Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship

2.1 Introduction
Soils are the storehouse of water, nutrients and air which are necessary for plant growth.
Therefore, plants grow on soils that provide them water and nutrients. The plants need
water, the soil stores the water needed by the plants, and the atmosphere provides the
energy needed by the plant to withdraw water from the soil.
Considering many ways by which water may be removed from the soil, it must be
considered as efficient storage medium. Irrigation water and rainwater after infiltration
into the soil get stored in different classes of soil pores (fine-, medium and large pores).
The water stored in the soil pores constitutes the soil water. Fortunately, water can be
held by the soil for long periods of time and still available for plants use. Plants absorb
water mainly through their roots and use only 1.0 to 1.5% of the volume of water
absorbed for building their vegetative structures and performing various physiological
and biochemical activities. The rest of water is lost through transpiration of plants.
Knowledge of the process of water transport in soil, into plants and from soil and plants
to the atmosphere are the basics of irrigation practice. Often important question in
irrigation practices is the “when to irrigate and how much to irrigate” questions which
answers depend on soil-water-plant-atmosphere relationships. Both excess and deficit of
soil water affects the plant growth and results in yield reduction. An insight into these
relationships requires the study of physical characteristics of soils relevant to the rate of
entry of water into the soil, moisture retention, storage, and transport, availability to
plants as well as mechanisms of water absorption, conduction and transpiration by plants.

Soil-plant Water relationships relate the properties of soil that affect the movement,
retention and use of water. It can be divided & treated as:
_ Soil-water relation
_ Soil-plant relation
_ Plant-water relations

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
2.2. Soil-water relationships
2.2.1. Physical properties of soils
Soil is the natural material that covers the land surface of the earth. Soils have profiles,
constituting of specific kinds and combinations of horizons, as well as specific surfaces
and relief or landscape features. They are formed by a combination of natural processes
under the interrelated influences of climate, vegetation, relief (including hydrology),
parent material, and time. Soil is a three-phase system constituting solid, liquid and
gases. The minerals and organic matters in soil together constitute the solid phase. The
main component of solid phase is the soil particles, the size and shape of which give rise
to pore spaces of different shape and geometry. These pore spaces are filled with water
and air in varying proportions, depending on the amount of moisture available. In
completely dry soils, all pores would be filled with air, and in completely saturated soils,
water (soil solutions) would occupy all of the pore spaces. Agricultural soils seldom, if
ever, exist in either of these extreme conditions

Water film
Air space

Soil particles

Figure 2.1: Diagram showing cross section

of soil

The physical properties of the soil, including its ability to store water, are highly related
to the fraction or percentage of the total soil volume that is occupied by solid and the
fraction or percentage that is pore space. For plant growth
and development, the fraction or percentage of the pore space that is occupied by water
and that contains air is of extreme interest. The volumes composition of the three main
constituents in the soil system varies widely.
A typical silt loam soil contains about 50% soil solids, 30% water and 20% air. Besides,
living organisms such as fungi, bacteria, algae, protozoa, insects and small burrowing

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
animals are present in the soil which directly or indirectly affects soil structure and plant
growth. Soil components when exist in proper proportion offer a favorable condition for
plant growth.
Important physical properties of soil influencing the soil-water relationship are soil
characteristics governing the entry of water into the soil during irrigation or rain, water
movement through the soil medium, retention of water by soil and availability of water to
plants.
i. Soil Texture
Soil texture refers to the relative size of soil particles in a given soil. According to their
size soils particles are grouped into sand, silt and clay. The relative sizes of sand silt and
clay as proposed by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the
International Soil Science Society (ISSS) are given in Tab. 2.1.
Table 2.1: Size limits of soil separates
Soil separates Particle diameter (mm)
USAD ISSS
Very course sand 2.0 - 1.0 -
Course sand 1.0 - 0.5 2.0 - 0.2
Medium sand 0.50 - 0.25 -
Fine sand 0.25 - 0.10 0.20 - 0.02
Very fine sand 0.10 - 0.05 -
Silt 0.05 - 0.002 0.02 - 0.002
Clay < 0.002 < 0.002

The percentage content of soil separates in a soil is determined by mechanical analysis.

