.
Dates: 07-11 December, 2013
Location: Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of Technology, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
URL: http://atcm.mathandtech.org/ and http://www.math.iitb.ac.in/TIME2013
Organizer: Inder Kumar Rana / email Address: ikr@math.iitb.ac.in
Description: The ATCM conferences are international conferences addressing technology-based

issues in all Mathematical Sciences. The 17th ATCM December 16-20, 2012 was held at SSR University,
Bangkok, Thailand. About 400 participants from over 30 countries around the world participated in
the conference. The TIME conferences are national (Indian) conferences held every two years. TIME
conferences serve a dual role: as a forum in which math educators and teachers come together to
discuss and to probe major issues associated with the integration of technology in mathematics
teaching and learning, and as a place where they share their perspectives, personal experiences, and
innovative teaching practices.
0DWKHPDWLFVRI3ODQHW(DUWK03(
,QWHUQDWLRQDO&HQWUHIRU7KHRUHWLFDO6FLHQFHVRIWKH7DWD,QVWLWXWHRI)XQGDPHQWDO5HVHDUFK,&767,)5
LVDSDUWQHULQVWLWXWLRQLQ0DWKHPDWLFVRI3ODQHW(DUWK03(KWWSZZZPSHRUJ²D\HDUORQJ
ZRUOGZLGH SURJUDP GHVLJQHG WR VKRZFDVH ZD\V LQ ZKLFK WKH PDWKHPDWLFDO VFLHQFHV FDQ EH XVHIXO LQ
WDFNOLQJRXUSODQHW·VSUREOHPV03(DFWLYLWLHVLQ,QGLDEHJDQZLWKWKH6ULQLYDVD5DPDQXMDQ/HFWXUHV
E\$QGUHZ0DMGDRI&RXUDQW,QVWLWXWHDQGDQDVVRFLDWHGZHHNORQJGLVFXVVLRQPHHWLQJRQ´0DWKHPDWLFDO
3HUVSHFWLYHVRQ&ORXGV&OLPDWHDQG7URSLFDO0HWHRURORJ\µGXULQJ-DQXDU\DW,&76%DQJD
ORUHKWWSZZZLFWVUHVLQOHFWXUHGHWDLOV$QXSFRPLQJ03(,&76SURJUDPLVRQ´$GYDQFHG
G\QDPLFDOFRUHPRGHOOLQJIRUDWPRVSKHULFDQGRFHDQLFFLUFXODWLRQVµGXULQJ)HEUXDU\DW1D
WLRQDO$WPRVSKHULF5HVHDUFK/DERUDWRU\1$5/*DGDQNL$QGKUD3UDGHVK,QGLD7ZRPRUHVXFKHYHQWV
DUHXQGHUSODQQLQJ
,&76DQG7,)5&HQWUHIRU$SSOLFDEOH0DWKHPDWLFV&$0KDYHSDUWQHUHGWRDQQRXQFH´([SORUH ([KLELW
DQ,QWHUFROOHJLDWH$OO,QGLD([KLELWLRQ&RPSHWLWLRQµIRU03(H[KLELWLRQPRGXOHVDORQJWKHOLQHVRIWKH
JOREDOFRPSHWLWLRQ:HKRSHWKDWVWXGHQWVLQGLYLGXDOVIDFXOW\DQGUHVHDUFKHUVIURPGLIIHUHQWLQVWLWXWHV
ZLWKLQWKHFRXQWU\ZLOOEHH[FLWHGWROHDUQDERXWDQGWRH[SUHVVLQDQHQJDJLQJPDQQHUVRPHRIWKHPDWKH
PDWLFVXQGHUO\LQJWKHYDULRXVSURFHVVHVRQWKH3ODQHW(DUWKDQGVXEPLWDQHQWU\WRWKLVFRPSHWLWLRQ7KH
EHVWLGHDVZLOOEHVKRUWOLVWHGE\DQHPLQHQWSDQHORIMXGJHVDQGVHOHFWHGWREHDZDUGHGDQGVKRZFDVHG
LQDQH[KLELWLRQRISK\VLFDODQGYLUWXDOPRGXOHV6XFKDQH[KLELWLRQZLOOEHKRVWHGE\,&76WRZDUGVWKH
HQGRIWKH\HDU,&76DQG&$0DUHDOVRFRQGXFWLQJPDQ\UHODWHGDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVZRUNVKRSVIRUFROOHJH
VWXGHQWVFDPSVIRUVFKRROVWXGHQWVSXEOLFOHFWXUHVWRVSUHDGWKHDZDUHQHVVDPRQJVWWKHJHQHUDOSXEOLF
)RUPRUHLQIRUPDWLRQSOHDVHZULWHWRPSH#LFWVUHVLQ

