VII

Table of contents

Preface xiv 2.7 Future challenges for I-O psychology 2«S

Orientation XV 2.8 Summary and conclusion 28
Guidelines for using this book xvi 2.9 Assessment activities 29
Acknowledgements xvii
PART 2: INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOURAL
PART 1: SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN PROCESSES 31
PSYCHOLOGY, AND INDUSTRIAL
AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 1 J3 The biological basis of behaviour 32
Antoinette Theron
H Theoretical perspectives in psychology 2
Antoinette Theron 3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Genetics 33
1.1 Introduction 3 3.2.1 Cells 33
1.2 Schools of thought 4 3.2.2 Twins 35
1.2.1 Structuralism 4 3.2.3 Sex determination 35
1.2.2 Functionalism 4 3.2.4 Genotype and phenotype 35
1.2.3 Behaviourism 5 3.2.5 Multiple determination 35
1.2.4 Gestalt psychology 6 3.3 The nervous system 36
1.2.5 The psychoanalytic school 7 3.3.1 The neuron 36
1.2.6 Humanism and phenomenology 8 3.3.2 The central nervous system 38
1.2.7 Cognitive psychology 9 3.3.3 The peripheral nervous system 42
1.2.8 Metapsychology 10 3.4 The endocrine system 43
1.3 Summary and conclusion 13 3.5 The muscle system 44
1.4 Assessment activities 14 3.5.1 The structure and functioning of muscles 44
3.5.2 Dynamic and static muscular activity 44
Fields of study and practice areas in industrial 3.5.3 Repetitive strain 45
and organisational psychology 16 3.5.4 Working body posture 46
Ziel Bergh 3.5.5 Loss of muscle power 46
3.5.6 The design of work stations 47
2.1 Introduction 17 3.6 Summary and conclusion 47
2.2 Industrial psychology: an applied field 3.7 Assessment activities 47
of psychology 17
2.2.1 Sub-fields in psychology 18 A Human development across the life span 49
2.3 The nature and identity of I-O psychology 20 Ziel Bergh
2.4 Sub-fields and practice areas in I-O psychology 20
Organisational psychology 21 4.1 Introduction 50
2.4.2 Personnel psychology 21 4.1.1 The general nature of human development 51
2.4.3 Research methodology 21 4.2 The characteristics of human development 51
2.4.4 Occupational psychological assessment 22 4.2.1 The hierarchical evolution of phases 52
2.4.5 Career psychology and counselling 22 4.2.2 Differentiation from the general to
2.4.6 Employment relations 22 the particular 53
2.4.7 Employee and organisational well-being 22 4.2.3 Increased complexity 53
2.4.8 Ergonomics 22 4.2.4 Predictability 53
2.4.9 Consumer psychology 23 4.3 Domains of human development 54
2.4.10 Other applied fields 23 4.3.1 The physical or biological domain 54
2.5 The history of I-O psychology 24 4.3.2 Cognitive development 54
2.5.1 The development of industrial 4.3.3 Psychosocial development 56
psychology in South Africa 26 4.3.4 The development of career-related tasks 58
2.6 Professional training and practice issues 27 4.4 Determinants of human development 58
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