Based on the percentage content of sand, silt and clay present, the textural class of a soil
is determined by using the triangular diagram (Fig. 2.3)

Fig. 2.2: The relative sizes of

three soil samples

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship

Fig. 2.3: USDA textural triangle

Texture is designated by using the names of the predominant size fractions.

Sandy soils have greater proportion of large sized particles and hence commonly termed
as coarse or light soils. They form a relatively simple capillary system and have a large
volume of non-capillary macro-pores that encourage good drainage and aeration. They
have usually a low water holding capacity and low cation exchange capacity
Clay soil has a high percentage of fine particles and is referred to as fine or heavy soils.
Clay soils are aggregated into complex granules and present large surface area. The large
specific surface area per unit volume enable clay soils to hold more water and cations
than sandy soil. Clay soils allow slow movement of water and cause poor drainage and
aeration.

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
Loamy soil having almost equal amount of sand and clay is called medium textured soil.
Such soils tend to exhibit good balance between large and small pores; thus, movement
of water, air and roots is easy and water retention is adequate. Hence they offer the most
favorable conditions for plant growth by providing good soil drainage and aeration as
well as more available water and nutrients.
How to use textural triangle:
A soil sample has an analysis of 72% sand, 3% silt, and 25% clay. Look at the USDA textural
triangle (Fig. 2.3) and notice the percent sand arrow pointing from right to left on the bottom of
the triangle. Find the 72% sand point and mentally sketch a line from that point parallel to the
side opposite the 100% sand corner of the triangle. Such a line will pass through all points on the
triangle that corresponds to a soil having 72% sand. Now locate the 3% silt point on the upper
right side of the triangle, and visualize a line from this point parallel to the side opposite the
100% silt corner of the triangle. This line intersects the sand line at a single point inside the area
labeled as sandy clay loam.
Soil texture can be determined both in the filed and in the laboratory.
ii. Soil Structure
Soil structure refers to the arrangement and organization of soil particles in the soil and
the tendency of individual soil particles to bind together into aggregates. The
arrangements of soil aggregates give soil its structure. Grouping of particles into
structural units occur in all soils. However, the strength of the bonds, the size and the
shape of the structural units and the proportion of the soil particles involved in the units
differ considerably among soils.
Structure development is influenced by:
 Amount and type of clay, as well as the exchangeable ions on the clay (also water
acts as bridge between clay particles)
 Amount and type of organic matter, since it provides food for soil fungi and
bacteria and their secretion of cementing agents (polysaccharides)
 Presence of iron and aluminum oxides (cementing agents)
 Binding between organic and inorganic compounds (aluminum oxides, cations,
clays)
 Vegetation: produces OM, roots act as holding soil together, and protects soil
surface
The overall quality of the soil structure may be evaluated in terms of porosity,
aggregation, cohesiveness and permeability for water and air.

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
Soil aggregates may be temporary or stable depending on the amount and nature the
cementing agents such as clay, organic matter, microbial glue and mineral cementing
materials like aluminium and iron oxides present.
On the basis of their shape soil structures can be typed as:
 Granular  Massive (non-structure
 Columnar and prismatic  Single grain (non-structure)
 Platy  Blocky (angular and sub-angular)

Fig. 2.4: Soil structure and its effect on permeability

A soil structure is important in plant growth as it influences the amount and nature of
porosity and regulates water, air and heat regimes in the soil besides affecting mechanical
properties. Hence, it has a pronounced effect on soil properties such as
• Erodibility, • Infiltration, and
• Porosity, • Water holding capacity
• Hydraulic conductivity,
The management of soils aims at obtaining soil structures favorable for plant growth and
yield, besides ensuring soil conservation, and good infiltration and movement of water in
the soils. Common methods of soil structure management include addition of organic
matter and adoption of suitable tillage, soil conservation and cropping practices.