The Closing Bracket . . .
In the context of the furious debates going on It is sobering to reflect on the state of education in
about education in many parts of the world, it is India. (Refer to ASER 2012, available at
useful to recall the gentle words of a great educator http://www.asercentre.org/.) Given that we are
- Richard Skemp (1919–1995), who studied struggling with matters of basic literacy, basic
towards a mathematics degree, became a math numeracy and basic amenities available to
teacher, and then, convinced that he needed to students and teachers, it may seem surreal to talk
understand how children learn, returned to college of what education can be in a deeper sense.
to study psychology. A deep conviction of Skemp’s
was that young children have the capacity to learn But in fact the demand becomes all the more vital.
with engagement and understanding, and in Is it not incumbent on us – those who possess the
consonance with that belief he produced a facilities and the wherewithal to do so – to not
complete curriculum framework for primary restrict our teaching to mere instrumental
school, called “Structured Activities in Intelligent understanding, to not restrict schooling to a mere
Learning”; these ‘SAIL’ books may be freely acquisition of skills meant to sharpen one’s
downloaded from http://www.grahamtall.co.uk/ competitive instincts to rise up the social ladder,
skemp/sail/index.html. but to allow education its full and deepest
expression? As J Krishnamurti (1895–1986) put it
The theme that children are capable of intelligent in a talk to students in Rishi Valley School,
learning recurs repeatedly in Skemp’s writings, and “Education is not only learning from books,
it reflects in a piece he wrote which has now memorizing some facts, but also learning how to
become a classic, “Relational and instrumental look, how to listen to what the books are saying,
understanding”. Here he distinguishes between whether they are saying something true or false. . . .
two varieties of understanding (by ‘relational Education is not just to pass examinations, take a
understanding’ he refers to an understanding degree and a job, get married and settle down, but
where one grasps the subject matter in terms of its also to be able to listen to the birds, to see the sky,
network of relationships, connectedness and to see the extraordinary beauty of a tree, and the
pathways; ‘instrumental understanding’ refers to shape of the hills, and to feel with them, to be
mastery of skills and procedures), asks why really, directly in touch with them. As you grow
teachers the world over seem to prefer teaching for older, that sense of listening, seeing, unfortunately
instrumental understanding, plays the Devil’s disappears because you have worries, you want
advocate and sets out some of its attractive more money, a better car, more children or less
features, then demonstrates convincingly the children. You become jealous, ambitious, greedy,
lasting value of relational understanding. The envious; so you lose the sense of the beauty of the
article is available at http://www.grahamtall.co. earth. You know what is happening in the world.
uk/skemp/pdfs/instrumental-relational.pdf. You must be studying current events. There are
wars, revolts, nation divided against nation. In this
We recall the words of Noam Chomsky: “An country too there is division, separation, poverty,
essential part of education is fostering the impulse squalor and complete callousness. Man does not
to challenge authority and think critically.” There care what happens to another so long as he is
has never been a time when the need for critical perfectly safe. And you are being educated to fit
thinking is greater than at present, when into all this. . . . Is this right, is this what education
fundamentalist forces threaten our very existence, is meant for, that you should willingly or
when the strident need for identity and the unwillingly fit into this mad structure called
acceptance of authority have begun to dominate society?” (From the text Krishnamurti on
individual lives, and consumerism is ripping apart Education.) What is our response to this, as
the Earth. What role can a mathematics teacher mathematics teachers?
play with regard to this great need?
- Shailesh Shirali
Specific Guidelines for Authors
Prospective authors are asked to observe the following guidelines.
1. Use a readable and inviting style of writing which attempts to capture the reader's attention at the start.
The first paragraph of the article should convey clearly what the article is about. For example, the opening
paragraph could be a surprising conclusion, a challenge, figure with an interesting question or a relevant
anecdote. Importantly, it should carry an invitation to continue reading.
2. Title the article with an appropriate and catchy phrase that captures the spirit and substance of the article.
3. Avoid a 'theorem-proof' format. Instead, integrate proofs into the article in an informal way.
4. Refrain from displaying long calculations. Strike a balance between providing too many details and
making sudden jumps which depend on hidden calculations.
5. Avoid specialized jargon and notation — terms that will be familiar only to specialists. If technical terms
are needed, please define them.
6. Where possible, provide a diagram or a photograph that captures the essence of a mathematical idea.
Never omit a diagram if it can help clarify a concept.
7. Provide a compact list of references, with short recommendations.
8. Make available a few exercises, and some questions to ponder either in the beginning or at the end of the
article.
9. Cite sources and references in their order of occurrence, at the end of the article. Avoid footnotes. If
footnotes are needed, number and place them separately.
10. Explain all abbreviations and acronyms the first time they occur in an article. Make a glossary of all such
terms and place it at the end of the article.
11. Number all diagrams, photos and figures included in the article. Attach them separately with the e-mail,
with clear directions. (Please note, the minimum resolution for photos or scanned images should be
300dpi).
12. Refer to diagrams, photos, and figures by their numbers and avoid using references like 'here' or 'there' or
'above' or 'below'.
13. Include a high resolution photograph (author photo) and a brief bio (not more than 50 words) that gives
readers an idea of your experience and areas of expertise.
14. Adhere to British spellings – organise, not organize; colour not color, neighbour not neighbor, etc.
15. Submit articles in MS Word format or in LaTeX.

