EC8702

AD HOC AND WIRELESS SENSOR

NETWORKS
 Course Objectives
The student should be made to:

 Learn Ad hoc network and Sensor Network fundamentals

 Understand the different routing protocols

 Have an in-depth knowledge on sensor network architecture

and design issues

 Understand the transport layer and security issues possible in

Ad hoc and Sensor networks

 Have an exposure to mote programming platforms and tools

Syllabus
 UNIT I
AD HOC NETWORKS – INTRODUCTION AND ROUTING
PROTOCOLS

• Elements of Ad hoc Wireless Networks

• Issues in Ad hoc wireless networks
• Example commercial applications of Ad hoc networking
• Ad hoc wireless Internet
• Issues in Designing a Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
• Classifications of Routing Protocols
• Table Driven Routing Protocols
– Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV)
• On–Demand Routing protocols
– Ad hoc On–Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV).
 UNIT II
SENSOR NETWORKS –
INTRODUCTION & ARCHITECTURES

• Challenges for Wireless Sensor Networks

• Enabling Technologies for Wireless Sensor Networks

• WSN application examples

• Single-Node Architecture - Hardware Components

• Energy Consumption of Sensor Nodes

• Network Architecture - Sensor Network Scenarios

• Transceiver Design Considerations

• Optimization Goals and Figures of Merit.

 UNIT III
WSN NETWORKING CONCEPTS AND PROTOCOLS

• MAC Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks

• Low Duty Cycle Protocols And Wakeup Concepts - S-MAC

• The Mediation Device Protocol, Contention based protocols – PAMAS

• Schedule based protocols – LEACH

• IEEE 802.15.4 MAC protocol

• Routing Protocols- Energy Efficient Routing

• Challenges and Issues in Transport layer protocol.

 UNIT III
WSN NETWORKING CONCEPTS AND PROTOCOLS

• MAC Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks

• Low Duty Cycle Protocols And Wakeup Concepts - S-MAC

• The Mediation Device Protocol, Contention based protocols – PAMAS

• Schedule based protocols – LEACH

• IEEE 802.15.4 MAC protocol

• Routing Protocols- Energy Efficient Routing

• Challenges and Issues in Transport layer protocol.

 UNIT IV
SENSOR NETWORK SECURITY

• Network Security Requirements

• Issues and Challenges in Security Provisioning

• Network Security Attacks

• Layer wise attacks in wireless sensor networks

• possible solutions for jamming, tampering, black hole attack, flooding attack.

• Key Distribution and Management

• Secure Routing – SPINS

• reliability requirements in sensor networks.

 UNIT V
SENSOR NETWORK PLATFORMS AND TOOLS

• Sensor Node Hardware – Berkeley Motes

• Programming Challenges

• Node-level software platforms – TinyOS, nesC, CONTIKIOS

• Node-level Simulators – NS2 and its extension to sensor networks,

COOJA, TOSSIM

• Programming beyond individual nodes – State centric programming.

TEXT BOOKS:
• C. Siva Ram Murthy and B. S. Manoj, “Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
Architectures and Protocols”, Prentice Hall, PTR, 2004. (UNIT I)
• Holger Karl , Andreas willig, “Protocol and Architecture for Wireless Sensor
Networks”, John wiley publication, Jan 2006.(UNIT II-V)

REFERENCES:
• Feng Zhao, Leonidas Guibas, “Wireless Sensor Networks: an information
processing approach”, Elsevier publication, 2004.
• Charles E. Perkins, “Ad Hoc Networking”, Addison Wesley, 2000.
• I.F. Akyildiz, W. Su, Sankarasubramaniam, E. Cayirci, “Wireless sensor
networks: a survey”, computer networks, Elsevier, 2002, 394 - 422.
 OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, the student would be able to:
 Know the basics of Ad hoc networks and Wireless Sensor
Networks
 Apply this knowledge to identify the suitable routing algorithm
based on the network and user requirement
 Apply the knowledge to identify appropriate physical and MAC
layer protocols
 Understand the transport layer and security issues possible in Ad
hoc and sensor networks.
 Be familiar with the OS used in Wireless Sensor Networks and
build basic modules
 Introduction to Networks
Communication
• Sharing Information
• The sharing can be local (or) Remote
• Transmission of information from one point to another