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
iii. Volume and mass relationships
Let us consider the volume and mass relationships among the three constituents of soil
(solids, liquid and air), and define some basic parameters which have useful practical
importance in characterizing the physical condition of a soil.
Volume Mass
Relations Relations

Fig. 2.4: Schematic diagram of the soil as three-phase system

Symbols given in Fig. 2.4 are defined as:

Vt =total soil volume Mt = total soil mass

Vs = volume of soil solids Ms =mass of soil solids

Vw =volume of water Mw =mass of soil water

Va =volume of soil air Ma =mass of soil air which is

Vf =total void volume negligible

Density, porosity and soil water terms are defined with reference to Fig. 2.4.
Vt  Vs Vw Va (2.1)

Mt  M s  M w  M a (2.2)
Most often bulk and particle densities are used to characterize densities of soil. They are
described as follows:
Bulk density (  b )
Mass per unit volume of soil comprising the solid and gaseous phase in exclusion of the
liquid phase is called bulk density. That means it describes the soil as it is in the natural

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
state including pore spaces. In other words, bulk density is the weight of oven dry soil per
unit total volume. It is sometimes referred to as apparent specific gravity. The difference
between the two terms is that the bulk density is given in gm/cm3 while apparent specific
gravity is expressed as dimensionless quantity. Bulk density is normally expressed on a
dry weight basis, which vale ranging from 1.0 – 1.8 gm/cm3 for mineral soils. Its values
indicate whether a soil layer is too compacted to allow root penetration or if it is effective
for adequate aeration of the root zone.
To determine bulk density soil core method is widely used. In this method soil sample is
taken from the filed using core sampler of known volume and oven dried at 105 0C to
obtain a constant weight. The mass of the soil is then obtained by weighing the dried soil.
The bulk density is then calculated from the weight of the soil per unit volume of known
core sampler which is expressed as
Ms Ms
b   (2.3)
Vt Vs  Va  Vw 
Bulk density of a soil is affected by soil texture, organic matter content and tillage
practices and ranges from 1.1 to 1.3 gm/cm3 in fine textured surface soils and from 1.4 to
1.8 gm/cm3 in coarse textured surface soils. It decreases with an increase in looseness of
soils and increases with compaction of soil. Hence, the value of bulk density indicates the
extent of pore space in the soil. That means, a low density indicates a high volume of
pore space and a high density shows low volume of pore space in soil.
Particle density (  s )
It denotes the mass of soil solid per unit volume of soil solid and is expressed in gm/cm3.
In determining the particle density of soil, consideration is given only to solid particles.
Thus the particle density of any soil is constant and does not vary with the amount of
space between the particles. It is defined as the mass (weight) per unit volume of soil
particles (soil solids).
Ms
s  (2.4)
Vs
Particle density does not change with tillage or cropping practices.
In most mineral soils the s is about 2.2 – 2.7 gm/cm3.

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
Total pore space and porosity
Total pore space (E) is the ratio of the volume of pores (voids) to the total volume of soil
and is expressed in %. It is the volume of soil occupied by air and water.
To determine porosity, soil samples are taken with core samplers and placed in a pan of
water until completely saturated. Then after saturation the cores are weighed. Then after,
the saturated samples are oven dried which again weighed. The difference in weight
between saturated and oven dry cores represents a volume of the pore space.
Vf Va  Vw  Vt  Vs  Vs 
E    1   (2.5)
Vt Vt Vt  Vt 
The ratio is then multiplied by 100 to obtain the porosity in percent. Total porosity can
also be calculated from the bulk density and particle density using the following
relationships,
  
E  1  b  (2.6)
 s 
Total porosity is influenced by textural characteristics of soil and ranges from 35 to 50 %
in sandy soils and from 40 to 60 % in clayey soils. It increases with an increase in
fineness, looseness of soils and amount of soil aggregates.

2.2.2 Soil Suitability for Agricultural Practices

Soil is a very important agricultural complement without which no agricultural is
possible. It is important to study the soil characteristics to say a particular soil type is
suitable for agriculture or not.
The process of the suitability of land for different uses such as agriculture is assessed and
it is known as land evaluation.

Land evaluation for agricultural purpose provides information for deciding ‘which crops
to grow where’ and other related crops. Hence, before a land is put certain land uses, its
suitability for that particular land use should be evaluated.
Soil map provides us with detailed information on soils that are utilized for land
capability classification. This indicates the suitability or unsuitability of the soil for
growing crops.

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
Land capability classification is an interpretive grouping of soils based on inherent soil
characteristics, external land features and environmental factors that may restrict the use
of the land for growing varieties of crops.

For land capability classification, we need information on:

1) The susceptibility of the soil to various factors that cause soil damage & decrease in
its productivity (we get this from soil map)
2) Its potential for crop production: Lands are first tentatively placed in different land
capability groups on the basis of slope of the land, erosion and depth of the soil.