Call for Articles
At Right Angles welcomes articles from math teachers, educators, practitioners, parents
and students. If you have always been on the lookout for a platform to express your
mathematical thoughts, then don’t hesitate to get in touch with us.
Suggested Topics and Themes

Articles involving all aspects of mathematics Also welcome are short pieces featuring:
are welcome. An article could feature: a new reviews of books or math software or a
look at some topic; an interesting problem; an YouTube clip about some theme in mathemat-
interesting piece of mathematics; a connec- ics; proofs without words; mathematical
tion between topics or across subjects; a paradoxes; ‘false proofs’; poetry, cartoons or
historical perspective, giving the background photographs with a mathematical theme;
of a topic or some individuals; problem solving anecdotes about a mathematician; ‘math from
in general; teaching strategies; an interesting the movies’.
classroom experience; a project done by a
student; an aspect of classroom pedagogy; a Articles may be sent to :
discussion on why students find certain topics AtRiA.editor@apu.edu.in
difficult; a discussion on misconceptions in Please refer to specific editorial policies and
mathematics; a discussion on why mathemat- guidelines below.
ics among all subjects provokes so much fear;
an applet written to illustrate a theme in
mathematics; an application of mathematics
in science, medicine or engineering; an algo-
rithm based on a mathematical idea; etc.
Policy for Accepting Articles

‘At Right Angles' is an in-depth, serious magazine on holds the right to translate and disseminate all articles
mathematics and mathematics education. Hence articles published in the magazine.
must attempt to move beyond common myths, perceptions
If the submitted article has already been published, the author
and fallacies about mathematics.
is requested to seek permission from the previous publisher
The magazine has zero tolerance for plagiarism. By for re-publication in the magazine and mention the same in
submitting an article for publishing, the author is assumed to the form of an 'Author's Note' at the end of the article. It is also
declare it to be original and not under any legal restriction for expected that the author forwards a copy of the permission
publication (e.g. previous copyright ownership). Wherever letter, for our records. Similarly, if the author is sending
appropriate, relevant references and sources will be clearly his/her article to be re-published, (s) he is expected to ensure
indicated in the article. that due credit is then given to 'At Right Angles'.
'At Right Angles' brings out translations of the magazine in While 'At Right Angles' welcomes a wide variety of articles,
other Indian languages and uses the articles published on The articles found relevant but not suitable for publication in the
Teachers' Portal of Azim Premji University to further magazine may - with the author's permission - be used in
disseminate information. Hence, Azim Premji University other avenues of publication within the University network.
At Right
The entire issue can be freely downloaded from:
http://azimpremjiuniversity.edu.in/content/publications
Angles
For a print copy, kindly send a mail giving your complete postal address and institutional
affiliation to the following e-mail ID: AtRightAngles@apu.edu.in
Teaching of the place value system happens in the context of teaching numbers and is very closely
related to counting, grouping objects to aid counting, usage of number decomposition, learning
the patterns in number names, learning the written representations of numbers, learning the
patterns in the relationships between consecutive places, and developing a proper number sense.
Children develop facility with numbers and a sound understanding of the number system only if
sufficient care is taken in building all the above mentioned areas.
PRE-REQUISITES BEFORE
TEACHING PLACE VALUE SYSTEM
§ Recognizing and identifying in terms of objects, the numbers 1 to 9
§ Reciting, reading and writing of numerals, number names 1 to 9
§ Functional understanding of 0
§ Ordering numbers 1 to 9
§ Basic addition facts
§ Addition facts of 0
§ Complementary addition facts of 9 and 10
At Right Angles | Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013

