Scheme of Work

Cambridge IGCSE™ / Cambridge IGCSE (9–1)

Chemistry 0620 /0971
For examination from 2023

Version 1
 In order to help us develop the highest quality resources, we are undertaking a continuous programme of review; not only to measure the success of
our resources but also to highlight areas for improvement and to identify new development needs.

We invite you to complete our survey by visiting the website below. Your comments on the quality and relevance of our resources are very important
to us.

www.surveymonkey.co.uk/r/GL6ZNJB

Would you like to become a Cambridge consultant and help us develop support materials?

Please follow the link below to register your interest.

www.cambridgeinternational.org/cambridge-for/teachers/teacherconsultants/

Copyright © UCLES January 2021

Cambridge Assessment International Education is part of the Cambridge Assessment Group.  Cambridge Assessment is the brand name of the University of
Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES), which itself is a department of the University of Cambridge.
UCLES retains the copyright on all its publications. Registered Centres are permitted to copy material from this booklet for their own internal use. However, we
cannot give permission to Centres to photocopy any material that is acknowledged to a third party, even for internal use within a Centre.
Contents

Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1 States of matter..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
2 Chemistry of the environment.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
3 Experimental techniques and chemical analysis.................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
4 Atoms, elements and compounds........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
5 Metals.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 36
6 Chemical energetics............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 43
7 Acids, bases and salts......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
8 The Periodic Table............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
9 Stoichiometry....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 58
10 Chemical reactions............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 67
11 Electrochemistry................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 77
12 Organic chemistry.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 82
 Scheme of Work

Introduction
This scheme of work has been designed to support you in your teaching and lesson planning. Making full use of this scheme of work will help you to improve both
your teaching and your learners’ potential. It is important to have a scheme of work in place in order for you to guarantee that the syllabus is covered fully. You
can choose what approach to take and you know the nature of you r institution and the levels of ability of your learners. What follows is just one possible approach
you could take and you should always check the syllabus for the content of your course.
Suggestions for independent study (I) and formative assessment (F) are also included. Opportunities for differentiation are indicated as Extension activities; there is
the potential for differentiation by resource, grouping, expected level of outcome, and degree of support by teacher, throughout the scheme of work. Timings for
activities and feedback are left to the judgement of the teacher, according to the level of the learners and size of the class. Length of time allocated to a task is
another possible area for differentiation.

Guided learning hours

Guided learning hours give an indication of the amount of contact time you need to have with your learners to deliver a course. Our syllabuses are designed around
130 hours for Cambridge IGCSE courses. The number of hours may vary depending on local practice and your learners’ previous experience of the subject. The
table below gives some guidance about how many hours we recommend you spend on each topic area.

Topic Suggested teaching time (hours / % of the course)

2 Chemistry of the environment It is recommended that this should take about 8 hours / 6% of the course.

4 Atoms, elements and compounds It is recommended that this should take about 14 hours / 11% of the course.

5
Scheme of Work

6
 Scheme of Work

2 Chemistry of the environment (Second trimester)

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

10.3.1 State the composition Ask learners to draw a pie chart, labelling what they think is the composition of dry air in percentages.
Air quality of clean, dry air as Then display the actual composition:
and climate approximately 78% www.uihere.com/free-cliparts/air-separation-atmosphere-of-earth-gas-nitrogen-chemical-composition-others-6995070
nitrogen, N2, 21% Learners often think hydrogen is a major component.
oxygen, O2 and the
remainder as a mixture
of noble gases and
carbon dioxide, CO2

10.3.5 Describe Ask learners which gas in the atmosphere is a reactant in photosynthesis.
Air quality photosynthesis as the Have the reactants and products as words on separate cards or assemble on a display screen. Piece the correct word
and climate reaction between equation together.
carbon dioxide and Highlight that the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is small but sufficient for this process to occur.
water to produce
glucose and oxygen in Learners find out why most leaves are green [due to the presence of chlorophyll]. Discuss that chlorophyll is a catalyst in
the presence of photosynthesis and that it is therefore not written as a reactant or product in the word equation.
chlorophyll and using Ask learners: Does the reaction produce or use energy? [Needs energy from sunlight].
energy from light
Next piece together the symbol equation for photosynthesis. Learners should feel comfortable with the formulae for CO 2,
H2O, and O2. Emphasise that the product glucose has been built up from the reaction of two simpler molecules and that it
10.3.6 State the word contains the elements C, H and O in its molecules.
Air quality equation for
and climate photosynthesis, Extension activity: Stretch and prepare for A Level
carbon dioxide + water Learners who need less support can try to balance the symbol equation before revealing it to the rest of the class.
→ glucose + oxygen
www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zvrrd2p/articles/zn4sv9q (equations for photosynthesis)

