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Samuel Beckett's Endgame as a Critical Existentialist Play

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GCNU Journal ISSN: 1858-6228 ‫م‬2629/60/15 )2-55‫(ع‬،)14‫ جامعة النيلين (مج‬-‫مجلة الدراسات العليا‬

Samuel Beckett's Endgame as a Critical Existentialist Play

‫مسرحية نهاية اللعبة للكاتب صموئيل بيكيت كمسرحية نقدية وجودية‬

Marwan khaleel Yousif

Al-Jazeera University- College of Education (English Department)
marwanalkubasi@gmail.com

Abstract
Samuel Beckett's Endgame as a Critical Existentialist Play has been applied to indicate to
what extent is, the play Endgame as an existentialist play and the significance of the existentialist ideas
on the modern society. However, this research has been done to indicate the impact of existentialist
concepts on the modern society, to examine Endgame as a critical existentialist play, to indicate
Samuel Beckett as an existentialist writer, and finally to give an exact definition of the term
existentialism. Moreover, this research has been derived from a deep study on Beckett’s existentialist
dramas, and focus especially on Endgame, and take help of multi-method of data collection ‫ق ث‬.
Furthermore, one of the major issues that has been stated in the present study is to deal with the
existentialist theory as a general and social problems which have left a crucial influence on modern
humanity. This study has tried to reach some general conclusions about the benefits of using this idea
in the modern literature. The present study has concluded that Samuel Beckett is one of the great
existentialist who writes and indicates the exact meaning of the term existentialism and how this term
affects the modern society. He criticizes modern people throughout his play Endgame which is
considered to be one of the best modern existentialist plays. So that the researcher has recommended
that this play should be studied according to the existentialist concepts and how this ideas impact the
modernity.
Key words: Existentialism, Endgame, Concepts, Modernity, Major Issues.
:‫المستخلص‬
‫تم تطبيق مسرحية نهاية اللعبة للكاتب صموئيل بيكيت لإلشارة إلى أي مدى تعتبر مسرحية نهاية اللعبة‬
‫ فقد تم إجراء هذا البحث لإلشارة‬،‫ ومع ذلك‬.‫كمسرحية ووجودية وكذلك أهمية األفكار الوجودية في المجتمع الحديث‬
،‫ والختبار مسرحية نهاية اللعبة باعتباره مسرحية وجودية حاسمة‬،‫إلى تأثير المفاهيم الوجودية على المجتمع الحديث‬
‫ وبناءا على‬.‫ وأخير اإلعطاء تعريف دقيق لمصطلح الوجودية‬،‫ولإلشارة إلى صامويل بيكيت ككاتب وجودي‬

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GCNU Journal ISSN: 1858-6228 ‫م‬2629/60/15 )2-55‫(ع‬،)14‫ جامعة النيلين (مج‬-‫مجلة الدراسات العليا‬

‫ والتركيز بشكل خاص‬،‫فقد تم استنتاج هذا البحث من دراسة عميقة حول األعمال الدرامية الوجودية لدى بيكيت‬،‫ذلك‬
‫فإن إحدى القضايا الرئيسية التي تم ذكرها في هذه الدراسة هي التعامل‬،‫ عالوة على ذلك‬. ‫على مسرحية نهاية اللعبة‬
‫ لقد حاولت هذه الدراسة‬.‫مع النظرية الوجودية كمشاكل عامة واجتماعية تركت أثراً خطيرا على اإلنسانية الحديثة‬
‫ خلصت الدراسة الحالية‬.‫الوصول إلى بعض االستنتاجات العامة حول فوائد استخدام هذه الفكرة في األدبيات الحديثة‬
‫إلى أن صموئيل بيكيت هو أحد الوجوديين الكبار الذين يكتبون ويوضحون المعنى الدقيق لمصطلح الوجودية وكيف‬
‫ وقد انتقده الناس المعاصرين خالل مسرحية نهاية اللعبة التي تعتبر‬.‫يؤثر هذا المصطلح على المجتمع الحديث‬
‫ لذا أوصى الباحث بدراسة هذه المسرحية وفقًا للمفاهيم الوجودية‬.‫واحدة من أفضل المسرحيات الوجودية الحديثة‬
.‫وكيف تؤثر هذه األفكار على الحداثة‬
.‫ القضاية المهمة‬،‫ الحداثة‬،‫ األفكار‬،‫ نهاية اللعبة‬،‫ الوجودية‬:‫الكلمات المفتاحية‬