Objective Materials required:
ACTIVITY Introduction of 10 and the § Loose sticks or straws, rubber bands
ONE relationship between ten and
a unit
§ Loose colour papers, clips
§ Dot sheets
§ Place value card
Importance
Even though this is the first activity in the teaching of
place value and is a fairly simple activity for the child it
lays the foundation of the place value system. It needs
to be done repeatedly in various situations as will be
explained later to help children understand the
relationship between a ten and a unit.
Initially the teacher should count out the sticks
(slowly, saying aloud 1, 2, 3, etc.) till he reaches 10
and show them that he is making a bundle of 10
sticks. He should clearly differentiate between the
word sticks and bundle as the sticks are 10 but the
bundle is 1. Tens and units sticks
Let each child count ten sticks carefully and make a
bundle of 10 sticks with a rubber band. They can be given coloured square paper sheets
which they can count and clip. “This is a bundle of 10
The teacher can pick up 7 sticks and ask: “How many papers.”
more sticks do I need to make a bundle of 10 sticks?”
Since we expect children to know complementary They can also be given dot paper and asked to line 10
facts of 10 by now, they should be able to answer dots or circle 10 dots. “This is a group of 10 dots.”
this. They can now be shown how to write ten using a
In a similar way the teacher can pick up 12 sticks and place value card with headers. The use of place value
ask: “I need to make a bundle of 10 sticks. What do I cards (see photograph) facilitates placing of materials
do?” The children will suggest that he remove 2 sticks and the corresponding number cards in the right
and bundle the rest. places. From the beginning children must see clearly
the relationship between the activity or the
Children can be given some seeds and asked to make manipulative and the procedural rules of recording
a group of ten. It is important however to use and and writing.
emphasize the right language: “This is a group of 10
seeds.”
Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles

ACTIVITY Learning to count in tens: 1 § Loose sticks or straws, rubber bands
TWO ten, 2 tens, and so on, up to 9
tens; and their number names
§ Loose colour papers, clips
§ Dot sheets
ten, twenty, etc. § Place value card
§ Flash cards for number names,
numerals, objects
§ Beads and string
We now repeat activity I by working with more sticks and making several bundles of 10 sticks.
Point out that the bundle that they are making has 10 sticks.
As mentioned earlier one needs to emphasize the language aspect by saying: “Here is 1 bundle of sticks. How many
sticks?” Ten. “Here are 2 bundles of sticks. How many sticks?” Twenty.
Now the teacher can ask various children to make different numbers of bundles and teach number names for
those. They can record them using the place value cards.
The teacher can pick up some bundles and ask “How many sticks?” They first answer by counting the number of
bundles and then verify their answer by opening up the bundle and counting the sticks.
Children can also do some exercises with dot paper. They should also be given worksheets which require them to
write the numbers for given pictures and draw pictures for given numbers. They can build bead strings with
different tens.
Finally children can be given flash cards consisting of pictures of bundles and corresponding number names for
matching.
Bead string for tens Dot sheet

ACTIVITY Counting, recording and § Loose colour papers, clips
THREE writing numbers
§ From 11 to20
§ Ten square strips, loose square slips
§ Dot sheets
§ From 20 to 99 § Place value card
§ Flash cards for number names,
numerals, objects
§ Number line strip(0 to 99);
permanent number line can be
drawn below the blackboard
§ Number cards
We can now repeat Activity II by working with several