The suitability of soil for agricultural practices may be affected by physical and
chemical soil characteristics.

A) The physical characteristics include:

1. Effective soil depth: - The depth of the soil, which can be exploited by crops, is very
important in selecting soils for agricultural purpose. Experience has shown that many
irrigated crops produce excellent yields with a well-drained effective root depth of 90
cm.
2. Water holding capacity: - This refers to the depth of water that can be held in the
soil and available for plants. A good soil from agricultural point of view should have
a very good water holding capacity. Clay soils have large water holding capacity,
because drainage water is high in these soils. Ideally, loam soils are the best in this
regard. Since in sandy soils an application loss are high and in clay soils drainage and
aeration is difficult.
3. Non-capillary porosity: - High values of non- capillary porosity is desirable, because
lower values of porosity and high values of bulk density hinders root development
and expansion.
4. Topography: - A leveled land is the most suitable for agriculture. Because, the water
for irrigation can easily be conveyed and less conservation and management practices
are required. Whereas, in sloppy soils, the more is the land wasted in bunds and
channels in surface irrigation and therefore that cost for land development per unit
area will be high.

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
5. Texture: - is the weight percentage of the mineral matters that occurs in each of the
specified size fraction of the soil. It is the relative proportions of sand silt and clay,
(Particles sized groups smaller than gravel i.e. < 2 mm in diameter). It is the number
and sizes of its mechanical particles after all compounds holding them together have
been destroyed. Loamy soils are the best texture for agriculture. Deviation either into
sandy or clayey texture will reduce the value of the land for agriculture.
6. Soil Structure: It refers to the manner in which primary soil particles are arranged
into, secondary particles or aggregates. Soil structure determines the total porosity,
the shape of individual pores and their size distribution, hence it affects:
• Retention & transmission of fluids in the soil
• Germination
• root growth
• Tillage
• Erosion etc.
7. Soil Consistence: Is the resistance of the soil to deformation or rupture. It is
determined by the cohesive and adhesive properties of the entire soil mass. Structure
deals with size, shape and distinctness of natural soil aggregates, and consistence
deals with strength and nature of the force between particles. It is important for tillage
or traffic consideration.
Soil Consistence Terms: - Consistence is described for three-moisture levels i.e. wet,
moist & dry. For instance, a given soils may be sticky when wet, firm when moist and
hard when dry. The terms to describe soil consistency include - 1) Wet soil - non sticky,
sticky, non-plastic, plastic 2) Moist soil - loose, friable, firm 3) Dry soil - loose, soft, and
hard.

8. Soil Permeability and Hydraulic Conductivity

Permeability - is the ease with which liquids, gases and roots pass through the soil.
Hydraulic conductivity is the permeability of the soil for water. I.e. the ease with which
the soil pores permit water movement. It controls the soil water movement.

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The major factors affecting hydraulic conductivity are texture and structure of soils. E.g.,
Sandy soils have higher saturated conductivity than finer textured soils. Soils with stable
granular structure conduct water rapidly than those with unstable structural units, since
they will not break down when get wetted. Fine textured soils during dry weather
because of their cracks allow water rapidly then the cracks swell shut, and drastically
reduce water movement.
1. Salinity (soluble salt content) When the quantity of salts in irrigated land is too high,
the salts accumulate in the crop root zone. These salts create difficulty to crops in
extracting enough water from the salty solution. Thus, for the land to be of high value
for irrigation, the soluble salt content should be low as much as possible.

2. Amount of Exchangeable sodium:-When the amount of exchangeable sodium is

high in the soil, the soil will have large amount of Na+ in the form of colloid. This
results in tremendous reduction of the permeability of the soil. This in turn makes it
difficult to the cop to get sufficient water and causes crusting of seedbeds. Such a soil
is called Black alkali soil. Hence, the amount of exchangeable sodium should be low
in agricultural lands.
3. Soil Reaction (PH): is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. It is a measure of the
concentration of hydrogen ion in a soil. Mathematically,

Excessively low or high pH values are not good for proper growth and adequate yield
production as they bring about acidity or alkalinity in the soil.

In general, in any ecosystem, (a farm, forest, regional water shed etc.) soils have five key
roles:

1. Medium for plant growth: It supports the growth of higher plants by providing a
medium for plant roots and supplying nutrient elements that are essential to the entire
plant.