Data Communication
• Exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable (or) wireless

message
Source Destination
Txn. medium
 Networks

• A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of

communication
A device can be
– Host – computer,desktop,laptop,cellular phone
– Switch – which connects devices together
– Modem – which changes the form of data

Network Criteria
• Performance
• Reliability
• Security
 We know
• What is NETWORK ?
• Type of Networks
 Wired
 Wireless
 Introduction
Wireless Networking:
– refers to any kind of networking that does not involve cables.
• Wireless telecommunication networks are generally implemented
and administered using a transmission system called radio waves.
• This implementation takes place at the physical level (layer) of the
network structure
Some Mobile Devices
 History

• Ad Hoc Network is a multi-hop relaying network

• ALOHAnet developed in 1970
• Ethernet developed in 1980
• In 1994, Bluetooth proposed by Ericsson to develop a short-
range, low-power, low complexity, and inexpensive radio
interface
• WLAN 802.11 spec. is proposed in 1997
 Type of Networks
By Network Formation and Architecture
• Infrastructure-based network.
• Infrastructureless (ad hoc) network.

Infrastructure
• Referred to as a “hosted” or “managed” wireless network.
• Consists of one or more access points (know as gateways or wireless
routers) being connected to an existed network.
Infrastructureless (ad hoc) network
– Ad hoc is a word that originally comes from Latin and
means “for this” or "for this situation."
– In current American English it is used to describe
something that has been formed or used for a special and
immediate purpose, without previous planning. ... ad hoc
group. ad hoc basis.
A _________ set of rules that governs data
communication.
a) Protocols
b) Standards
c) RFCs
d) Servers
• A _______ is the physical path over which a
message travels.
a) Path
b) Medium
c) Protocol
d) Route
• The first Network was called ________
a) CNNET
b) NSFNET
c) ASAPNET
d) ARPANET
• ARPANET stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency
Networks.
• It was the first network to be implemented which used the
TCP/IP protocol in the year 1969.
• Communication between a computer and a
keyboard involves ______________
transmission.
a) Automatic
b) Half-duplex
c) Full-duplex
d) Simplex
• Communication channel is shared by all the
machines on the network in ________
a) broadcast network
b) unicast network
c) multicast network
• Bluetooth is an example of __________
a) personal area network
b) local area network
c) virtual private network
d) wide area network
• A __________ is a device that forwards
packets between networks by processing the
routing information included in the packet.
a) bridge
b) firewall
c) router
d) hub
• Network congestion occurs _________
a) in case of traffic overloading
b) when a system terminates
c) when connection between two nodes terminates
d) in case of transfer failure
 Infrastructure and Ad-hoc Networks
Infrastructure based Network(Access Point based Topology):
 Communication takes place only between the wireless nodes and the access
point, but not directly between the wireless nodes.
 The access point does not just control medium access, but also acts as a bridge
to other wireless or wired networks.
 The design is simpler because most of the network functionality lies within the
access point.
Ad-hoc Networks (Peer to Peer Topology)
• Communication takes place directly with other nodes, so no access point
Controlling medium access is necessary.
• Figure shows two ad-hoc networks with three nodes each. Nodes within
an ad-hoc network can only communicate if they can reach each other
physically, i.e., if they are within each other’s radio range or if other
nodes can forward the message.
• Nodes from the two networks shown in Figure cannot, therefore,
communicate with each other if they are not within the same radio range.

This image cannot currently be displayed.

 Ad-Hoc Wireless Network
• Also referred to as an “unmanaged” or “peer to peer” wireless
network
• it consists of each device connecting directly to each other.
• Allow someone sitting outside in the garden with a laptop to
communicate with his desktop computer in the house and access
the Internet.
• Ad hoc networks are autonomous networks operating either in
isolation or as “stub networks” connecting to a fixed network
• Do not necessarily rely on existing infrastructure
– No “access point”
• Each node serves as a router and forwards packets for other
nodes in the network
• Topology of the network continuously changes
By Communication Coverage Area

