(1) State the significance and scope of environmental education

Answer:-
Environmental studies discipline has multiple and multilevel scopes. This study is important and
necessary not only for children but also for everyone.

• It provides the knowledge about ecological systems and cause and effect relationships.
• It provides necessary information about biodiversity richness and the potential dangers
to the species of plants, animals and microorganisms in the environment.
• The study enables one to understand the causes and consequences due to natural and
main induced disasters (flood, earthquake, landslide, cyclones etc.,) and pollutions and
measures to minimize the effects.
• The study tries to identify and develop appropriate and indigenous eco-friendly skills
and technologies to various environmental issues.
• The study exposes the problems of over population, health, hygiene, etc. and the role of
arts, science and technology in eliminating/ minimizing the evils from the society.

• The study enables environmentally literate citizens (by knowing the environmental acts,
rights, rules, legislations, etc.) to make appropriate judgments and decisions for the
protection and improvement of the earth.
• The study enables theoretical knowledge into practice and the multiple uses of
environment.

(2) Give some important physical hazards and their health effects

Answer:-
There are five main classes of physical hazard namely Explosive, Flammable, Oxidising, Gases
under Pressure and Corrosive to metals. These are then sub-divided into different categories
depending on the degree of danger and these are assigned specific hazard statements to identity
them.

Explosive:- May explode if exposed to fire, heat, shock, friction.

• Avoid ignition sources (sparks, flames, heat)

• Keep your distance
• Wear protective clothing

Flammable:- Flammable if exposed to ignition sources, sparks, heat. Some substances

with this symbol may give off flammable gases in contact with water.

• Avoid ignition sources (sparks, flames, heat)

• Keep your distance
• Wear protective clothing
 Oxidising:- Can burn even without air, or can intensify fire in combustible materials.

• Avoid ignition sources (sparks, flames, heat)

• Keep your distance
• Wear protective clothing

Gas under Pressure:- Contains gas under pressure. Gas released may be very cold.
Gas container may explode if heated.

• Do not heat containers

• Avoid contact with skin and eyes

Corrosive:- May corrode metals.

• Keep away from metals

(3) Define environment and ecosystem.

Answer:-
Environment:- The environment is everything that surrounds us, it is the area we live in, in a
given point of time. It enables us to live on earth by sustaining life. It comprises all the physical,
chemical, and natural forces that exist on our planet. The environment is derived from the word
‘environ’ which means surrounding in French. The biotic components of the environment are all
organisms like birds, animals, human beings, reptiles, including the microorganisms like bacteria,
algae, viruses, and so on. The abiotic components of the environment are soil, land, mountain, river,
cloud, air, including physical components like temperature, humidity, and so on. The environment is
very crucial for good health and sustenance of life on Earth.

Ecosystem:- The ecosystem is considered as the structural and functional unit of ecology. It is a
community where the living and nonliving components of the environment are in continuous
interaction. It can be termed as the chain of interactions taking place between living organisms and
the environment. It can be small or huge. I can be an oasis in the desert or an ocean that covers
thousands of miles. It is responsible for maintaining stability within the environment. An ecosystem
is either aquatic, that which exists in the water or terrestrial, which means the land-based
ecosystems. Different land-based ecosystems are forest, grassland, tundra, and desert. An aquatic
ecosystem is either freshwater or marine. All biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an
ecosystem. It is always in the state of continuous evolution

(4) Mention Abiotic components.