4.4.1 Hereditary or genetic determination 58 6.2.5 Sensory adaptation 95

4.4.2 Environment and learning 59 6.3 Visual perception 96
4.4.3 The interaction between person and 6.3.1 Selective attention 97
environment 59 6.3.2 Form perception 97
4.5 Critical periods in development: various views 60 6.3.3 Depth and distance perception 100
4.5.1 The first five or six years 61 6.3.4 Perception of movement 100
4.5.2 Life-span development 63 6.3.5 Perceptual constancy 101
4.6 Career transitions and tasks 65 6.3.6 Illusions 101
4.6.1 Early life - occupational choice and 6.4 Factors influencing perception 102
preparation 66 6.4.1 The perceiver 102
4.6.2 Young adulthood - entry into and 6.4.2 The perceived object or target 102
establishment in the workplace 67 6.4.3 The situation 102
4.6.3 Middle adulthood - consolidation, 6.5 Extrasensory perception 103
maintenance and change 68 6.6 Interpersonal perception 103
4.6.4 Late adulthood - disengagement 70 6.6.1 Impression formation 103
4.7 Future trends in people's career development 70 6.6.2 Attribution 105
4.8 Summary and conclusion 71 6.6.3 Prejudice and discrimination 106
4.9 Assessment activities 71 6.7 Summary and conclusion 109
6.8 Assessment activities 109
Q Learning 73
Dirk Geldenhuys and Gugu Ngokha 7 Cognition 111
Antoinette Theron and Leona Ungerer
5.1 Introduction 74
5.2 What is learning? 74 7.1 Introduction 112
5.3 The learning process 75 7.2 Forms of productive thinking 112
5.3.1 Classical conditioning 75 7.2.1 Concept formation 112
5.3.2 Operant conditioning 75 7.2.2 Problem-solving 113
5.3.3 Cognitive learning 78 7.2.3 Decision-making 113
5.3.4 Social learning 78 7.2.4 Creativity 114
5.3.5 Learning as reorganisation and 7.3 Language 116
reconstruction of experience 80 7.4 Memory 117
5.4 The adult learner 81 7.4.1 Stages of memory 117
5.4.1 Self-directed learning 81 7.4.2 Promoting memory 119
5.4.2 The cognitive map 81 7.4.3 Forgetting 120
5.4.3 Motivation to learn 81 7.5 Intelligence 121
5.5 The training process in the work context 82 7.5.1 The intelligence quotient (IQ) 122
5.5.1 The needs-assessment and 7.5.2 Approaches to intelligence 122
outcomes-development phase 82 7.6 Summary and conclusion 126
5.5.2 The training and development phase 83 7.7 Assessment activities 126
5.5.3 The evaluation phase 89
5.6 The learning organisation 90 Q Motivation and emotion 128
5.7 Summary and conclusion 90 Antoinette Theron
5.8 Assessment activities 90
8.1 Introduction 129
Perception 92 8.2 Extrinsic motivation 129
Leona Ungerer and Gugu Ngokha 8.2.1 Reinforcement 129
8.2.2 Job content 130
6.1 Introduction 93 8.2.3 Job design 130
6.2 Psychophysics 94 8.3 Intrinsic motivation 131
6.2.1 Thresholds 94 8.3.1 Self-actualisation 131
6.2.2 The just-noticeable difference 94 8.3.2 Functional autonomy 133
6.2.3 Signal detection 94 8.3.3 Expectancy 133
6.2.4 Subliminal perception 95 8.3.4 Achievement 134
 TABLE OF CONTENTS IX

8.3.5 Self-efficacy 135 10.4 Explanations for and influencing factors in

8.3.6 Attribution 135 attachment behaviours 167
8.3.7 Equity 136 10.4.1 Similarity and dissimilarity 168
8.3.8 Goal-setting 136 10.4.2 Needs: biological and psychosocial
8.4 Emotion 137 dependency 172
8.4.1 Functions of emotions 137 10.4.3 Social learning and stimulation 173
8.4.2 Intensity of emotions 138 10.4.4 Situational factors 174
8.4.3 Emotion and performance 140 10.5 Aggression 175
8.4.4 Emotional intelligence 141 10.5.1 What is aggression? 175
8.5 Summary and conclusion 141 10.5.2 Types of aggression 175
8.6 Assessment activities 142 10.6 Causes of workplace aggression 178
10.6.1 Personal determinants of workplace
PART 3: SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR AND aggression 178
PROCESSES 145 10.6.2 Social, environmental and situational
determinants of workplace aggression 180
Attitudes and values 146 10.6.3 Aggression as a response to frustration 180
g Antoinette Theron 10.7 Conflict 181
10.7.1 What is conflict? 181
9.1 Introduction 147 10.7.2 Possible sources of conflict 182
9.2 The nature of attitudes 147 10.7.3 Types of conflict 182
9.3 Functions of attitudes 148 10.7.4 Stages in conflict escalation 183
9.4 Attitude change 149 10.7.5 Managing organisational and
9.4.1 The individual as active agent 149 interpersonal conflict 185
9.4.2 The individual as recipient 150 10.8 Summary and conclusion 187
9.5 Work-related attitudes 151 10.9 Assessment activities 187
9.5.1 Job satisfaction 151
9.5.2 Organisational commitment 152 Group behaviour and other social processes
9.6 The nature of values 152
11 in organisations 190
9.7 Values as part of personality 153 Frans Cilliers and Amanda Werner
9.7.1 The theoretical person 153
9.7.2 The economic person 153 11.1 Introduction 191
9.7.3 The social person 153 11.2 Groups as part of the organisational system 192
9.7.4 The power person 154 11.2.1 The field of study 192
9.7.5 The religious person 154 11.3 Definition of groups 193
9.7.6 The aesthetic person 154 11.4 Types of groups 193
9.8 Universal values 156 11.5 Group development 194
9.8.1 The motivational goals of values 156 11.5.1 The Five-Stage Model of Group
9.9 Cultural values in an organisational context 157 Development 194
9.9.1 Power distance 157 11.5.2 The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model 195
9.9.2 Individualism versus collectivism 158 11.6 Group structure 195
9.9.3 Masculinity versus femininity 159 11.6.1 Formal leadership 195
9.10 Values and the meaning of work 160 11.6.2 Roles 195
9.11 Summary and conclusion 161 11.6.3 Norms 197
9.12 Assessment activities 161 11.6.4 Conformity 198
11.6.5 Status 198
Prosocial behaviours, aggression and conflict
10 Ziel Bergh, Michelle May and Vasi Naidoo
164 11.6.6 Size
11.6.7 Composition
198
199
11.6.8 Cultural diversity 200
10.1 Introduction 165 11.7 Group processes 201
10.2 The social nature of human behaviour 165 11.7.1 Group dynamics 201
10.3 Descriptions of attraction and affiliation 166 11.7.2 Group tasks 203
10.3.1 Attraction 167 11.7.3 Group cohesion 203
10.3.2 Affiliation 167 11.7.4 Group communication 204
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