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
2. Regulator of water supplies: Its properties are the principal factor controlling the
fate of water in the hydrologic system. Water loss, utilization, contamination, and
purification are all affected by the soil.
3. Recycler of raw materials: With in the soil, waste products and dead bodies of
plants, animals and people are assimilated, and their basic elements are made
available for reuse by the next generation of life.
4. Habitat for soil organisms: It provides habitats for living organism, from small
mammals and reptiles to tiny insects to microscopic cells.
5. Engineering medium: In human - built ecosystem, soil plays an important role as an
engineering medium. It is not only an important building material (earth fill, bricks)
but provides the foundation for virtually every road, airport, and house we build. In
relation to irrigation:
• The capacity of the soil to accept, transmit or retain relatively large amounts of
water (Water holding capacity of the soil) in a relatively large amounts of water
in a relatively short time should be measured.
• The surface infiltration rates and the case of water movement through unsaturated
and through saturated layers (hydraulic conductivity) need to be measured
punitively.
The amount, kind and distribution of clay minerals (Soil chemical properties) are
especially important to water movement, relation and availability of plants.
• Studies of cracking and structural changes under different management
Practices (helps surface sealing or a need of pre irrigation) and
Physical properties of soil matrix.

2.3 Classification of soil water

Soil water has earlier been classified mainly into three heads:
(i) Hygroscopic water,
(ii) Capillary water, and
(iii) Gravitational water.

1) Hygroscopic Water: The water that an oven dry soil absorbs when exposed to air
saturated with vapour is called hygroscopic water. Water held tightly to the surface of

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
soil particles by adsorption forces. It occurs as a very thin film over the surface of soil
particles and is held tenaciously at a tension of 31 atmospheres.
2) Capillary water: With increasing supply of water, the water film held around soil
particles thickens. Water then enters the pore system gradually filling the pores and
wedges between adjacent soil particles until a stage is reached when the water tension is
in equilibrium with gravity. This soil water tension is about 0.10 – 0.33atm. The capillary
water supplies the water needed by plants. Hence, it is also designated as plant available
water. Main factors that influence the amount of capillary water in the soil are the
structure, texture and organic matter content of the soil. A greater amount of water is held
by a fine textured soil than by a coarse textured one.
Saturation

Gravitational water

Field capacity

Capillary water
(Plant available
water)

Permanent welting point

Unavailable
water
Hygroscopic coeff.
Hygroscopic Air dry
water
Oven dry

Fig. 2.5: Illustration of soil water constants

Availability of water increases usually with fineness of soil particles, as the capillary
water content is more in fine textured soils. Optimum growth of plant takes place
when the soil water is maintained at near field capacity.
3) Gravitational water: When sufficient water is added to soil, water gradually fills the
pore system expelling air completely from soil. Water moving downwards through soil
under gravity is termed as gravitational water. The water tension at this stage is 0.33 atm
or less.

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2.4 Soil Moisture Constants
The following soil moisture contents are of significance importance in agriculture and are
termed soil moisture constants.
1. Saturation Capacity: - When all the micro and macro pore spaces are filled with
water, the soil is said to have reached its saturation capacity. At field capacity, the
water is held loosely and tensions are almost negligible. Thus, plants will not have
any difficulty in extracting moisture from soil.

2. Field capacity: - is the moisture content after the gravitational water has drained
down. At field capacity, the macro pores are filled with air & capillary pores filled
with water. Field capacity is the upper limit of available soil moisture. It is often
defined as moisture content in a soil two (light sandy soil) or three (heavy soil), days
after having been saturated and after drainage of gravitational water becomes slow or
negligible and moisture content has become stable.
- Larger pore spaces filled with air while the smaller ones with water - at field
capacity, Soil Moisture Tension (SMT) is b/n 1/10 – 1/3 atm.