Answer:- In biology and ecology, abiotic components or abiotic factors are non-living chemical
and physical parts of the environment that affect living organisms and the functioning
of ecosystems. . They effect a plethora of species, in all forms of environmental conditions such as
marine or land animals. We humans can make or change abiotic factors in a species' environment.
For instance, fertilizers can affect a snail's habitat, or the greenhouse gases which humans utilize can
change marine pH levels. Abiotic components include physical conditions and non-
living resources that affect living organisms in terms of growth, maintenance, and reproduction. All
non-living components of an ecosystem, such as atmospheric conditions and water resources, are
called abiotic components.
 (5) What is the major significance of biodiversity?
Answer:- Biodiversity is important to humans for many reasons. Biodiversity is also
considered by many to have intrinsic value—that is, each species has a value and a right
to exist, whether or not it is known to have value to humans. The biodiversity book by the
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO; Morton & Hill
2014) describes 5 core (and interacting) values that humans place on biodiversity:

• Economic—biodiversity provides humans with raw materials for consumption

and production. Many livelihoods, such as those of farmers, fishers and timber
workers, are dependent on biodiversity.
• Ecological life support—biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems that
supply oxygen, clean air and water, pollination of plants, pest control,
wastewater treatment and many ecosystem services.
• Recreation—many recreational pursuits rely on our unique biodiversity, such as
birdwatching, hiking, camping and fishing. Our tourism industry also depends
on biodiversity.
• Cultural—the Australian culture is closely connected to biodiversity through the
expression of identity, through spirituality and through aesthetic appreciation.
Indigenous Australians have strong connections and obligations
to biodiversity arising from spiritual beliefs about animals and plants.
• Scientific—biodiversity represents a wealth of systematic ecological data that
help us to understand the natural world and its origins.
• Any loss or deterioration in the condition of biodiversity can compromise all the
values outlined above and affect human wellbeing.

(7)Explain India as mega biodiversity

Answer:- India has been described as one of 12 mega-diversity countries possessing a rich means of
all living organisms when biodiversity is viewed as a whole. The greater the multidiversity of species,
greater is the contribution to biodiversity. There are 25 clearly defined areas in the world called ‘hot
spots’ which support about 50,000 endemic plant species, comprising 20 per cent of the world’s
total flora. India’s defined location of ‘hot spots’ is the Western Ghats and the Northeastern regions.

Forests, which embrace a sizeable portion of biodiversity, now comprise about 64 m. hectares or
about 19 per cent of the land area of the country, according to satellite imaging. Roughly 33 cent of
this forest cover represents primary forest. Indian flora comprises about 15,000 flowering plants and
bulk of our rich flora is to be found in the Northeast, Western Ghats, the Northwest and Eastern
Himalayas, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Likewise, Assam and the Western Ghats are home
to several species of mammal fauna, birds, and reptilian and amphibian fauna.

To preserve our rich biodiversity, nine biosphere reserves are set up in specific biogeographic”
zones: the biggest one is in the Deccan Peninsula in the Nilgiris covering Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
and Karnataka. Others are the Nanda Devi in Uttar khand in the Western Himalayas, the Nokrek in
Meghalaya, Manas and Dibru Saikhowa in Assam, the Sunderban’s in the Gangetic plain in West
Bengal, Similar in Orissa, the Great Nicobar and the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu.
 (8) Define threats to biodiversity.
Answer:- The greatest threat leading to the loss of biodiversity is the human race. As
our population grows together with our need for food, water, industry, transportation, and
home comforts, it takes over natural ecosystems and replaces them with unnatural ones.
Even in these, other organisms can adapt and successfully reproduce, but the levels of
biodiversity as compared to the replaced environment are significantly lower.
The Threat of Pollution:- We have already discussed the dramatic effects of deforestation upon the
climate and biodiversity. Global warming and pollution are the largest abiotic threats to biodiversity,
but the cause of these abiotic threats is biotic – us. Heavy metals and plastics in the seas not only
reduce the numbers of a species but can render an area completely uninhabitable. The industrial
revolution of the mid-eighteenth to mid-nineteenth century in Europe turned skies black with smoke
and poisoned rivers and plant life, killing consumers, too. Today, the fine dust from car exhausts
largely replaces coal.
The Threat of Climate Change:- Higher temperatures through climate change mean increased
biodiversity in some regions (mangrove trees are moving to areas previously too cold, wine-making
is taking off in areas previously unsuitable for growing grapes). In other regions, the higher
temperatures cause destruction. In the winter months, for example, caribou scrape through the ice
to reach plant life preserved in the equivalent of a natural refrigerator. As global temperatures rise,
this extra food source decomposes and the caribou has no winter food source unless it moves much
further north. Higher Arctic springtime temperatures also bring swarms of flying insects to the icy
north much earlier than usual. Caribou are so distressed by these biting flies that they will even
change their migrating paths, meaning they also have to look for new sources of food instead of
relying on familiar feeding grounds. In escaping from these flies, caribou also spend less time
feeding. Furthermore, they also have to compete for the meager plant life when other herbivores,
previously kept away by the cold, arrive and thrive through adaptive radiation.
The Threat of Invasive Species:- Yet there are still many threats to biodiversity that may not
(always) be the fault of the human being. The proliferation of an invasive species, for example, may
be the result of an opportunistic move into another species’ territory. Still, human transportation
systems are primarily to blame for the introduction of pests into other countries via air and sea.
Consider the American gray squirrel decimating red squirrel populations in England and the
introduction of the Colorado beetle in Europe which caused countless potato crops to fail, for
example.
The Threat of Overexploitation:- Overexploitation is another threat to biodiversity, again a largely
human threat. Overfishing and overharvesting either remove competition for other species causes a
huge shift in the stability of species richness and diversity. By removing too many of one species of
fish, fishers allow other species to take over, perhaps upsetting the delicate balance between
producer and consumer. The overharvesting of crops leads to a lack of nutrients in the soil, where
farmers then add nitrogen-containing fertilizers to make up for this loss. Nitrogen contributes greatly
to global warming and climate change. A vicious circle of action and effect which slowly reduces
biodiversity on first a local and finally a global scale.