11.7.5 Influence, power and organisational

politics 206 PART 4: PERSONALITY IN THE WORK
11.7.6 Conflict and co-operation 207 CONTEXT 235
11.7.7 Trust and ethics 207
11.7.8 Group decision-making 207 *! Q The nature of personality and fundamental
11.7.9 Group-think and group-shift 208 assumptions in personality study 236
11.8 Group decision-making techniques 209 Ziel Bergh
11.8.1 Brainstorming 209
11.8.2 The nominal group technique 209 13.1 Introduction 237
11.8.3 The Delphi technique 209 13.2 Approaches to personality in the work context 238
11.8.4 The SWOT analysis 209 13.2.1 Psychodynamic or psychoanalytic theories
11.8.5 Electronic meetings 210 (depth psychology) 239
11.9 The facilitation of learning in groups 210 13.2.2 Behaviourist or learning theories 239
11.9.1 A description of facilitating 210 13.2.3 Humanistic, phenomenological and
11.9.2 The facilitator 211 existential approaches 240
11.9.3 Training a facilitator 211 13.2.4 Trait and type theories 240
11.10 The organisation as a social system 212 13.2.5 Cognitive and social-cognitive theories 241
11.10.1 How organisational culture is formed 212 13.2.6 Biological and evolutionary perspectives 241
11.10.2 How to establish an adaptive culture 213 13.2.7 Psychosocial theories 242
11.11 Organisational socialisation 214 13.2.8 African and Asian perspectives 243
11.11.1 The process of organisational socialisation 214 13.2.9 The cultural context of personality 243
11.11.2 Stages of socialisation 214 13.3 Denning "personality" and related concepts 248
11.12 Organisations and social change 215 13.4 Determinants of personality development 249
11.12.1 The organisational-development process 215 13.4.1 Hereditary and biological factors 249
11.12.2 Types of social interventions 216 13.4.2 Environmental factors 250
11.13 Summary and conclusion 216 13.5 Dimensions and domains of personality and
11.14 Assessment activities 217 human behaviour 250
13.5.1 Structure of personality 250
"I O Leadership and entrepreneurial behaviour 219 13.5.2 Motivation in personality 251
Amanda Werner and Herman Roythorne Jacobs 13.5.3 Personality development 251
13.5.4 Personality adjustment and
12.1 Introduction 220 psychological health 251
12.2 The social process of leadership 220 13.5.5 Assessment and research methods 251
12.3 Approaches to studying leadership 221 13.6 Assumptions and controversies about personality 252
12.3.1 The trait approach 221 13.7 Utilising personality research in the work context 253
12.3.2 The behavioural approach 221 13.8 Summary and conclusion 255
12.3.3 The situational approach 223 13.9 Assessment activities 257
12.4 Leadership: a strategic and visionary perspective 225
12.4.1 Future-state visioning 225 *| A Personality in unconscious processes 259
12.4.2 Characteristics of visionary leadership 226 Linda Albertyn and Ziel Bergh
12.5 Transactional versus transformational leadership 227
12.6 Leadership versus management 228 14.1 Introduction 260
12.7 Contemporary leadership issues 229 14.2 A background to the psychoanalytic view
12.8 Entrepreneurial behaviour 229 of human nature 260
12.8.1 Characteristics of entrepreneurs 229 14.3 The basic assumptions of psychoanalysis 261
12.8.2 The negative side of entrepreneurship 231 14.4 The roles of the unconscious and the conscious
12.8.3 Intrapreneurial culture and leadership in personality 262
in organisations 231 14.5 The structure of personality 264
12.9 Summary and conclusion 232 14.6 Motivation and personality 266
12.10 Assessment activities 232 14.7 The development and growth of personality 267
14.8 Personality adjustment 270
14.8.1 The healthy personality 270
14.8.2 Psychopathology (abnormal behaviour) 271
 TABLE OF CONTENTS XI