1. Wireless Wide Area Networks (Wireless WANs)

• Infrastructure-based networks
• Connections can be made over large geographical areas, across
cities or even countries
• Use of multiple antenna sites or satellite systems maintained by
wireless service providers.
• Examples :Cellular networks (like GSM networks or CDMA
networks) and satellite networks
2.Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (Wireless MANs).
• Referred as fixed wireless , infrastructure-based networks
• Enable users to establish broadband wireless connections among
multiple locations ,for example, among multiple office buildings
in a city or on a university campus
• Serve as backups for wired networks
• Radio waves and infrared light can be used to transmit data
3.Wireless Local Area Network (Wireless LANs)
• Enable users to establish wireless connections within a local area
with in a 100 m range
• Provide flexible data communication systems that can be used in
temporary offices or other spaces that can operate in
infrastructure-based or in ad hoc mode
• Include 802.11 (Wi-Fi) and Hiperlan2
4.Wireless Personal Area Networks (Wireless PANs).
• Enable users to establish ad hoc, wireless communication among
personal wireless devices such as PDAs, cellular phones, or
laptops that are used within a personal operating space, typically
up to a 10 meter range.

Two key Wireless PAN technologies are

• Bluetooth: is a cable-replacement technology that uses radio
waves to transmit data to a distance of up to 9–10 m,
• Infrared: connect devices within a 1 m range.
Wireless Network Technology
 Fundamental of Wireless Networks
Radio Propagation Mechanisms
• Reflection
• Diffraction
• scattering
Wireless Ad-hoc Network
Mobile Ad-hoc Network
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET)
 Cellular and Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
• Cellular Wireless Networks: infrastructure dependent network
• Ad Hoc Networks: multi-hop radio relaying and without support
of infrastructure
– Wireless Mesh Networks
– Wireless Sensor Networks
 Applications of Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
• Military Applications
– Establishing communication among a group of soldiers for tactical
operations
– Coordination of military object moving at high speeds such as
fleets of airplanes or ships
– Requirements: reliability, efficiency, secure communication, and
multicasting routing

• Collaborative and Distributed Computing

– Conference, distributed files sharing

• Emergency Operations
– Search, rescue, crowd control, and commando operations
– Support real-time and fault-tolerant communication paths
 Wireless Mesh Networks
• An alternate communication infrastructure for mobile or fixed
nodes/users
• Provides many alternate paths for a data transfer session between
a source and destination
• Advantages of Wireless Mesh Networks
– High data rate
– quick and low cost of deployment
– enhanced services
– high scalability
– easy extendability
– high availability, and
– low cost per bit
 Wireless Sensor Networks
• A collection of a large number of sensor nodes that are deployed in a
particular region

• Applications:
– military, health care, home security, and environmental monitoring

• Differences with the ad hoc wireless networks:

– Mobility of nodes
– size of network
– density of deployment
– power constraints
– data/information fusion
– traffic distribution
 Hybrid Wireless Networks
• HWN such as Multi-hop cellular networks and integrated cellular ad
hoc relay networks
– The base station maintains the information about the topology of
the network for efficient routing
– The capacity of a cellular network can be increased if the network
incorporates the properties of multi-hop relaying along with the
support of existing fixed infrastructure

• Advantages:
– Higher capacity than cellular networks due to better channel reuse
– Increased flexibility and reliability in routing
– Better coverage and connectivity in holes
 Issues in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
The major issues that affect the design, deployment, and
performance of an ad hoc wireless system are
– Medium access scheme