(9)What do you understand by endangered and endemic species?

Answer:-
Endangered species: An endangered species is an animal or plant that's considered at risk of
extinction. A species can be listed as endangered at the state, federal, and international level. The
Endangered Species Act has lists of protected plant and animal species both nationally and
worldwide. When a species is given ESA protection, it is said to be a "listed" species. Many additional
species are evaluated for possible protection under the ESA, and they are called “candidate” species.

Endemic species: Endemic species are those plants and animals that exist only in one
geographical region. Species can be endemic to large or small areas of the world. Some may be
endemic to the particular continent; some are endemic to a part of a continent, and others to a
single island. Usually, an area that contains the endemic species is isolated in some way so that
species have difficulty spreading to other areas.

(10)Explain the components, characteristics and biodiversity of Forest ecosystem

Answer:-
Components: The components of the forest ecosystem are soil, plants, animals,
microorganisms, energy flow, nutrient cycle, etc.
Characteristics: 1. Forests are characterised by warm temperatures and adequate
rainfall.
2. The forest maintains climate and rainfall.
3. The forest supports many wild animals and protects biodiversity.
4. The soil is rich in organic matter and nutrients, which support the growth of trees.
Biodiversity: Forest biological diversity is a broad term that refers to all life forms found
within forested areas and the ecological roles they perform. As such, forest biological diversity
encompasses not just trees, but the multitude of plants, animals and micro-organisms that inhabit
forest areas and their associated genetic diversity.

(11) Explain the structure and functional features of Aquatic ecosystem

Answer:-
Structure of Aquatic Ecosystem: The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the
organisation of both biotic and abiotic components. This includes the distribution of energy in our
environment. It also includes the climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:
Biotic Components
Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where the
energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.
Biotic: Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic components
can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
Abiotic: Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water,
soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.
Functional Features of Aquatic Ecosystem:
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

• It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders stability.
• It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components.
 • It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
• It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
• The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involves the
exchange of energy.