1-1 Introduction
Endgame 1957 is originally written in French as "Fin de parttie". The play is first performed in French
at the Roul Court Theatre, London, 3 April 1957, and performed in Paris at Studio des Champs-
Elysees, 26 April 1957, February 1957, first performance in New York at chery lane Theatre, 28
January 1958, First performed in London in English at the Royal Court Theatre, 28 October 1958,
translated into English by Beckett. Sean Mccarthy posits that "In 1984 Joanne Akalaitis directed a
production of Samuel Beckett's Endgame at the American Repertory Theatre (ART) in Cambridge,
Massachuestt. Among her many directed choices, Akalaitis set the play in a derelict subway tunnel
with charred subway cars and included music by Philip Glass. A very public debate developed around
the Akalaitas production. Grove Press, Beckett's publishers, took legal action against the Art, the issue
was settled out of court through the agreement of an insert into the program, part of which was written
by Beckett himself: Any production of Endgame which ignores my stage directions is completely
unacceptable to me. My play requires an empty room and two small windows. The American
Repertory Theatre production which dismisses my directions is a complete parody of the play as
conceived by me. Anybody who cares for the work couldn't fail to be disguised by this. (Mc earthy,
2009, p: 102). In fact, in the play an idea such as dependence is dominant on the weather of the drama.
Endgame is a play which is written in a style that happens to be associated with the absurdist theatre.
Simultaneously, the plot is extremely simple and extremely mysterious. Endgame 1957 is Beckett's
most famous play next to Waiting for Godot, in fact in Waiting for Godot nothing happens twice, and

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GCNU Journal ISSN: 1858-6228 ‫م‬2629/60/15 )2-55‫(ع‬،)14‫ جامعة النيلين (مج‬-‫مجلة الدراسات العليا‬

in Endgame nothing happens once, both of which are suitable examples of the absurd theatre.
However, Endgame is an extremely complicated and requires close inspection of both critics and
readers, additionally the range of its thematic concerns such as; perception, existentialist theme,
theology, literary inheritance ecology, companionship, and philosophy provides frames of reference
within which to place the action, moreover, the challenges and possibilities of staging the play draw
an attention to the dramatic medium and through its indescribable language and mime art, Beckett
makes a masterpiece of human expressions and their defects. Due to the diversity of themes, levels of
awareness, and modes, Endgame has motivated a deeply critical heritage, and from the very earliest
days of its public existence, it has reaped perceptive and subtle reviews and critical commentary.
Moreover, several ways of interpretations of Endgame may contain; its wall and windows standing in
for a skull and eyes, and its action a dramatization of a rational mind, an unconscious, and its emotions
and memories; an enactment of the inability to bring an intolerable situation to an end, a meditation
on inheritance, orphanhood, progeny, parental surrogacy; and a performance of the slapstick couple
and their routines both physical and rhetorical. In fact, Endgame undoubtedly belongs to this tradition
of apocalyptic plays. These and other influential trajectories of criticism might be thought to map out
the interpretive field. However, this number of interpretations and analysis presents extraordinary and
exciting essays on the play which explain the Endgame's multifaceted nature.
1-2 Statement of the Problem
Existentialism deals with the recurring problem of finding meaning within existence. From this
perspective, there are no meanings or structures that precede one's own existence. Therefore, the
individual must find or create meaning for his or her self. It is necessary and important to study in
detail the idea of existentialism which exists in the absurd drama. In Endgame, the characters have
lost their existence in society. Endgame is not expected to be every body's cup of tea. There is much
in this play to puzzle, bewilder, intrigue and even irritate the readers. In fact, one of the most famous
idea of the 20th century is lack of individuality.
1-3 Significance of the Study
The reason why this study is significant can be explained from an aspect that it shows how
existentialism has an influential effect on the modern people, and how it becomes a part of their lives.
The study is expected to contribute to the studies in the field of literature. Thus, it is hoped to be of
value and interest to all those who are concerned with literary studies.