14.9 Summary and conclusion 273 16.10.3 Consistency from person-situation

14.10 Assessment activities 274 interaction 311
16.11 Summary and conclusion 312
•j C Personality by learning 276 16.12 Assessment activities 313
Ziel Bergh
"i 7 Personality through self-experiences 315
15.1 Introduction 277 Ziel Bergh
15.2 A background to the behaviourist view
of human nature 277 17.1 Introduction 316
15.3 The main assumptions of behaviourist theories 278 17.2 A background to the humanistic view
15.3.1 Observable behaviour 278 of human nature 316
15.3.2 How environments and situations shape 17.3 Main assumptions of humanistic approaches 317
behaviour 278 17.3.1 Subjective or phenomenological
15.3.3 Personality's relationship to learned experiences 317
responses 279 17.3.2 The uniqueness of each individual 318
15.3.4 Self-control 279 17.3.3 Personality as a Gestalt or holistic
15.3.5 Learning and unconscious factors 280 phenomenon 318
15.4 Response patterns in personality structure 280 17.3.4 The intrinsic goodness, potential and
15.5 Motivation 281 self-actualisation of people 318
15.5.1 Reinforcement 281 17.3.5 Free will or self-determination 318
15.5.2 Habituation 282 17.4 Self-concept: the integrating personality
15.5.3 Drives as activators 282 structure 319
15.5.4 Conditioning processes 282 17.5 The development and maintenance of self 322
15.5.5 Person-environment interaction, 17.6 Motivational forces in becoming a person 323
cognitive control and behaviour 17.6.1 Finding meaning in life 323
regulation 283 17.6.2 Needs and self-actualisation 323
15.6 Learning in personality development 286 17.6.3 Free will as perceived self-control 326
15.7 Learning and psychological health 288 17.7 Optimality and deficiencies in being 326
15.8 Summary and conclusion 289 17.8 Summary and conclusion 328
15.9 Assessment activities 290 17.9 Assessment activities 329

"16 Personality recognised in traits 292 "iQ Personality through cognitive constructions 331
Ziel Bergh Linda Albertyn and Ziel Bergh

16.1 Introduction 293 18.1 Introduction 332

16.2 A background to the trait approach 18.2 A background to the cognitive view of
to human nature 293 human nature 332
16.3 Main trait assumptions 294 18.3 Main assumptions 333
16.4 Personality denned as traits 295 18.4 Cognitive interpretation of psychological
16.5 Traits, types and styles in personality structure 295 concepts 334
16.5.1 Traits 295 18.4.1 Cognition and the behaviourist/
16.5.2 Other applications of trait descriptions 299 learning perspective 334
16.5.3 Types and styles 301 18.4.2 Cognition and the psychoanalytic
16.6 Personality expressed in different types of trait 305 concepts 334
16.6.1 General traits in most people 305 18.4.3 The cognitive perspective on some
16.6.2 Unique traits in each individual 305 fundamental psychological concepts 335
16.7 Traits in personality development 306 18.5 The structure of personality 336
16.8 Traits and personality dynamics (motivation) 307 18.5.1 Personal-Construct Theory 337
16.9 Psychological adjustment 309 18.5.2 The fundamental postulate 338
16.10 Consistency in personality 310 18.5.3 Corollaries 338
16.10.1 Consistency via trait consistency 18.6 The development of personality 340
in people 310 18.7 Cognition and motivation 341
16.10.2 Consistency within and across situations 310 18.8 The coenitive perspective on psychological health 343
XII TABLE OF CONTENTS