– Routing, Multicasting, TCP protocol

– Pricing scheme, QoS, Self-organization

– Security, Energy management

– Addressing and service discovery

– Scalability

– Deployment considerations
 Medium Access Scheme
The primary responsibility of a Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol in ad
hoc wireless networks is the distributed arbitration for the shared channel for
transmission of packets
The major issues to be considered in designing a MAC protocol :
• Distributed operation
– Adhoc no centralized coordination
– fully distributed involving minimum control overhead
• Synchronization
– Mandatory for TDMA-based systems for txn. And rxn. Slots
– Involves usage of scare resources such as BW and Battery Power
• Hidden terminals
– Can significantly reduce the throughput of a MAC protocol
• Exposed terminals
– To improve the efficiency of the MAC protocol, the exposed nodes should
be allowed to transmit in a controlled fashion without causing collision to
the on-going data transfer
• Access delay -Avg. delay that any packet to get transmitted
 The Major Issues of MAC Scheme
• Throughput
– To minimize the occurrence of collision, maximize
channel utilization, and minimize control overhead
• Fairness
– Equal share or weighted share of the bandwidth to all
competing nodes (either node based or flow based)
• Real-time traffic support – Voice, Video and real time data
• Resource reservation
– Such as BW, buffer space, and processing power
• Capability for power control
• Adaptive rate control
• Use of directional antennas
 The Major Challenge of Routing Protocol
• The responsibilities of a routing protocol include exchanging the route
information; finding a feasible path to a destination based on criteria
such as hop length, minimum power required, and lifetime of the
wireless link; gathering information about the path breaks; mending the
broken paths expending minimum processing power and bandwidth;
and utilizing minimum bandwidth.
The major challenges that a routing protocol:
• Mobility: result in frequent path break, packet collision, and difficulty
in resource reservation
• Bandwidth constraint: BW is shared by every node
• Error-prone and share channel: high bit error rate
• Location-dependent contention: distributing the network load uniformly
across the network
• Other resource constraint: computing power, battery power, and buffer
storage
 The Major Requirement of Routing Protocol
• Minimum route acquisition delay
– The route acquisition delay for a node that does not have a route to a
particular destination node should be as minimal as possible. This delay
may vary with the size of the network and the network load.
• Quick route reconfiguration: to handle path breaks
– In ad hoc wireless networks, due to the random movement of nodes,
transient loops may form in the route thus established. A routing protocol
should detect such transient routing loops and take corrective actions.
• Loop-free routing : to avoid unnecessary wastage of n/w BW
• Distributed routing approach
• Minimum control overhead
– The control packets exchanged for finding a new route and maintaining
existing routes should be kept as minimal as possible
• Scalability
– Scalability is the ability of the routing protocol to scale well (i.e., perform
efficiently) in a network with a large number of nodes
• Provisioning of QoS:
– supporting differentiated classes of services
• Support for time-sensitive traffic
– The routing protocol should be able to support both hard realtime and soft
real-time traffic.
• Security and privacy
– The routing protocol in ad hoc wireless networks must have inbuilt
capability to avoid resource consumption, denial-of- service,
impersonation, and similar attacks possible against an ad hoc wireless
network.
 The Major Issues in Multicast Routing Protocols
• Robustness
– recover and reconfigure quickly from link breaks
• Efficiency
– minimum number of transmissions to deliver a data packet to all the group
members
• Minimal Control overhead
• QoS support
– QoS support is essential in multicast routing because, in most cases, the
data transferred in a multicast session is time-sensitive
• Efficient group management
– The process of accepting multicast session members and maintaining the
connectivity among them until the session expires.
• Scalability
– The multicast routing protocol should be able to scale for a network with a
large number of nodes.
• Security
– Authentication of session members and prevention of non-members from
gaining unauthorized information play a major role in military
communications.
 Transport Layer Protocols
• Objectives:
– setting up and maintaining end-to-end connections, reliable
end-to-end data delivery, flow control, and congestion control

• Major performance degradation:

– Frequent path breaks, presence of old routing information,
high channel error rate, and frequent network partitions
 Quality of Service Provisioning
• QoS often requires negotiation between the host and the network,
resource reservation schemes, priority scheduling and call
admission control
• QoS in Ad hoc wireless networks can be on a per flow, per link,
or per node
• Qos Parameters: different applications have different
requirements
– Multimedia: bandwidth and delay are the key parameters
– Military: BW, delay, security and reliability
– Emergency search –and-rescue: availability is the key parameters,
multiple link disjoint paths
– WSN: battery life, minimum energy consumption
 Quality of Service Provisioning
• QoS-aware routing:
– To have the routing use QoS parameters for finding a path
– The parameters are network through put, packet delivery ratio,
reliability, delay, delay jitter, packet lost rate, bit error rate, and
path loss