bundles of 10 sticks and loose sticks.
Let the children count objects not exceeding 100
(objects kept loose). Show how grouping them into
tens makes the task easier.
Let them count objects not exceeding 100 (objects
kept in tens and ones).
Let them count both discrete objects (seeds, beads)
and continuous objects (line of tiles, strings of beads
or flowers, paper rolls with regular markings) not
exceeding 100.
Place value card
Show them some tens and some ones.
Ask them to show fewer sticks than what you have from twenty onwards. 61 is ‘sixty one’; the number
put in front of them. name matches with the way it is written. This
Give them a number and ask them to pick out the problem exists to varying degrees in other languages
required number of tens and ones as well.
Give them a sheet of paper with some dots and let Hence while teaching children to record numbers
children circle the tens and ones when you call out a from 11 to 20 it is necessary to emphasize their
number. decomposition: ten and one make eleven, ten and
two make twelve, etc., so they associate the tens
Give them various activities which make them record
place digit and units place digit with the correct
and write different numbers.
number.
Common errors: When asked to write thirty one, a
Practice: The teacher can ask the children to turn to
child writes 13. He has not understood that 13 is 1 ten
the correct page of a book, given the page number.
and 3 ones, whereas 31 is 3 tens and 1 one.
Children should also be given worksheets which
One major difficulty with teaching the writing of
require them to write the numbers for given pictures
numbers from 11 to 19 is caused by the mismatch
and draw pictures for given numbers. The semi-
between the way the number is written and the name
concrete representation is necessary till the children
by which it is called; e.g., 14 is ‘fourteen’: the word
reach the take-off stage.
four comes first, which does not happen for numbers

GAME
Game 1: Double Nine Materials required:
Objective: Developing number sense § Ten square strips and loose square slips.
§ Dice
Children can be divided into groups of 5. One child becomes a banker and has a stock of loose square slips and strips.
Each child throws the dice in turns and collects that many ones (square slips) from the banker. As the children
continue to play, they collect more ones. Each time they have a collection of ten ones they exchange it for a strip with
the banker. They continue till one of them reaches 99.

ACTIVITY Developing sequential nature § Number line
FOUR of numbers
§ From 11 to 20
§ From 20 to 99
Many number line exercises can be created which will help in visualizing
the sequential nature of numbers.
Teachers should consciously help children to achieve understanding of
the succession of numbers by using different manipulatives.
Both forward counting and backward counting should be practised.
Number line
GAME
Game 2: Flags Materials required:
Objective: Sequencing numbers § Long string
§ Number cards
Variation 1: Tie the string across the room. Take some number cards at
random and let each child pick up one number card. By turn each can
clip it on the string ensuring that they are in increasing order.
Variation 2: The teacher can put up a card on the string and ask
questions like: “Who has the nearest card to this?”, “Who has the card
furthest away from this?”, “Who has the nearest ten to this card?”,
“Who has 5 more than this?”, “Who has 10 less than this?”, “Who has
the card where the tens and units are interchanged?” These questions
will stimulate discussion amongst students leading to comparison of
numbers, adding, subtracting and paying close attention to the place
values.

ACTIVITY Developing number sense, § Newspapers
FIVE approximation and estimation
skills
§ A few textbooks
§ A collection of seeds
The teaching of numbers should be accompanied by activities which develop a number sense – i.e., a sense of the size
of the number, its relationship with other numbers, properties of the number, proximity to multiples of ten, etc.
GAME
Game 3: Guess the number
Objective: Developing number sense
Let each child take a fistful of seeds and pour them out Ask the children to bring a newspaper. Ask them to
on his table. Let the child guess the number of these circle 50 words (by guessing and not counting). Let
seeds and write it down. Now ask the child to count them later count the words and check how close their
them by making it into groups of ten. guess was to the actual number.
Ask the children to open a particular page in a textbook. Number patterns: Plenty of number pattern exercises
Ask them to guess the number of words on the page can be done to build number sense leading to an
(ensure that it is less than 100), or in a given paragraph. understanding of number behavior.
Let the child record his guess and then count the words
to check how close his guess was.