18.8.1 Psychological adjustment 343 20.3.2 Psychological and other theoretical

18.8.2 Psychological maladjustment 343 explanations 374
18.8.3 Emotions 343 20.3.3 A systems-interactional approach and
18.9 Summary and conclusion 344 other contextual perspectives 375
18.10 Assessment activities 345 20.3.4 Stress models 377
20.3.5 Socio-cultural perspectives 379
PART 5: EMPLOYEE AND ORGANISATIONAL 20.4 Causal factors in psychological health 379
WELL-BEING 349 20.5 Classification and description of psychological
disorders 381
*l Q Psychological well-being 350 20.5.1 Stress, psychological factors and health 382
Michelle May 20.5.2 Anxiety disorders 384
20.5.3 Personality and impulse-control
19.1 Introduction 351 disorders 385
19.2 Pathogenic and well-being orientations 351 20.5.4 Substance abuse and dependence 386
19.3 The conceptualisation of health and well-being 351 20.5.5 Mood disorders and suicide 387
19.3.1 Subjective well-being 352 20.5.6 Dissociative and somatic disorders 388
19.3.2 The role of positive emotions in 20.5.7 Schizophrenia and other psychotic
subjective well-being 354 disorders 388
19.3.3 Employee well-being 356 20.5.8 Cognitive disorders and disorders related
19.4 Studying well-being: the three main directions to age 389
of research 356 20.5.9 Eating and sleeping disorders 389
19.4.1 Salutogenesis 356 20.5.10 Disorders involving gender and sexuality 389
19.4.2 Fortigenesis 357 20.5.11 Abnormal behaviour in childhood
19.4.3 Positive psychology 357 and adolescence 390
19.5 Constructs used to describe well-being 361 20.5.12 Culture-bound syndromes 390
19.5.1 Happiness 361 20.6 Work dysfunctions and organisational health 390
19.5.2 Hope and optimism 361 20.6.1 Disturbances in the capacity to work 391
19.5.3 Virtues 361 20.6.2 Patterns of undercommitment 391
19.5.4 Constructs associated with salutogenesis 362 20.6.3 Patterns of overcommitment 393
19.5.5 Constructs associated with fortigenesis 364 20.6.4 Work-related anxiety, fears and
19.6 Implications for assessment and diagnosis depression 395
of well-being 364 20.6.5 Personality and behavioural dysfunctions
19.6.1 The Values-In-Action Classification at work 395
System 364 20.6.6 Work and non-work conflicts 396
19.6.2 Mental health diagnosed positively 364 20.6.7 Career-development problems 396
19.7 Implications for health promotion 20.6.8 Organisational health 397
in organisations 365 20.7 Promoting and managing well-being at work 399
19.7.1 Interventions for developing and 20.8 Summary and conclusion 402
enhancing employee and organisational 20.9 Assessment activities 402
well-being 366
19.8 Summary and conclusion 368 PART 6: PSYCHOLOGICAL
19.9 Assessment activities 368 METHODOLOGIES 405

2 0 P s y c n °l°gi c a l disorders and work- OH Assessment of personality and 406

adjustment problems 372 individual differences
Ziel Bergh Ziel Bergh

20.1 Introduction 372 21.1 Introduction 407

20.2 Defining psychological health and maladjustment 373 21.2 Defining personality and individual differences 409
20.3 Explanations for psychological adjustment and 21.3 Origins and determinants of individual
maladjustment 374 differences 409
20.3.1 Do psychologists study and manage 21.4 Types of individual-differences factors 410
illness or wellness? 374 21.5 The context of psychological assessment 410
 TABLE OF CONTENTS XIII

21.6 Approaches to and types of personality and 22.4 Research design or research methods 438
psychological assessment 412 22.4.1 Research traditions or paradigms 438
21.6.1 Assessing cognitive personality traits 22.4.2 Steps or activities in research 439
and processes 413 22.5 Research and assessment efficiency: sources
21.6.2 Personality assessment by of error 451
questionnaires 415 22.5.1 Reliability and validity 451
21.6.3 Personality assessment by projective 22.5.2 Errors in research design 451
techniques 421 22.5.3 Administration and scoring errors 452
21.6.4 Behavioural assessment and related 22.5.4 Errors by researchers and assessors 452
techniques 422 22.6 Professional, ethical and social issues in
21.6.5 Psychobiological assessment and other psychological research 452
techniques 427 22.6.1 Professional and ethical standards 454
21.6.6 Computer-assisted assessment 428 22.6.2 Basic assumptions and ethical principles 454
21.7 Requirements for efficient psychological 22.6.3 Social issues in assessment and research 454
assessment 428 22.7 Other methods used in applied psychology and
21.8 Summary and conclusion 429 practice areas 456
21.9 Assessment activities 430 22.7.1 Methods of discourse and interaction 456
22.7.2 Methods of measuring, assessing and
OO Research and other methods in psychology 433 appraising 457
Ziel Bergh 22.7.3 Techniques in people training and
development 458
22.1 Introduction 434 22.7.4 Content or thematic analysis of human-
22.2 Research methodology 434 behaviour protocols and records 458
22.2.1 The nature and advantages of scientific 22.7.5 Methods within methods 459
research 435 22.8 Summary and conclusion 459
22.3 Attributes of science and scientific thought 436 22.9 Assessment activities 460
22.3.1 Empirical thinking 437
22.3.2 Verification and objectivity 437 Bibliography 463
22.3.3 Testability 437 English-Afrikaans glossary 509
22.3.4 Logical thinking and reasoning 437 Index 519