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GCNU Journal ISSN: 1858-6228 ‫م‬2629/60/15 )2-55‫(ع‬،)14‫ جامعة النيلين (مج‬-‫مجلة الدراسات العليا‬

1-4 Objectives of the Study

1. To investigate the Samuel Beckett's play Endgame as an existential critical play.
2. To explain the impact of existentialism on modern people.
1-5 Methodology
The study is intended to adopt the analytical critical method. The play "Endgame" is meant to be
critically analyzed to see how it is existential play intended to criticize the modern society. Analysis
aims to center on the plots, themes and characters.
1-6 The Existentialist Concepts as Being Introduced in Literature
Existentialism is a term that can be defined as a theory which has its own crucial position in literature
and philosophy, according to this theory human existence and freedom have been highlighted. This
term is generally applied for philosophers, psychiatrist, thinkers, and logicians since 19 th century,
however its main concern presents highly debatable ideas and thoughts which generally emphasizes
on individual's freedom, situation of human existence, meaning and purpose of life, responsibilities of
making decisions. The main theme of these thoughts shed light on the question of human existence,
and on the idea that there is no meaning or purpose of human existence, life is meaningless.
Existentialism is considered to be as a philosophical movement and is treated as traditional
philosophical treatise, so that it is studied and analyzed through how individual lives his life rather
than a subject or material which can be studied from books. It is not thought that many of existentialist
thoughts can be treated as main themes in literary works such as novel, drama, and short stories.
However, indeed most of existentialist thoughts have been introduced and explained in literary works
rather than as a philosophical issue, so that most of existentialists express and communicate their
thoughts and ideas through literary works that is the reason why most of existentialists have recourse
to literature. Existentialist literature is generally a depiction of a hero of play, novel, or short story who
lives in a chaotic and purposeless conditions which imply him\her to create his\her own meaning in
the world. The existentialist literature reaches its peak between 1900 and 1960 by such great authors
like Jean Paul Sartre, Kafka, and Albert Camus. It has been noticed that there are many of crucial
examples which indicate the existential concepts through literary works, however, it can be intelligibly
classifies as follows;
1-7 Endgame as a Critical Existentialist play
Theatre of the absurd takes a clear page from the historical theory existentialism, in fact it believes in
these traits; life is absurd, meaningless, and beyond humor rationality. So that, the main goal of its
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work is based on the concept of existentialism and expresses what takes place when human existence
has no meaning and purpose. However, theatrical features of theatre of the absurd deals with themes
such as; lacking order, devoid of rationality, meaningless purposeless chaos, out of harmony,
uncertainty, illogic, inefficiency of the language, few number of characters, and plots with repetitive
clichés and routine. Esslin points out that absurdist theatre wants its audience to "draw his own
conclusions, make his own essors"( Esslin, p. 20). However, characters in the absurdist theatre as they
have been presented in the works of modern absurdist are lost in chaotic world, often an absence of
character development, usually unsure about who or where they are, out of harmony, speaking
incomprehensible clichés, and the interdependence and relationship between characters get changed
dramatically among the drama. Moreover, language in the absurdist theater is full of clichés and there
is a use of puns and non-sequitur intendedly. One of the most influential characteristics which makes
the absurdist theatre distinctive is language, in fact language that is used in absurdity generally earns
a real conclusive tunes and rhythmical quality, dealing with amusing and entertaining humor. In fact,
language of the absurdist theatre arises from pointless clichés and meaningless communication, so that
characters in absurdist plays communicate in a dialogue and connection which are full of routine
purposeless clichés and full of ellipsis and pauses, additionally it has a kind of elusiveness and
repetition. Another notable feature of the absurdist theatre is plot and structure, likewise plot in the
absurdist plays composes of repetitive clichés, nothingness, anti-realistic conflict, ending where it
begins, anti-development circular routine, mysterious situation, and absence. In fact, the Samuel
Beckett's Endgame (1957), is regarded to be one of the famous absurdist plays, it belongs to the
absurdist theatre, due to its thematic structure of absurdism and indicates the powerful effect of
existential philosophy. Yet, Endgame is thought to be applied in particular to the past condition of
Europe after the Second World War, and to deal with problem of loss of individuality with priority on
existentialist theory, and to do with what remains. Likewise, it is meant to depict the futility and
pessimism, and how modern people fail in reconstructing the society, in fact it is a clear picture of the
failure of modern people society. According to the critical study of the play, it deals with an influential
theme that having a person around you, even if he is annoying, helping to assuage the suffering from
a sense of alienation. According to the past of drama indicates that the continuous varieties between