ACTIVITY Fixing place value through § Ten square strips and loose square
SIX headers: tens (t), units (u) and
arrow cards
slips
§ Place value card
§ Arrow cards
Common errors: Integrating part and whole:

When asked to write twenty three, a child writes 203.
What has led to this error? If the child were now asked to read it, how does
he/she read it?
This is a situation of not being able to integrate parts with the whole – the
child is treating the tens separately and the three units separately. What
form of teaching will prevent these errors?
Arrow cards help in remedying this kind of a situation and making the Arrow card
hidden values explicit for children.
Let the children show the given number on the place value card with strips and slips.
Let them build the number using arrow cards as shown, one below the other and later by placing one over the other
to integrate the parts with the whole.
Let the children write the number for the given picture and build the number.
ACTIVITY Reinforcing place value § Abacus, beads
SEVEN through the usage of an
abacus
§ Strips of ten squares and square slips
§ Place value cards
Abacus is a useful device in demonstrating place values. 10, 10 to 11, 19 to 20, 20 to 21, 29 to 30 and 30 to 31
But the teacher must keep in mind that it does involve are important; the teacher needs to make the actions
abstraction as one bead in the tens place represents a clear by giving a ‘running commentary’. It is also
ten and a bead in the hundred’s place represents a important to go backwards from 99 to 1 by removing
hundred. one bead at a time.
Introduction to the abacus needs to be done slowly and Practice: You can make groups of 3 children and give an
carefully by actually showing how numbers from 1 to 9 abacus to the first child, the strips of ten squares and
are represented, and that when we need to represent a the square slips to the second, and the place value cards
ten we move to the tens place as the units place can be to the third. One child shows a number on the abacus,
used for only nine beads. (It may be best to use a model and the other two show the same with their materials.
of an abacus which can only accommodate nine Another now shows a different number using strips
beads.) By placing one bead after another progressively and square slips; the other two have to show that
we show how numbers 11 to 99 are represented on an number using their materials. And so on.
abacus. One has to make sure that children grasp the
They should record the work in square ruled note books
point that each time we have ten ones an extra bead
with appropriate drawings and recordings of numbers.
gets added to the tens place. The transitions from 9 to
GAME
Game 4: Reach zero
Objective: Exchanging tens and units
Make a group of 4 children. One child can be the banker. Start with any number say 30, represented on the abacus.
Children take turns throwing the die. After each throw, they take away that number from the abacus. If in the first
round a child gets four the child will have to remove 1 bead from the tens place and exchange for 10 beads and place
6 back on the units rod. They continue to play till they reach zero.

ACTIVITY Introducing hundred § Abacus, beads
EIGHT § Hundred square sheets, Ten square
strips and Square slips
§ 100 square board
Initially count out the ten square strips (slowly, saying

aloud: 91, 92, 93, etc.) till you reach 99 and show
them that when one more square slip is added there
will be 10 ten square strips (the 10 loose units get
exchanged for a ten strip). Now tell them that 10 such
strips together make a hundred (they can be
exchanged for a hundred square) and show them how
it is written. (Let the children verify for themselves that
the hundred square is made up of ten strips.) They
must see that a hundred equals 10 tens and also 100
units.
You can demonstrate this on an abacus, counting from
99 onwards. It is important to approach the teaching
of a new place value in a progressive way, so that Hundreds, tens and units
children see its relationship to numbers they have met
earlier, and the place values. So how many ones do I have now?” Zero. “So I write a
zero in the ones place.” … “How many tens did I have
Now use the place value cards by progressively in the beginning?” Nine. “How many tens are there
changing cards from 91 to 99 and point out how the now?”10 tens. “I can exchange 10 Tens for a hundred
units and tens places both have a 9, and how as you square. How many tens are there now?” Zero. “So I
add one more unit to it, a new place (hundred gets write a zero in the tens place. How many hundreds do I
created), and the units and tens places both become have now?” One. “So I write a 1 in the hundreds
zero. place.” And so on.
Many a time, teachers conduct activities with children Explore: Let children write all the numbers from 1 to
without adequate commentary, explanations and 100 in a 10 by 10 square. There are many patterns in a
questions; without pausing and drawing children’s number square which the children can notice and
attention to the crucial aspects. The activity will not share. For example, if they look at the numbers
produce the desired benefits (in terms of improving vertically (along the columns) they see 23, 33, 43, 53,
understanding) if this is not done. Also, the activity etc., leading to understanding of addition by tens. If
needs to be repeated by the teacher and the students a they look at the numbers along the diagonals they see
sufficient number of times for the concept to be how the units and tens places are changing. They
internalized. It is important to correlate the activity notice what happens when they increase any number
with the materials and the writing by asking questions by nine. A modified version of snakes and ladders can
such as: “How many units do I have here now?” Nine. be played using a 100 square board.
“What happens when I bring in 1 more unit?” There
are 10 units. “Now I exchange the ten units for a strip.