• QoS framework:
– A frame work for QoS is a complete system that attempts to
provide the promised service
– The QoS modules such as routing protocol, signaling protocol,
and resource management should react promptly according to
changes in the network state
 Self-Organization
• An important property that an ad hoc wireless network should
exhibit is organizing and maintaining the network by itself
• Major activities: neighbor discovery, topology organization, and
topology reorganization
• Ad hoc wireless networks should be able to perform self-
organization quickly and efficiently
 Security
• The attack against ad hoc wireless networks are classified into
two types: passive and active attacks
• Passive attack: malicious nodes to observe the nature of activities
and to obtain information in the network without disrupting the
operation
• Active attack: disrupt the operation of the network
– Internal attack: nodes belong to the same network
– External attack: nodes outside the network
 Major Security Threats
• Denial of service: either consume the network BW or overloading
the system
• Resource consumption
– Energy depletion: by directing unnecessary traffic through
nodes
– Buffer overflow: filling unwanted data, routing table attack
(filling nonexistent destinations)
• Host impersonation: A compromised node can act as another node
and respond control packets to create wrong route entries and
terminate the traffic
• Information disclosure: support useful traffic pattern
• Interference: create wide-spectrum noise
 Addressing and Service Discovery
• An address that is globally unique is required for a node to
participate communication
– Auto-configuration of address is required to allocate non
duplicate address to the nodes
– In networks frequent partitioning and merging of network
components require duplicate address detection mechanisms
• Nodes in the network should be able to locate services that other
nodes provide
 Energy Management
• Transmission power management:
– RF hardware design ensure minimum power consumption
– Uses variable power MAC protocol
– Load balance in network layer
– Reducing the number of retransmissions at the transport layer
– Application software developed for mobile computers
• Battery energy management: extending the battery life by taking
chemical properties, discharge patterns, and by the selection of a
battery from a set of batteries that is available for redundancy
• Processor power management: CPU can be put into different power
saving modes during low processing load conditions
• Devices power management: can be done by OS by selectively
powering down interface devices that are not used or by putting
devices into different power saving modes
 Scalability
• The latency of path-finding involved with a non-demand routing
protocol in a large ad hoc wireless network may be unacceptably
high
• A hierarchical topology-based system and addressing may be
more suitable for large adhoc wireless networks

Deployment Considerations
• The deployment of a commercial ad hoc wireless network has
the following benefits
– Low cost of deployment
– Incremental deployment
– Short deployment time
– Re-configurability
 Major Issues for Deployment
• Scenario of deployment
– Military deployment
• Data-centric (e.g. WSN)
• User-centric (soldiers or vehicles carrying with wireless
communication devices)
– Emergency operations deployment
– Commercial wide-area deployment
– Home network deployment
• Required longevity of network: regenerative power source can
be deployed when the connectivity is required for a longer
duration of time
• Area of coverage
 Major Issues for Deployment
• Service availability: redundant nodes can be, deployed to against
nodes failure
• Operational integration with other infrastructure: can be
considered for improve the performance or gathering additional
information, or for providing better QoS
• Choice of protocols: the choices of protocols at different layers
of the protocol stack is to be done taking into consideration the
deployment scenario
 Ad Hoc Wireless in Internet
• Similar to wireless internet, the ad hoc wireless internet extends
the service of the Internet to the end user over an ad hoc wireless
network
• Some of the applications of the ad hoc wireless Internet are
– wireless mesh networks,
– provisioning of temporary Internet services to major
conference venues,
– sports venues,
– temporary military settlements,
– battlefields, and
– broadband Internet services in rural regions.
 The major issues for ad hoc wireless Internet
• Gateways: entry points to the wired Internet
• Gateways perform the following tasks:
– keeping track of the end users,
– bandwidth management,
– load balancing,
– traffic shaping,
– packet filtering,
– bandwidth fairness, and
– address, service, and location discovery.
• Address mobility: This problem is worse here as the nodes operate
over multiple wireless hops. Mobile IP can provide temporary
alternatives
• Routing: major problem in ad hoc wireless Internet, due to the dynamic
topological changes, the presence of gateways, multi-hop relaying, and
the hybrid character of the network.
• Transport layer protocol: specialized transport layer protocol for the
ad hoc wireless network part can be considered where the gateways act
as the intermediate nodes at which the connections are split.

• Load balancing: Load balancing techniques are essential to distribute

the load so as to avoid the situation where the gateway nodes become
bottleneck nodes.

• Pricing/billing: Since Internet bandwidth is expensive, it becomes

very important to introduce pricing/billing strategies for the ad hoc
wireless Internet. Gateway is the preferred choice for charging the
traffic to and from the Internet.
• Security
• QoS: widespread use of voice over IP (VoIP) and growing multimedia
applications over the Internet, provisioning of QoS support in the ad
hoc wireless Internet becomes a very important issue

• Service, address, and location discovery:

– Service discovery in any network refers to the activity of
discovering or identifying the party which provides a particular
service or resource.
– Address discovery refers to the services such as those provided by
address resolution protocol (ARP) or domain name service (DNS)
operating within the wireless domain.
– Location discovery refers to different activities such as detecting
the location of a particular mobile node in the network or detecting
the geographical location of nodes.
• Figure 5.8 shows a wireless mesh network that connects several
houses to the Internet through a gateway node.
• Such networks can provide highly reliable broadband wireless
networks for the urban as well as the rural population in a cost-
effective manner with fast deployment and reconfiguration.
• This wireless mesh network is a special case of the ad hoc wireless
Internet where mobility of nodes is not a major concern as most relay
stations and end users use fixed transceivers.
• Figure 5.8 shows that house A is connected to the Internet over
multiple paths (path 1 and path 2).
 ROUTING PROTOCOLS FOR AD HOC WIRELESS
NETWORKS
• An ad hoc wireless network consists of a set of mobile nodes (hosts)
that are connected by wireless links.
• The network topology - keep changing randomly.
• Routing protocols used in wired networks cannot be directly applied to
ad hoc wireless networks
– Highly dynamic topology
– No infrastructure for centralized administration
– Bandwidth constrained
– Energy constrained
• For the above reasons, we need to design new routing protocols for ad
hoc networks
Issues in Designing a Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless
Networks
• The major challenges that a routing protocol designed for ad hoc
wireless networks faces are
– mobility of nodes,
– resource constraints,
– error-prone channel state, and
– hidden and exposed terminal problems.
• Mobility:
– Ad hoc is highly dynamic due to the movement of nodes
– Node movement causes frequent path breaks
– The path repair in wired network has slow convergence

• Bandwidth Constraint:
– Wireless has less bandwidth due to the limited radio band:
– Less data rate and difficult to maintain topology information
– Frequent change of topology causes more overhead of topology
maintenance
– Target: Bandwidth optimization and design topology update
mechanism with less overhead
• Error-prone shared broadcast radio channel:
– Wireless links have time varying characteristics in terms of link
capacity and link-error probability
– Target: Interact with MAC layer to find better-quality link
– Hidden terminal problem causes packet collision
– Target: Find routes through better quality links and find path with
less congestion

• Hidden and exposed terminal problems

– RTS-CTS control packet cannot ensure collision free, see Fig. 7.2

• Resource Constraints:
– Limited battery life and limited processing power
– Target: optimally manage these resources
 Characteristics of an Ideal Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc
wired network routing protocols cannot be used in ad hoc wireless
networks. Hence ad hoc wireless networks require specialized
routing protocols
• Fully distributed (more fault tolerant than centralized routing)
• Adaptive to frequent topology changes (because of mobility of nodes)
• Minimum connection setup time is desired
• Localized
– global maintenance involves a huge state propagation control
overhead
• Loop free and free from stale routes
• Packet collision must seldom happen
• Converge to optimal route quickly
• Optimally use scarce resource
– Bandwidth, computing power, memory, and battery
• Remote parts of the network must not cause updates in the topology
information maintained by this node
• Provide quality of service and support for time sensitive traffic

Classifications of Routing Protocols

• Routing protocol can be broadly classified into four categories :
– Routing information update mechanism
– Use of temporal information for routing
– Routing topology
– Utilization of specific resource
• These classification is not mutually exclusive and some protocols fall
in more than one class.
Based on the Routing Information Update Mechanism

• Proactive or table-driven routing protocols

– Maintain routing information in the routing table
– Routing information is flooded in the whole network
– Runs path-finding algorithm with the routing table

• Reactive or on-demand routing protocols

– Obtain the necessary path while required

• Hybrid routing protocols

– In the zone of given node : use table-driven
– Out of the zone of given node : use on-demand
 Based on the Use of Temporal Information for Routing

• Ad hoc wireless networks are highly dynamic and path breaks are much
more frequent than in wired networks,
• The use of temporal information regarding the lifetime of the wireless
links and the lifetime of the paths selected assumes significance

• Using past temporal information

– Past status of the links or
– the status of links at the time of routing to make routing decision

• Using future temporal information

– Expected future status of the links to make decision
– Node lifetime is also included
• Ex: remaining battery charge, prediction of location, and link
availability
 Based on the Routing Topology
• Routing topology being used in the Internet is hierarchical in order to
reduce the state information maintained at the core routers.
• Ad hoc wireless networks, due to their relatively smaller number of
nodes, can make use of either a flat topology or a hierarchical topology
for routing.