word and concept resulted in what is generally termed the inefficiency in the system of the language
of modern theatre. However, this crises is formed commonly through existentialism which forms the
conventions of the absurdist theatre. So that, the language system in Samuel Beckett's Endgame is
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comprehensibly presented in the normative approach of the theatre of the absurd. The concept of
absurdity effectively supports its characters with escaping from the serious situation that makes their
world apocalyptic. In fact, they always need to create a weather in which they forget the seriousness
of their life, and occupy themselves with comic relief. Endgame commonly espouses many
existentialist absurdist theme that make it to be an appropriate instance of the theatre of the absurd;
the emphasis on life as meaningless, the idea of circulation, lack of communication, theme of
alienation, cyclical plot, violation of classical convention and lack of individuality presents the
classical conventions of the absurdist theatre. However, the play can be classified as comic and tragic
simultaneously.
The play starts with Clov performing different kinds of actions and routine without saying anything.
In fact, his first words:
Clov (Fixed gaze, tonelessly): Finished, it's finished, nearly finished, it must be nearly finished.
(Pause.)
Grain upon grain, one by one, and one day, suddenly, there's a heap, a little heap, the impossible heap.
(Pause.) I can't be punished any more.(Pause.) Nice dimensions, nice proportion, it'll lean on the table,
and look at the wall, and wait for him to whistle me.
(He remains a moment motionless, then goes out. He comes back immediately goes to window right,
takes up the ladder and carries it out. Pause. Hamm stirs. He yawns under the handkerchief. He
removes the handkerchief from his face. Very red face. Glasses with black lenses. (Endgame, p. 1)
In the very opening soliloquy by Clov, indicates that his perpetual anguish has started to its inevitable
end. "I can't be punished any more", according to this statement, Clov tries to give a clear depiction of
either the end of the play or the end of the world "Ending of His angst". His pain is about to end. His
existence in the apocalyptic world has just reached its end. But, the irony is that this statement is said
when the play has just started, so that it indicates the cyclical plot that is made by Samuel Beckett, in
accordance with the absurdist theatre. The play starts with a repetition of one word "finished", and has
already followed by a pause. In fact, Samuel Beckett by using the term "finished" intends to appoint
existentialist ideas of angst. However, angst is an existentialist item which implies fear or anxiety and
express a feeling of apprehension about a situation or inner struggle. According to existentialist
thoughts, the term angst arises from paradoxical choices of human beings freedom. Moreover, human
beings encounter an ambiguous future and project their lives with their freedom of choices, so that the
responsibilities of making choices lead to the particular way in producing such sense of anxiety, angst
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and fear. Through the power of the absurdist language, indicates that the past participle verb "finished"
is referring to the situation between Clov and Hamm, so that Clov is finally about to relief from
Hamm's torture. His situation is hopeless; he will die as Hamm's servant because there is not ant kind
of hope that there is a life out Hamm's house.
Hamm: Me (He yawns) …….to play (He takes off his glasses, wipes his eyes, his face, the glasses,
puts them on again, folds the handkerchief and puts it back neatly in the breast pocket of his dressing
gown. He clears his throat, joins the tips of his fingers.)
Can there be misery ……. (He yawns) ……..loftier than mine? No doubt. Formally. But now? (Pause)
My father? (Pause.)
My mother? (Pause.)
My …..dog? (Pause)
Oh I am willing to believe they suffer as much as such creatures can suffer. But does that mean their
sufferings equal mine? Nobody (Pause). No, all is a ……. (He yawns)…….bsolutely (Proudly) The
bigger a man is the fuller he is. (Pause. Gloomily.) And the emptier. (He sniffs)
Clov! (Pause.)
No, alone. (Pause.)
What dreams! Those forests! (Pause.)
Enough, it's time it ended, in the shelter, too. (Pause.)
And yet I hesitate, I hesitate to... to end. Yes, there it is, it's time it ended and yet I hesitate to--- (He
yawns.) ---to end.
God, I am tired, I'd be better off in bed (Endgame, p. 2-3)
Once again, Beckett presents the absurdist language through Hamm's first speech. There are a lot of
pauses and yawns in Hamm's speech. In fact, such a language which are used in dramatic text brings
frustration and a sense of futility to the absurdist theatre, therefore language has been applied here as
a means to create a short length of chain between dramaturgy and existentialism. Additionally, the
language that is used in Endgame is simple, but incomprehensible in its context. In fact, there is
deliberately a use of repetitions in order to make the world of the play static, and to make a mixture of
beginnings and endings, that indicates a professional philosophy used by Samuel Beckett in his play
Endgame. However, one of the most crucial themes that is presented in the play is repetition, Beckett
here tries to give a clear depiction of the apocalyptical world as a cyclical routine or actions without
an obvious beginning or ending; just as indicates in the Hamm's, Clov's conversation;
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Hamm; What time is it?