(12) Discuss in detail about Ecological succession stating the various stages
Answer:- Ecological succession is the term used to describe what happens to an ecological
community over time. It refers to more or less predictable and orderly set of changes that happen in
the composition or structure of ecological community when you plant a tree, it grows slowly and
then grows bigger and bigger and bigger. Basically, its a predictable set of changes that are visible
over a period of time. The time scale can be decades or even millions of years.
The 3 stages of ecological succession are:
➢ Primary – This is when an ecological community first enters into a new form of habitat that
it has not been present in before. A good example of this would be the habitat created when
granite is removed in a quarry. The rock face that is left behind is altered and becomes a
new habitat. The environment that then grows within that habitat is considered to be in its
primary stage.
➢ Secondary – The secondary succession stage occurs after a habitat has been established,
but it is then disturbed or changed in some fashion and a new community moves in. To use
the example from before – let us say that a primary stage develops on the face of a newly
quarried granite cliff. That habitat grows undisturbed, until there is a forest fire that then
burns and changes a portion of the habitat that has been growing on the rock face. That
ecological habitat has now entered its secondary stage.
➢ Climax – the climax stage is the last stage of an ecosystem. It is when the ecosystem has
become balanced and there is little risk of an interfering event or change to mutate the
environment. Several rainforests and deserts qualify as being in the climax stage. What is
tricky about a climax stage is that given human development, any ecosystem that is in the
climax stage now holds the risk of being destroyed and going backward in the stages.
4 Stages of Ecological Succession:

➢ Pioneer – pioneer types are the new life forms that enter into a primary succession and
begin to take hold. This can be anything from a seed to a bacteria to an insect or to an
animal wandering into a new area and bedding down to make it their home. The pioneer has
no connection to the environment, but it does find enough present in the new ecosystem to
begin to establish its life.
➢ Establishing – the establishing type can be hard to pinpoint because it crosses into the
pioneer and sustaining. Establishing is the process in which life forms identify elements in an
ecosystem that can sustain their basic needs – such as food, water and safe habitat.
➢ Sustaining – Sustaining type means that life in the ecosystem has begun to enter into a
pattern that allows for a cycle of life to continue. This means that birth and death are
occurring, and there is little migration outside of the ecosystem – this is most common in the
climax succession.
 ➢ Producing – the producing type occurs during the secondary succession. This is when life
forms are breeding and growing, but there is migration because what is produced is also not
capable of being supported within the ecosystem. There are also more areas of overgrowth
or overpopulation due to seed levels.

(13) What are trophic levels? Explain the flow of energy and minerals in ecosystem .
Answer:- The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food web. A food chain is a
succession of organisms that eat other organisms and may, in turn, be eaten themselves. The trophic
level of an organism is the number of steps it is from the start of the chain. A food web starts at
trophic level 1 with primary producers such as plants, can move to herbivores at level
2, carnivores at level 3 or higher, and typically finish with apex predators at level 4 or 5. The path
along the chain can form either a one-way flow or a food "web".
Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic
levels are numbered subsequently according to how far the organism is along the food chain.

• Level 1: Plants and algae make their own food and are called producers.
• Level 2: Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers.
• Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.
• Level 4: Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.

(15) Discuss the value of biodiversity.

Answer:- Biodiversity is what some might call the “library of life.” It encompasses all living things
from single-celled organisms to lush trees to giant ocean-dwelling animals and everything in
between. Biodiversity even includes humans. All of Earth’s species play an important role in nature’s
delicate balancing act. Some areas of the Earth are considered “hotspots” for biodiversity, home to
vibrant ecosystems teeming with life. But many of these areas have been devastated by natural
disasters. Worldwide, we’re in the midst of the sixth mass extinction, and each day we are losing
more and more species of vital importance. Insects and birds, for example, are both in rapid decline,
and amphibians and mammals are not far behind.
• The biggest impact of biodiversity is on the environment. Healthy ecosystems help to
maintain the Earth’s natural processes. Soil turnover, water purification, pest control, and
other processes wouldn’t be possible without the species that support them. Interruptions to
these processes can be devastating.

(16) Explain Carbon and Nitrogen cycles.