ACTIVITY Teaching 101 to 999 § Hundred square sheets, Ten square
NINE Strips and Square slips
§ Abacus, beads
§ Arrow cards
The initial focus is on numbers 100 to 200. which expect children to fill a 10 by 10 square grid
with numbers from 101 to 200. This exercise is
Each child must have a place value kit (hundreds, tens
meaningful if teachers pose questions based on this,
and units material, arrow cards, place value card,
requiring them to observe and record different kinds
abacus) which can be used for depicting any number
of patterns and helping them to generalize from the
between 100 and 200.
observations.
Handling the concrete material should be followed
Once children are thorough with numbers from 100
by a representation (semi-concrete) in the square
to 200, one can proceed to 200 to 999.
ruled note book, accompanied by the written form of
the number. Common error: When asked, “How many tens are
there in 342?” a child responds by saying ‘4 tens’.
Common errors: When asked to write the number
which comes after 129, a child writes 1210. This error comes from the child not having
understood that each higher place is composed of
What could be the causes for this?
the lower places.
The child has not understood that when the units
The teacher will need to show that the hundreds are
increase to ten, it alters the tens place and the units
composed of tens and 3 hundreds are composed of
place.
30 tens. So the number 342 contains 34 tens and 2
The child has also not grasped that any place can hold units. While discussing place value it is important to
only one digit. help the child to realize that tens are composed of
The child may not be reading the number as a whole units, hundreds are composed of tens and units and
–not as ‘one hundred and twenty-nine’ but as ‘one so on.
two nine’. As practice one needs to pose exercises like: 254 =
A child who has handled concrete materials for a ___ tens + ____units, with the blanks to be filled.
sufficient length of time would have internalized the Common error: While comparing numbers, a child
relevant concept, and this would have prevented and writes ‘97 > 102’.
corrected these types of problems.
This is an error of incorrect application of procedures.
It is important to focus on these transition points in The child is comparing the starting digits in both the
numbers: 119-120-121,129-130-131,139-140- numbers without reading the whole numbers with
141, etc. Children need to perceive the patterns their place values.
present here. Many text books do have exercises

ACTIVITY Introducing thousand § Wooden cube or a card board cube
TEN (as shown in the picture), hundred
square sheets, ten square Strips and
Square slips
§ Abacus, beads
Use materials or drawings to show 991, 992, 993, etc.,

till you reach 999, and ask the children what would
happen when one more unit is added. Lead them to
discover that one more unit will increase the tens by
one more ten, one more ten will lead to an increase in
hundreds by one more hundred and that we will then
have 10 hundreds. Now you can tell them that 10
hundreds is called a thousand and is written as 1000.
You can show the model for 1000. If you show them a
cube (as shown in the picture) you will need to discuss
with the children the layers of hundreds in them, get
them to count these layers so that they are able to
visualize the 1000. They need to see that a thousand
equals each of the following: 10 hundreds, 100 tens,
1000 units. As the numbers grow larger and counting
is not an option any longer, children need to notice
relationships and patterns, generalize them and
develop the capacity for abstraction. Paper cube
You can now demonstrate this on an abacus, counting
from 990 onwards.

ACTIVITY Thousands and larger § Abacus, beads
ELEVEN numbers

value, children must understand that a thousand is This will address the problem of wrong reading of
equal to 10 hundreds, 100 tens, 1000 units. They numbers. The point that one has to stress is that the
must also understand that each place is created by value of a place is determined by reference to the right
taking 10 times the lower place. Once they are clear on most place.
the procedures, they will then be able to generalize
“What number precedes 2,01,010?” A child writes 2,
them and apply them to higher place values (up to
00,009.
lakhs or millions at the appropriate age).
We find that the child has not completely understood
Right from the beginning we must help children to
the way numbers increase.
learn the place values in order from the right most
number. For example: 32,504. We need to point to 4 Teachers should consciously help children to achieve
(while saying units) and move step by step mentioning understanding of succession of numbers by discussing
each place value so that the child notes the order. many such problems.
GAME
Game 5: Twenty questions
Tell the children that your number lies between 100 and 200. The children have to find the number by asking twenty
questions. They can only ask questions of the kind which require an answer “yes” or “no”. They may ask a question
like “Is the number more than 130?” Teacher can draw a number line on the board, and after each yes/no answer,
cross out the irrelevant part to help children in visualizing the range within which the number lies. It also helps
children learn how to ask good questions, how to eliminate the unnecessary parts, and how to use diagrams in
problem solving.
Padmapriya Shirali is part of the Community Math Centre based in Sahyadri