Clov: The same as usual. (Endgame, p. 6)
Hamm in his first utterance points out the theme of suffering. Samuel Beckett here presents one of
the most fundamental themes in the play "suffering", due to Hamm's utterance all characters are
suffering, therefore Hamm wonders that who is suffering more? Then, Hamm mentions the probability
of ending his life, he supposes that it is time to put an end to his life, the game is over the thing has
even ended in his shelter, but he hesitates. He is incapable of taking the action despite of he has come
to know the reality of world's ending (Endgame). Through the Hamm's utterance, the idea of death has
been presented as the end of human existence. However, according to the radical aim of existentialist
thoughts; it is strictly intended to indicate the connection between the absolute character of the free
commitment, by which every man realizes himself in realizing a type of humanity, a commitment that
is always understandable by anyone in any era and the relativity of the culture ensemble that many
result from such a choice. Despite of Hamm realizing of his ending, but the idea of death makes him
hesitate, stops him in taking a commitment. So that, there is an inner conflict (the angst of death) which
hinders him of taking an action.
Hamm: Every man his specialty (Pause.) No phone call? (Pause) Don't we laugh?
Clov(After reflection) : I don't feel like it.
Hamm (After reflection) : Nor I . (Pause) Clov!
Clov: Yes.
Hamm: Nature has forgotten us.
Clov: There's no more nature.
Hamm: No more nature! You exaggerate.
Clov: In the vicinity.
Hamm: But we breathe, we change! We lose our hair! Our teeth! Our bloom! Our ideals!
Clov: Then she hasn't forgotten us
Hamm: But you say there is non
Clov: (sadly) No one that ever lived ever thought so crooked as we.
One of the relative features of Beckett's Endgame is the depiction of nature and the inevitable end of
life. Beckett creates such kind of depiction which is obscure and incomprehensible, he rejects to give
a clear description of the nature's death. However, one of the common techniques that is generally
presented by Samuel Beckett is, making his characters suffers from a sense of alienation and exiling
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them to anonymous ecological catastrophe, so that readers generally cannot expect and desire for any
certain thing to happen for the characters' future. In fact, the widespread devastation in Endgame is
thought to be a clear picture of annihilation of human existence, so that the readers have been left to
find out meaningful path and purpose for all characters in Endgame. Likewise, Hamm's utterance here
gives a kind of hope in their situations. He points out that we breathe, we change! We lose our hair,
our teeth, expects that as long as he lives, it would be a kind of meaningful and purposeful life. In fact,
Beckett's characters are not allowed to laugh because laughter is supposed to assuage their misery, so
that their lives are not expected to be meaningful and purposeful.
Clov: (He gets up on ladder, turns the telescope on the without) let's see. (He looks, moving the
telescope) zero …. (He looks) ….. zero…..(He looks)….and zero.
Hamm: Nothing stirs. All is ……..
Clov: zer……..
Hamm: (Violently ) wait till you're spoken to! (Normal voice:) All is ….., all is ….. all is what?
(Violently) All is what?
Clov: What all is? In a word? Is that what you want to know? Just a moment. (He turns the telescope
on the without, looks, lowers the telescope, turns towards Hamm) Corpsed. (Pause) Well, content?
Hamm: Look at the sea.
Clov: It's the same.
Hamm: Look at the ocean!
(Clov gets, carries ladder over and sets it down under window left, gets up on it, turns the telescope
on the without, looks at length. He starts, lowers the telescope, examines it, turns it again on the
without)
…..
Hamm: And the horizon! Nothing on the horizon?
Clov: (lowering the telescope, turning towards Hamm, exasperated) What in God's name could there
be on the horizon? (Pause)
Hamm: The waves, how are the waves?
Clov: The waves? (He turns the telescope on the waves) Lead.
Hamm: And the sun?
Clov: (Looking) Zero.
Hamm: But it should be sinking. Look again.
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Clov: (Looking) Damn the sun.