Some of the factors, which influence the field capacity of the soil, are soil texture and
presence of impending layer (soil profile), arise from plaguing the same depth yearly ⇒
hard pan. The volumetric moisture content at field capacity is given by: θfc = ρb. θm

Field capacity can be determined by ponding water on a soil surface in an area of about 2
to 5 m2 and allowing it to drain for one to three days preventing surface evaporation.
Then soil samples are taken from different depths and the moisture content is determined
as usual, which gives the field capacity.
3. Permanent Wilting Point: - is the moisture content beyond which plants can no
longer extract enough moisture and remain witted unless water is added to the soil.
The water beyond the permanent wilting point is tightly held to the solid particles that
plants cannot remove moisture at their normal rate to prevent wilting of the plants.
The soil moisture tension at PWP ranges from 7 to 32 atm, depending on the soil
texture, kinds of crops and salt content in the soil solution.

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- Since the change in moisture content (∆θ) is insignificant for changes in SMT
from 7-32 atm. Hence, 15 atm. is taken as SMT at PWP.
- At PWP the plant starts wilting, and if no water is given to the plant, then it
will die.
N. B θv(wp) = ρb θm(wp) (volumetric moisture content at Permanent wilting point)

2.4 Soil moisture ranges:

1. Total available water, TAW
The soil moisture b/n field capacity and permanent wilting point is called available water.
This is the water available for plant use. Fine-grained soils generally have a wider range
of available moisture than course textured soil.
Soil type Moisture content (%) Available Depth of water per unit
Fc Pwp water (%) depth (cm/m depth)

Fine sand 3-5 1-3 2 2-4

Sandy loam 5-15 3-8 2-7 4-11
Silty loam 12-18 6-10 6-8 6-13
Clayey loam 15-30 7-16 8-14 10-18
Clay 25-40 12-20 13-20 16-30

TAW = (θv(fc) - θv (wp))D Where, D = Root Depth of the crop

Not exact because crop roots do not extract water uniformly from the soil profile.
2. Management allowed deficit, MAD
The degree to which the volume of water in the soil is allowed to deplete before the next
irrigation is applied. That is portion of the available moisture, which is easily extracted
by the plant roots. It is commonly 60 – 80 % of the available water.
MAD = f. TAW, f depends on type of crop and Crop growing stage.
3. Soil moisture deficit, SMD
The depletion of soil moisture below field capacity at the time that particular soil
moisture content, θv, is measured. That is the amount of water required to bring

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the soil moisture back to the field capacity. Deficit = Fc – soil moisture at that
instant.
SMD = (θv(fc) - θv ) D

Figure 2.6: Soil moisture levels and available water ranges.

2.5 Soil Water Energy Concept (Soil water Dynamics)

Infiltration is defined as the process by which water passes through the soil surface and
enters the sub soil, generally the root zone for application in irrigation. It is different
from the percolation, because percolation is the movement of water within the soil. The
two phenomena are certainly interrelated, as infiltration cannot continue unimpeded,

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unless, percolation provides sufficient space in the surface layer for infiltrated water. The
process of infiltration will stop unless percolation removes infiltrated water.
The rate at which infiltration can be maintained in a particular soil is an extremely
important parameter in the design of irrigation systems. The type of irrigation system,
which may be applied at a given site, is often governed by the infiltration characteristics
of the soil. The infiltration rate also usually plays key role in the management and
operating schedule of an irrigation system.
a) It is the most crucial and often the most difficult parameter to evaluate under the
surface irrigation systems, particularly the variation of infiltration characteristics
spatially and temporally.
b) It does not only affect the amount of water that enters the soil profile and its rate
of entry but also significantly influences overland flow processes.
Generally, infiltration has a high initial rate that diminishes during continued rainfall
toward a nearly constant lower rate. During the rain infiltration, loss occurs quickly
almost exclusively from the water that has reached the ground surface. The water
infiltrating into the soil moves downward through larger soil pores under the force of
gravity. The smaller surface pores take in water by capillarity. Capillary pores also take
in the downward moving gravity water. As capillary pores at the surface are filled and
intake capacity is reduced, the infiltration rate decreases.