• Flat topology routing protocols

– Flat addressing scheme similar to IEEE 802.3 LANs
– Globally unique addressing mechanism for nodes (or atleast unique
to the connected part of the network)

• Hierarchical topology routing protocols

– Logical hierarchy in the network
– Associated addressing scheme
– May based on geographical information or hop distance
 Based on the Utilization of Specific Resource

• Power-aware routing
– Minimize consumption of resource
• Ex: Battery power
– The routing decision based on minimizing the power consumption
either locally or globally in the network

• Geographical information assisted routing

– Improve the routing performance
– Reduce control overhead
 Table-Driven Routing Protocols
• These protocols are extensions of the wired network routing
protocols.
• They maintain the global topology information in the form of
tables at every node.
• These tables are updated frequently in order to maintain
consistent and accurate network state information.

• routing protocols are:

– Destination Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing Protocol
(DSDV)
– Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP)
– Cluster-Head Gateway Switch Routing Protocol (CGSR)
– Source-Tree Adaptive Routing Protocol (STAR)
 Destination Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing
Protocol (DSDV)
• One of the first protocols proposed for ad hoc wireless networks
• Enhanced from distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm
• Obtain a table that contains shortest path from this node to every
node
• Incorporate table updates with increasing sequence number tags
– Prevent loops
– Counter the count-to-infinity problem
– Faster convergence
• Exchange table between neighbors at regular time interval to keep
an up-to-date view of the network topology
• The tables are also forwarded if a node observes a significant
change in local topology
• Two types of table updates
– Incremental update
• Takes a single network data packet unit (NDPU)
– When no significant change in the local topology
– Full dumps update
• Takes multiple NDPUs:
– When local topology changes significantly
– Or incremental updates require more than a NDPU

• Table updates are initiated by the destination with the new sequence
number which is always greater than the previous one
• Single link break cause propagation of table update information to the
whole network
– With odd sequence
• The changed node informs neighbors about new shortest path while
receiving the table update message
– With even sequence
• Advantages:
– Route setup process is very fast
– Make the existing wired network protocol apply to ad hoc
network with fewer modifications

• Disadvantages:
– Excessive control overhead during high mobility
– Node must wait for a table update message initiated by the
destination node
• Cause stale routing information at nodes
 On-demand Routing Protocol
• Unlike the table-driven routing protocols, on-demand routing
protocols execute the path-finding process and exchange routing
information only when a path is required by a node to
communicate with a destination.
• Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR)
• Ad Hoc On-demand Distance-Vector Routing Protocol (AODV)
• Temporally Ordered Algorithm (TORA)
• Location-Aided Routing (LAR)
• Associativity-Based Routing(ABR)
• Signal Stability-Based Adaptive Routing Protocol (SSA)
• Flow-Oriented Routing Protocol (FORP)
 Dynamic source routing protocol
• This is a source-based routing protocol.
The difference between DSR and other on-demand routing
protocols is:
• on-demand protocols periodically exchange the so-called beacon
(hello) packets:
– hello packets are used to inform neighbors about existence of
the node.
• DSR does not use hello packets.
The basic approach of this protocol is as follows:
• during route contraction DSR floods a RouteRequest packets in
the network;
• intermediate nodes forward RouteRequest if it is not redundant;
• destination node replies with RouteReply;
• the RouteReply packet contains the path traversed by
RouteRequest packet;
• the receiver responds only if this is a first RouteRequest (not
duplicate).
The DSR protocol uses the sequence numbers:
• RouteRequest packet carries the path traversed and the sequence
number;
• the sequence numbers are used to prevent loop formation and
nodes check it.
The DSR also uses route cache in each node:
• if node has a route in the cache, this route is used.
Renements of DSR:
• to avoid over-fooding the network, exponential back-o is used
between RouteRequest sending;
• intermediate node is allowed to reply with RouteReply if it has
a route to destination in cache:
• if the link is broken the RouteError is sent to the sender by
node adjacent to a broken link.
 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
• Reactive, source-based
• When node S wants to send a packet to node D, but does not
know a route to D, node S initiates a route discovery
• Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ)
• Each node appends own identifier when forwarding RREQ
• Advantage
– No need to updating the routing tables
– Intermediate nodes are able to utilize the Route Cache
information efficiently to reduce the control overhead
– There are no “hello” messages needed (beacon-less)

• Disadvantage
– The Route Maintenance protocol does not locally repair a
broken link
– There is always a small time delay at the begin of a new
connection
 Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol
• AODV routing protocol uses an ondemand approach for finding routes
• (i.e.) a route is established only when it is required by a source node for
transmitting data packets.
• It employs destination sequence numbers to identify the most recent
path
The major differences between AODV and DSR are as follows:
• in DSR a data packet carries the complete path to be traversed;
• in AODV nodes store the next hop information (hop-by-hop routing)
for each data flow.
In an ondemand routing protocol,
• the source node floods the RouteRequest packet in the network when a
route is not available for the desired destination.
• It may obtain multiple routes to different destinations from a single
RouteRequest.