Hamm: Is it night already then?
Clov: (Looking) No.
Hamm: Then what is it?
Clov: (Looking) Grey. (Lowering the telescope, turning towards Hamm, louder) Gray! (Pause)
(still louder) Gray! (Pause. He gets down, approaches Hamm from behind, whispers in his ear)
Hamm: (Starting) Gray! Did I hear you say gray?
Clov: light black. From pole to pole.
Hamm: You exaggerate.
The situation in the world outside described by Clov is characterized by the lack of sunlight , by the
impossibility of distinguishing between day and night. Everything is gray, as in the story of creation,
((And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the spirit
of God moved upon the face of the waters. And God said, let there be light: and there was light. And
God saw the light from the darkness. And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night.))
(Genesis 1, 2-5) . In Endgame, there is "no nature any more" and nothing grows:
Hamm: Did you seeds come up?
Clov: No
Hamm: Did you scratch round them to see if they had sprouted?
Clov: They haven't sprouted.
Hamm: Perhaps it's still too early.
Clov: If they were going to sprout they would have sprouted (Violently) They'll never sprouted!
And the Bible reads, "And God said, let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the
fruit tree, yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth. And it was" (Genesis
1,11). The unmistakable allusions to the story of creation, the "first" text of our culture, are thoroughly
destructive: creation has been reversed and annulled. The "last" text, Endgame, quotes from the "first"
purely for the sake of denouncing and destroying it. Other textual passages are evoked in a similar
way, for the same purpose: texts from the Bible include: "Mene; God hath numbered thy kingdom,
and finished it" (Daniel 5,26); the flood and Noah's Ark (Genesis) as well as the commandment, 'Thou
shalt love thy neighbor as thyself' (Mathew 19), 'lick your neighbor as yourself' (P.96). Nietzche's 'God
is dead!' rings in Hamm's call for the lord's prayer, 'The bastard! He doesn't exist' (p.80), and
Baudelaire is literally cited in Hamm's last monologue (You cried for night; it falls: now cry in that
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GCNU Journal ISSN: 1858-6228 ‫م‬2629/60/15 )2-55‫(ع‬،)14‫ جامعة النيلين (مج‬-‫مجلة الدراسات العليا‬