Answer:-
Carbon cycle: The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged
among the biosphere, pedosphere , geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. Carbon
is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals
such as limestone. Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle, the carbon cycle comprises a
sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life. It describes the movement
of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere, as well as long-term processes
of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks. Carbon sinks in the land and the ocean
each currently take up about one-quarter of anthropogenic carbon emissions each year.
Nitrogen cycle: The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is
converted into multiple chemical forms as it circulates among atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine
ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical
processes. The majority of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is atmospheric nitrogen,[16] making it the
largest source of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use,
leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems. Human activities such as fossil
fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have
dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle.

(17) Explain the Sulphur and Phosphorus cycles

Answer:-
Sulphur cycle:
• The sulphur is released by the weathering of rocks.
• Sulphur comes in contact with air and is converted into sulphates.
• Sulphates are taken up by plants and microbes and are converted into organic forms.
• The organic form of sulphur is then consumed by the animals through their food and thus
sulphur moves in the food chain.
• When the animals die, some of the sulphur is released by decomposition while some enter
the tissues of microbes.
• There are several natural sources such as volcanic eruptions, evaporation of water, and
breakdown of organic matter in swamps, that release sulphur directly into the atmosphere.
This sulphur falls on earth with rainfall.

Phosphorous cycle:
➢ The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement
of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many
other biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the
movement of phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are
usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth. The
production of phosphine gas occurs in only specialized, local conditions. Therefore, the
phosphorus cycle should be viewed from whole Earth system and then specifically focused
on the cycle in terrestrial and aquatic systems.

(20) Discuss the major causes & consequences of deforestation?

Answer:-
➢ The most known consequence of deforestation is its threat to biodiversity. In fact, forests
represent some of the most veritable hubs of biodiversity. From mammals to birds, insects,
amphibians or plants, the forest is home to many rare and fragile species.
80% of the Earth’s land animals and plants live in forests.
➢ Today, 52% of all the land used for food production is moderately or severely impacted
by soil erosion. In the long term, the lack of healthy, nutritious soil can lead to low yields and
food insecurity.
➢ Deforestation weakens and degrades the soil. Forested soils are usually not only richer on
organic matter, but also more resistant to erosion, bad weather, and extreme weather
events. This happens mainly because roots help fix trees in the ground and the sun-blocking
tree cover helps the soil to slowly dry out.
➢ Deforestation also has a very strong contribution to climate change. Why? Let’s remember
trees absorb and store CO2 throughout their lives. If we speak about tropical forests, they
hold more than 210 gigatons of carbon, according to WWF. And what’s worrying is that the
destruction of these trees has two big negative side-effects.

(21) Explain the major impacts of timber extraction and mining

Answer:-
Mining: Environmental effects of mining can occur at local, regional, and global scales
through direct and indirect mining practices. The effects can result in erosion, sinkholes, loss of
biodiversity, or the contamination of soil, groundwater, and surface water by the chemicals emitted
from mining processes. These processes also affect the atmosphere from the emissions of carbon
which have an effect on the quality of human health and biodiversity.[1] Some mining methods
(lithium mining, phosphate mining, coal mining, mountaintop removal mining, and sand mining) may
have such significant environmental and public health effects that mining companies in some
countries are required to follow strict environmental and rehabilitation codes to ensure that the
mined area returns to its original state.

(22) Enumerate the various benefits and drawbacks of constructing dams.

Answer:-
Advantages of dam:
➢ Dams offer an array of economic, social and environmental benefits and are useful for most
problems pertaining to water conservation and its crisis management.
➢ Arguably, this is one of the primary uses of dams and reservoirs. The water stored in
reservoirs helps to make up for water crises in dry seasons. It also ensures regular water
supply for residential, industrial and agricultural consumption.
➢ Undoubtedly, mitigating flood is a major importance of dams. Dams help to control the flow
of floodwater by diverting its course towards other uses, storing the excess water or
releasing it with caution. In turn, it helps to save lives and resulting displacement.
➢ One of the most significant merits of dams is the role they play in irrigation. Dams have
helped farmers tackle the problem of watering crops significantly, which has resulted in a
boost in crop production.
➢ Over the years, hydropower has emerged as an effective way of meeting the energy crisis in
many regions of India. Also, being a clean source of energy, hydropower does not contribute
to any kind of pollution. Tehri Dam, Srisailam Dam and Sardar Sarovar Dam are some of the
top hydropower plants in India.
➢ Besides mitigating flood, dams often prove useful in retaining detrimental sedimentation. In
fact, they may also come in handy in preventing the disposition of hazardous material and
subsequent contamination.
➢ Besides mitigating flood, dams often prove useful in retaining detrimental sedimentation. In
fact, they may also come in handy in preventing the disposition of hazardous material and
subsequent contamination.