2.6. Infiltration
2.5.1. Introduction
Definitions:
 Infiltration is a process in which water enters the surface strata of the soil mass.
 The infiltrated water first meets the soil moisture deficiency, if any, and thereafter
the excess water moves vertically downwards to reach the groundwater table. This
vertical movement is called percolation.
 Infiltration capacity of the soil is defined as the maximum rate at which it is
capable of absorbing water.
Infiltration rate decreases during rain or irrigation. The rate of decrease is rapid initially
and the infiltration rate tends to approach a constant value. In general infiltration rate is

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high in the early stages of infiltration, particularly where the soil is initially dry, but tends
to decrease monotonically and eventually to approach asymptotically a constant rate,
which is often termed the final infiltration capacity but which is preferably called steady-
state infiltration.
The decrease of infiltration rate from an initially high rate is the result of decrease in
hydraulic potential gradient (constituting one of the forces drawing water into the soil)
which occurs as infiltration proceeds. If the surface of an initially dry soil is suddenly
saturated, as, for instance, if the surface is ponded, the hydraulic gradient acting in the
surface layer is at first very steep. As the wetting zone deepens, however, this gradient is
reduced, and, as the wetted part of the profile becomes thicker and thicker, the suction
gradient tends eventually to become vanishingly small.
It is influenced by soil properties and also by moisture gradient. Moisture tension may be
zero near the surface of soil shortly after wetting and may be very high a few centimeters
below, thus causing a large downward force (in addition to gravity) pulling the water into
the unsaturated soil. Several hours after wetting, these differences in tension may be very
small, and gravity then becomes the dominant force causing infiltration. The decrease of
infiltration with time after wetting a soil is of importance in rainfall-runoff studies and in
irrigation.
2.5.2. Factors affecting infiltration
Major factors governing the rate of infiltration of water are: (i) Conditions and
characteristics of surface soil, (ii) Duration and intensity of irrigation or rainfall, (iii)
Vegetation cover, (iv) Tillage and crop management practices

Condition and characteristics of soil primarily involved in the process are the soil water
content, soil texture, soil structure, soil compaction, soil organic matter content soil
surface sealing, presence of cracks in surface soil, soil depth, depth of water table and the
soil hydraulic conductivity.
 Soil water content and looseness of the soil surface exert a profound influence on
the initial rate and the total amount of infiltration. As the soil water content
decreases or soil gets compact, the rate of infiltration decreases.

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
 Soil tillage and crop management practices increase the looseness of the soil and
by that increase the infiltration rate.
 Contour ploughing and terracing in agricultural areas have the effect of delaying
runoff resulting thereby in increased infiltration.
 Coarse textured soils have mainly large particles in between which there are large
pores.
 On the other hand, fine textured soils have mainly small particles in between
which there are small pores
 In coarse soils, the rain or irrigation water enters and moves more easily into
larger pores; it takes less time for the water to infiltrate into the soil. In other
words, infiltration rate is higher for coarse textured soils than for fine textured
soils
 The water infiltrates faster (higher infiltration rate) when the soil is dry, than
when it is wet. As a consequence, when irrigation water is applied to a field, the
water at first infiltrates easily, but as the soil becomes wet, the infiltration rate
decreases.
 Generally speaking, water infiltrates quickly (high infiltration rate) into granular
soils but very slowly (low infiltration rate) into massive and compact soils.
 Because the farmer can influence the soil structure (by means of cultural
practices), he can also change the infiltration rate of his soil.
 A soil surface with vegetative cover favours a greater infiltration than a bare soil
as the vegetative cover encourages slow movement of water over the surface.
 Mulch-cover on bare soil has more or less the effect of vegetation in absorbing the
raindrop impact and maintaining a fairly high rate of infiltration.

The infiltration rate is influenced by the rainfall duration and its intensity.

 The duration of sustained heavy rainfall results in a steady reduction in the

infiltration capacity until the rate of infiltration attains a nearly constant value.

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
 When the rainfall rate is smaller than the infiltration capacity, there is still a
steady reduction of the infiltration capacity, but the rate of reduction is lower.
Under this condition, all rainfall will be infiltrated as long as rain falls.

 Rainfall intensity affects infiltration in two ways:

i. when rainfall intensity is lesser than infiltration rate

o In this case, all the rainwater will be absorbed by the soil

ii. When rainfall intensity greater than infiltration rate

o In this case infiltration rate decreases due to the following reasons:

 Increment of supply of moisture to the surface layer

 Mechanical compaction of soil by raindrops impact

 In-wash of fine soil particles

During heavy rainfall, the top soil is affected by mechanical compaction and by the
inwash of finer materials. This leads to faster decrease in the rate of infiltration than with
low intensities of rainfall.
2.5.3. Measurements of Infiltration
Infiltration is measured using a device called infiltrometer. Two types of infiltrometers
used are: single and double ring infiltrometer.
It consists of a hollow metal cylinder 30cm in diameter and 60 cm long driven into the
ground such that 10cm of it projects above ground level. A graduated jar or burette is
used to add water, to give directly the volume of water added over time. Knowing the
volume of water added at different time intervals, the plot of infiltration capacity vs. time
is obtained. The experiments are continued till a uniform rate of infiltration is obtained.