darkness'(P.116). As karnick (1980) has shown, Strindberg's Dance of Death is repeatedly referred to
– the 'insect death' of the flea (P.51), and Hamm's commend to kill the rat, ' And you havn't
exterminated him?, (P-78) echo Alice's words, 'first he uprooted my brothers and sisters from the
house, 'uprooted' is his own word for it' (I,1P.145); Clov's refusal to touch Hamm, 'I won't touch you'
(P. 94), echoes Alice's refusal, ' I can't touch him' (I,1, p.150).
Conclusion
The physical breakdown of the characters progresses rapidly, objects such as; 'painkiller, food, coffins,
broth,' are continuously cut down. In fact, the reducing of these objects do not support an actual end
for all the characters, they grow less and less, but the end never comes. Erika Fischer-Liche points
out that "time in Endgame is neither the final, eschatological time of the Judaic—Christian culture and
modern drama, nor the mythical time of cyclical rebirth, nor the Faustian moment of fulfillment, but
an empty present, the timelessness of an eternal 'now'. The 'now' of dramatic time corresponds to the
absolute 'here' of the dramatic space."(P. 330). However, that is outside the shelter is dead, it is
unknown whether this condition is the reason of devastation or the solipsism of the subject leads to
this devastation. In fact, all of Beckett's drama seem to be built on these features. Samuel Becket's
plays are written after a disaster of the Second World War, the Holocaust and the Hiroshima bomb.
So that, everything that happens on the stage is a depiction of the text-body of western culture, of
drama, of various dramatic protagonist from modern drama. Therefore, Endgame can be regarded as
an apocalyptic drama which deals with phenomena after a disaster which has ruined the existence of
human being and the universe. It incorporates all the characteristics of western culture, modern drama,
and the modern ideas of individual by revealing the fragmentary and primitive environment of the
world
References
Adorno and Jones, Trying to Understand Endgame, Published by Duke University Press, 1982.
Beckett, Samuel, Endgame (London: Faber, 1958).
Brewer, Mária Minich, "Samuel Beckett: Postmodern Narrative and the Nu- clear Telos," in boundary
2 15.1/2 (1986-87), 153
Erika Fischer-Lichte, History of Europe Drama and Theatre, London; 11 New Fetter Lane EC4P,
2002.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Works_by_Jean-Paul_Sartre
https://philosophynow.org/issues/115/Simones_Existentialist_Ethics
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GCNU Journal ISSN: 1858-6228 ‫م‬2629/60/15 )2-55‫(ع‬،)14‫ جامعة النيلين (مج‬-‫مجلة الدراسات العليا‬

https://sciencestruck.com/existence-precedes-essence
Jean Paul Sartre, Existentialism is a Humanism, 2007, p 18
Martin Esslin, The Theatre of the Absurdity, 3rd ed. (New York: Vintage 'Knop', 2009)
MC Donald Ronan, The Cambridge Introduction to Samuel Beckett, New York, Cambridge University
Press, 2006.
Meyer Michael, Samuel Beckett's Endgame, New York, NY 2000
Philip John, The Cambridge Companion to Beckett, New York, 1994.
Thomas R. Flynn, Existentialism: Avery short introduction (Oxford University press), 2006, p. 89

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