Disadvantages of dam:
Irrespective of its array of benefits, dams have a significant share of
disadvantages. The following offers a brief idea about it.
➢ Displacement of people during construction.
➢ Reservoirs often emit a high percentage of greenhouse gases.
➢ Often disrupts local ecosystems.
➢ It disrupts the groundwater table.
➢ Blocks progression of water to other countries, states or regions.
 (24) Comment on floods & drought.
Answer:-
Floods: The amount of rainfall received by an area varies from one place to another
depending on the location of the place. In some places it rains almost throughout the year whereas
in other places it might rain for only a few days. India records most of its rainfall in the monsoon
season. Rains are a big relief after the hot and sunny days of summers. The growth of crops is also
dependent on the arrival of monsoons. However, excess rainfall is disadvantageous in many ways.
Heavy rains lead to rise in the water level of rivers, seas and oceans. Water gets accumulated in the
coastal areas which results in floods. These floods cause extensive damage to crops, domestic
animals, property and human life. During floods, many animals get carried away by the force of
water and eventually die.
Drought: If it does not rain for a long period of time, what will happen? The soil will
continuously lose groundwater by the process of evaporation and transpiration. Since this water is
not brought back to earth in the form of rains, the soil becomes very dry. The level of water in the
ponds and rivers goes down and in some cases water bodies get dried up completely. Groundwater
becomes scarce and this leads to droughts. In drought conditions it is very difficult to get food and
fodder for the survival. Life gets difficult and many animals perish in such conditions

(27) Write short notes of (i) Tidal energy (ii) Bio-gas (iii) Nuclear energy.
Answer:-
Tidal Energy:- Tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts energy obtained from
tides into useful forms of power, such as electricity. Tides are created by the gravitational effect of
the moon and the sun on the earth causing cyclical movement of the seas. Tidal range technologies
make use of the vertical difference in height between high tide and low tide. Tidal stream generators
draw energy from water currents in a similar way to wind turbines drawing energy from air currents.
However, because water is 832 times more dense than air, the potential for power generation by an
individual tidal turbine can be greater than that of similarly rated wind energy turbine.
Bio-gas:- Biogas is a mixture of gases, primarily consisting of methane and carbon dioxide,
produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant
material, sewage, green waste food waste. It is a renewable energy source.[1] This energy release
allows biogas to be used as a fuel; it can be used in fuel cells and for any heating purpose, such as
cooking. It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and
heat.[3] Biogas is considered to be a renewable resource because its production-and-use cycle is
continuous, and it generates no net carbon dioxide.
Nuclear Energy:- Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity.
Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions.
Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear
fission of uranium and plutonium in nuclear power plants. Nuclear decay processes are used in niche
applications such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators in some space probes. Nuclear power
has one of the lowest levels of fatalities per unit of energy generated compared to other energy
sources. Coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydroelectricity each have caused more fatalities per unit
of energy due to air pollution and accidents. The United States has the largest fleet of nuclear
reactors, generating over 800 TWh zero-emissions electricity per year with an average capacity
factor of 92%. Most reactors under construction are generation III reactors in Asia.
(28) Explain the various types of land degradation.
Answer:-
Water erosion: Water erosion covers all forms of soil erosion by water, including sheet and rill
erosion and gullying. Human-induced intensification of land sliding, caused by vegetation clearance,
road construction, etc., is also included.
Wind erosion: Wind erosion refers to loss of soil by wind, occurring primarily in dry regions.
Soil fertility decline: Soil fertility decline is used as a short term to refer to what is more
precisely described as deterioration in soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Whilst
decline in fertility is indeed a major effect of erosion, the term is used here of cover effects of
processes other than erosion.
Waterlogging: Waterlogging is the lowering in land productivity through the rise in
groundwater close to the soil surface. Also included under this heading is the severe form, termed
ponding, where the water table rises above the surface. Waterlogging is linked with salinization,
both being brought about by incorrect irrigation management.
Salinization: Salinization is used in its broad sense, to refer to all types of soil degradation
brought about by the increase of salts in the soil. It thus covers both salinization in its strict sense,
the buildup of free salts; and codification (also called alkalization), the development of dominance of
the exchange complex by sodium.
Lowering of the water table: Lowering of the water table is a self-explanatory form of land
degradation, brought about through tube well pumping of groundwater for irrigation exceeding the
natural recharge capacity. This occurs in areas of non-saline ('sweet') groundwater. Pumping for
urban and industrial use is a further cause.
Deforestation: The occurrence of deforestation is widespread and extremely serious in the
region. It is not independently assessed here, in view of more detailed treatment in the current FAO
Forest resources assessment 1990 project. Deforestation is also discussed as a cause of erosion.
Forest degradation: This is the reduction of biotic resources and lowering of productive
capacity of forests through human activities. It is under review in a current survey (Banerjee and
Grimes, in preparation).
Rangeland degradation: This is the lowering of the productive capacity of rangelands. It is
considered in generalized terms, but no quantitative data have been identified.