a) b)

Inner ring
Outer ring

Fig. 2.14: Ring infiltrometer, a) single ring, b) double ring

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
Under single ring infiltrometer the infiltrated water spreads at the outlet from the tube as
shown by dotted lines in Fig. 2.14. As the result the tube area is not representative of the
area through which infiltration takes place. To overcome this problem, the ring
infiltrometer consisting of a set of two concentric rings, i.e. double ring (Fig. 2.14 b) is
used. In this case, two rings are inserted into the ground and water is maintained on the
soil surface, in both the rings, to a common level. The outer ring provides a water jacket
or buffer to the infiltrating water from the inner ring and hence prevents spreading out of
the infiltrating water from the inner tube. The measurement of water volume is taken
from the inner ring only.
Infiltration equations
An ideal infiltration capacity curve proposed by Horton is given by
it   i f  i0  i f e  Bt (2.20)

where i(t) is the infiltration capacity at any time t from the beginning of water application
in mm/h, i0 is the maximum initial infiltration vale, when t  0 in mm/h at the beginning

of water application , i f is minimum infiltration rate at the final steady stage where the

soil profile becomes fully saturated which is related to the hydraulic conductivity, B is an
empirical constant depending on soil types, soil cover complex, vegetation and other
factors and t is the time lapse from the start of water application. Values of i0 , i f and B

are dependent on number of factors like soil characteristics and climatic conditions. A
typical curve of i(t) separating the rainfall intensity from infiltration and surface runoff is
shown in Fig. 2.15.

i0 i(t)
P(t)
Rainfall & Infiltration
(mm/h)

if

Fig. 2.15:

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
Philip-equation
This is given by
1
I t   S t 2  A  t (2.21)
1
1 
it  
dI
 St 2 A (2.22)
dt 2
Where, S is the sorptivity which is a factor characterizing the soil water relationship, and
A is the factor that represents the effect of gravity.
Equation 2.22 shows that the infiltration capacity decreases with infiltration time, A gives
the final infiltration rate, the value of which is very near the saturated hydraulic
conductivity of the topsoil.
Kostiakov equation
k
Kostiakov : i (t )  k  t  n , I (t )   t1 n  A  t B
1 n (2.23)
k
modified Kostiakov : i (t )  k  t n  C , I (t )   t 1 n  C  t  A  t B  C  t
1 n

Where k (equivalent depth/time) and n are fitted to infiltration trials, and C is the
infiltration rate at large time t.
Example: From a double ring infiltrometer the following infiltration rate were observed.
Time (h) 0.0167 0.0583 0.125 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.25
i (cm/h) 8.76 7.90 6.45 4.68 2.75 1.76 1.10

Determine the constants i0, if and B of Horton’s equation to describe the above data
Solution: The Horton’s equation is given by
it   i f  i0  i f e  Bt

The constants i0, if and B can be found out from the following two methods
Method i: The given data is plotted on an ordinary graph as shown in fig. below:
10
9
8
Infiltration (cm/h)

i0
7
6
5 FC= area of shaded portion
4
3
= 2.515cm (cm/h*h)
2
1
0 if
0 0.2 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (h)

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 Chapter –2 soil-water-plant relationship
Then exponential curve is fitted by eye to the plotted data. This yielded
 i0=9.2 cm/h and
 if =1.0cm/h
The value of B may then be obtained as follows:
The Horton’s equation is rewritten as
i  i   i
f 0  i f e  Bt

Integrating the above equation on both sides, we get

 i  i dt

LHS = f = the area of shaded portion in fig = Fc
0

i i f 
 i 0  i f e

 Bt
 dt 
0
RHS =
0 B
From these two results we can determine B from the equation

B
i0  i f

9.2 1.0  3.26
Fc 2.515
The Horton’s equation to describe the given data is therefore given by
i  1.0  9.2 1.0e 3.26t  1.0  8.2 e 3.26t

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