School (Pune) and Rishi Valley (AP), where she has worked since 1983, teaching a
variety of subjects – mathematics, computer applications, geography, economics,
environmental studies and Telugu. For the past few years she has been involved in
teacher outreach work. At present she is working with the SCERT (AP) on curricular
reform and primary level math textbooks. In the 1990s, she worked closely with the
late Shri P K Srinivasan, famed mathematics educator from Chennai. She was part
of the team that created the multigrade elementary learning programme of the
Padmapriya Shirali Rishi Valley Rural Centre, known as 'School in a Box'. Padmapriya may be contacted
at padmapriya.shirali@gmail.com

At Right Angles Vol 2 No 1 March 2013

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

At Right Angles Vol 2 No 1 March 2013

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A publication of Azim Premji University

together with Community Mathematics Centre,

The Butterfly Theorem

I n the December 2012 issue of At Right Angles we talked of the ‘secret

We close the issue by describing the contents of a heart-warming letter

Design & Print

Features In the Classroom

Paper play Towards mathematical disposition

Tech Space Reviews

In a dynamic geometry environment

53 Problems for the Middle School

("" "7<D"-2  ""

Divisors of d {1} {1, 2} {1, 5} {1, 2, 5, 10} 

Divisors of d {1} {1, 2} {1, 3} {1, 2, 4} '

An old formula recalled

A B Divide and conquer counting

Corollary: a multiplicative property

%685GJRWKLV3K'LQ0DWKHPDWLFVIURP>%05 0XPEDL $HKDVEHHQZLWKWKH%QGLDQ6WDWLVWLFD%QVWLWXWH

Harmonic Triples Part–1

20 At Right Angles | Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013

In Part I of this article we showcase the 2. Rhombus in a triangle

bisector of  QP R, and let a, b, c be the lengths of c

FIGURE 2. Rhombus inscribed in a triangle

Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles 21

FIGURE 3. The crossed ladders a

Our interest here is in something much simpler.

22 At Right Angles | Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013

Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles 23

  x-y y x-y y

#$#$%8$&8!!#$  7"58+ 4#, -'7 ,

         ǡ

Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles 35

• Using the Pythagorean theorem we get DE 2 =

II. Second solution, using the trig addition formulas

III. Third solution, using slopes

• The slope of line DF is 1/3.

36 At Right Angles | Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013

V. Fifth solution, using the vector cross product

VI. Sixth solution, using complex numbers

Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles 37

38 At Right Angles | Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013

Sides in arithmetic progression

Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles 39

40 At Right Angles | Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013

FIGURE 1. A ‘symmetric’ C to F and F to C converter: both ways we add

Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles 41

FIGURE 2 Back to temperature scale conversion

42 At Right Angles | Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013

Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles 43

͵Ǥ  ǡǤ ǡÖ

Digital Problems for the Digital Age

Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles 49

50 At Right Angles | Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013

Problem I-2-F.1 By addition we get 3s = 2C + M. Also

We must prove that u − x = v − y = w − z. We Hence 51 ≤ 3s ≤ 69, leading to 17 ≤ s ≤ 23.

Hence proved. s = 17, C = 6

Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles 51

52 At Right Angles | Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013

Problems for Solution

Solutions of Problems in Issue-I-2

Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles 53

54 At Right Angles | Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013

Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013 | At Right Angles 55

We start this column with a problem posed by a reader from Romania.

("""7<D"-2 ""

Divisors of d {1} {1, 2} {1, 5} {1, 2, 5, 10}

Divisors of d {1} {1, 2} {1, 3} {1, 2, 4} '

%685GJRWKLV3K'LQ0DWKHPDWLFVIURP>%050XPEDL$HKDVEHHQZLWKWKH%QGLDQ6WDWLVWLFD%QVWLWXWH

bisector of QP R, and let a, b, c be the lengths of c

x-y y x-y y

#$#$%8$&8!!#$ 7"58+ 4#, -'7 ,

ǡ

͵Ǥ ǡǤǡÖ

< $

. O

ǣ2

)