(32) Explain briefly the various methods of harvesting solar energy.

Answer:-
Photovoltaic Solar Panel: Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels use the sun's power to create a flow of
electricity. This is the most widely adopted method of harvesting solar energy today. These panels,
which range in size from a few square centimeters to a few square meters, are constructed from
many PV cells arranged in an intricate matrix. Intuitively, the larger the surface area available for
sunlight to penetrate the PV cells, the more solar energy that gets harvested. PV solar arrays,
however, produce DC power. To be integrated with modern power transmission technology, such as
the outlets in your home, this DC energy must be converted to AC power using an inverter.
Thermal Energy Harvesting: The sun produces a broad spectrum of radiation of many different
wavelengths, including infrared. This spectrum efficiently transfers thermal energy to bodies that
can absorb it. Elements that can effectively absorb this thermal electromagnetic energy are referred
to as 'black bodies,' as the color black absorbs all wavelengths of radiation that are visible to the
human eye. An ideal black body can correctly absorb, and emit, all wavelengths of the
electromagnetic radiation spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation has long been used for heating in
many passive heating systems, such as the egg cooking example, in Roman bathhouses and Ancient
Egyptian homes, and modern solutions such as thermal solar panels and thermosiphons.
Solar Water Heaters: A great example of a thermal solar energy harvesting application that's
commonly implemented in sunny climates around the globe is a solar water heater. The simplest
version of a solar water heater system uses a pump to circulate cool water through a black body
panel. This visually resembles a PV solar panel, where the black surface efficiently absorbs thermal
energy, which is then cooled by the circulated water, thereby heating the water. The water is
continually circulated through this loop, creating warm water throughout the solar activity. Some
systems can forgo a pump system by utilizing the buoyancy created by the heated water. This
warmer water 'floats' and the colder water sinks, producing low amounts of flow in the system,
creating a thermosiphon. These systems require the storage tank to be above the solar absorption
source.
Vacuum Tube Solar Water Heater: More advanced and efficient solar water heating systems
utilize vacuum tubes and self-contained heat pipes to transfer thermal energy to a secondary tank.
The vacuum tube ensures that radiant energy can enter the system, but all energy that gets turned
into thermal energy is contained in the tube. The heat pipe absorbs this energy and subsequently
transfers it to the large water tank. These systems are significantly more efficient at heating water
during cold months, as minimal amounts of thermal energy escape the vacuum tube, allowing nearly
all radiant energy to be converted into thermal energy.