The major difference between AODV and other on-demand routing

protocols
• AODV uses a destination sequence number (DestSeqNum) to
determine an up-to-date path to the destination.
• A node updates its path information only if the DestSeqNum of the
current packet received is greater than the last DestSeqNum stored at
the node.
The RouteRequest packet in AODV carries the following information:
• the source identifier (SrcID): this identifies the source;
• the destination identifier (DestID): this identifies the destination to
which the route is required;
• the source sequence number (SrcSeqNum);
• the destination sequence number (DestSeqNum): indicates the
freshness of the route.
• the broadcast identifier (BcastID): is used to discard multiple copies
of the same RouteRequest.
• the time to live (TTL): this is used to not allow loops.
The AODV protocol performs as follows:
• when a node does not have a valid route to destination a RouteRequest
is forwarded;

• when intermediate node receives a RouteRequest packet two cases are

possible:
– if it does not have a valid route to destination, the node forwards it;
– if it has a valid route, the node prepares a RouteReply message:

• if the RouteRequest is received multiple times, the duplicate copies are

discarded:
– are determined comparing BcastID-SrcID pairs.

• when RouteRequest is forwarded, the address of previous node and its

BcastID are stored;
– are needed to forward packets to the source.
• .
• if RouteReply is not received before a time expires, this entry is
deleted;
• either destination node or intermediate node responses with valid
route;
• when RouteRequest is forwarded back, the address of previous node
and its BcastID are stored;
– are needed to forward packets to the destination

Consider the example, In figure,

• source node 1 initiates a path-finding process by originating a
RouteRequest to be flooded in the network for destination node 15
• Assuming that the RouteRequest contains the destination sequence
number as 3 and the source sequence number as 1.
• When nodes 2, 5, and 6 receive the RouteRequest packet, they check
their routes to the destination.
• In case a route to the destination is not available, they further forward
it to their neighbors
• Here nodes 3, 4, and 10 are the neighbors of nodes 2, 5, and 6.
• This is with the assumption that intermediate nodes 3 and 10 already
have routes to the destination node, that is, node 15 through paths 10-
14-15 and 3-7-9-13-15, respectively.
• If the destination sequence number at intermediate node 10 is 4 and
intermediate node 3 is 1, then only node 10 is allowed to reply along the
cached route to the source.
• This is because node 3 has an older route to node 15 compared to the
route available at the source node (the destination sequence number at
node 3 is 1, but the destination sequence number is 3 at the source
node),
• while node 10 has a more recent route (the destination sequence number
is 4) to the destination.
• If the RouteRequest reaches the destination (node 15) through path 4-
12-15 or any other alternative route, the destination also sends a
RouteReply to the source.
• In this case, multiple RouteReply packets reach the source.
• All the intermediate nodes receiving a RouteReply update their route
tables with the latest destination sequence number.
• They also update the routing information if it leads to a shorter path
between source and destination.
• AODV does not repair a broken path locally.
• When a link breaks, which is determined by observing the periodical
beacons or through link-level acknowledgments, the end nodes (i.e.,
source and destination nodes) are notified.
• When a source node learns about the path break, it reestablishes the
route to the destination if required by the higher layers.
• If a path break is detected at an intermediate node, the node informs the
end nodes by sending an unsolicited RouteReply with the hop count set
as ∞.
Consider the example in Figure 7.13.
• When a path breaks, for example, between nodes 4 and 5, both the
nodes initiate RouteError messages to inform their end nodes about the
link break.
• The end nodes delete the corresponding entries from their tables.
• The source node reinitiates the pathfinding process with the new
BcastID and the previous destination sequence number.

• Advantage
– Establish on demand
– Destination sequences are used to find the latest path to destination
– The connection setup delay is less

• Disadvantage
– Intermediate node can lead to inconsistent route
– Beacon-base
– Heavy control overhead