10.3.9 State the symbol Extension activity: Stretch and prepare for A Level
Air quality equation for Ask learners to justify that photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction.
and climate photosynthesis, Next ask them to write the reverse of this reaction and name it [aerobic respiration]
6CO2 + 6H2O →
C6H12O6 + 6O2

7
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

10.3.2 State the source of Learners carry out a research project for these learning objectives. They could make presentations of their work and/or
Air quality each of these air display their work.
and climate pollutants, limited to:
(a) carbon dioxide You could carry out this project to coincide with World Environment Day which occurs every year on 5 th June. This project
from the complete could be part of a larger awareness in your school.
combustion of carbon-
containing fuels
(b) carbon monoxide
and particulates from
the incomplete
combustion of carbon-
containing fuels
(c) methane from the
decomposition of
vegetation and waste
gases from digestion
in animals
(d) oxides of nitrogen
from car engines
(e) sulfur dioxide from
the combustion of
fossil fuels which
contain sulfur
compounds

10.3.3 State the adverse

Air quality effect of these air
and climate pollutants, limited to:
(a) carbon dioxide:
higher levels of carbon
dioxide leading to
increased global
warming, which leads
to climate change
(b) carbon monoxide:
toxic gas
(c) particulates:
increased risk of

8
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

respiratory problems
and cancer
(d) methane: higher
levels of methane
leading to increased
global warming, which
leads to climate
change
(e) oxides of nitrogen:
acid rain,
photochemical smog
and respiratory
problems
(f) sulfur dioxide: acid
rain

10.3.7 Describe how the You could study this and the following topic to coincide with Earth Day which is celebrated on 22 nd April each year. If not,
Air quality greenhouse gases learners should check the site to find out what activities are happening. (I)
and climate carbon dioxide and www.earthday.org/
methane cause global The NASA website contains a section on global warming and the causes, including a short animation describing the
warming, limited to: process of global warming.
(a) the absorption, https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/
reflection and emission
of thermal energy Learners can perform graph plotting / spreadsheet activities on global warming trends using Google sheets or Excel, and
(b) reducing thermal download, display and analyse complex data:
energy loss to space www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/teach/activity/graphing-global-temperature-trends/

There are many graph matching exercises here:

https://scied.ucar.edu/activity/climate-impacts-graph-matching
and more general ones here:
https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/activities?field_learning_zone_category_tid=5

Learners interpret a variety of graphs of actual data from the IPCC:

https://serc.carleton.edu/teachearth/activities/50192.html

10.3.4 State and explain Learners could cover these topics by a research project or presentation or combination of both.
Air quality strategies to reduce

9
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

and climate the effects of these
environmental issues,
limited to:
(a) climate change:
planting trees,
reduction in livestock
farming, decreasing
use of fossil fuels,
increasing use of
hydrogen and
renewable energy, e.g.
wind, solar
(b) acid rain: use of
catalytic converters in
vehicles, reducing
emissions of sulfur
dioxide by using low-
sulfur fuels and flue
gas desulfurisation
with calcium oxide

10.3.8 Explain how oxides of Write the word equation and the symbol equation as in the learning objective.
Air quality nitrogen form in car Compare related reactant–product pairs and ask learners to find out about each gas.
and climate engines and describe
their removal by Although CO2 is a greenhouse gas, it is much less harmful than CO.
catalytic converters, Nitrogen oxide is a harmful gas compared to N2, the major component of the Earth’s atmosphere.
e.g. 2CO + 2NO →
2CO2 + N2 Details of the catalytic converter are at:
www.explainthatstuff.com/catalyticconverters.html

Past and specimen papers

Past/specimen papers and mark schemes are available to download at www.cambridgeinternational.org/support (F)

10
 Scheme of Work

4 Atoms, elements and compounds (Third trimester)

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

2.1.1 Describe the Learners can independently research the definitions of each and compare their findings in a class discussion.
Elements, differences between Ask learners to quote examples of each type ready for a class discussion.
compounds elements,
and mixtures compounds and Have samples of the following ready to promote discussion:
mixtures  Elements: sulfur, iron, copper, carbon. Link this discussion to the Periodic Table so that learners start to use it
from the start of the course.
 Compounds: show learners a mixture of organic and inorganic compounds such as sodium chloride, paraffin
wax, stearic acid and copper (II) sulfate
 Mixtures: rock salt and iron/sulfur mixture (+ magnifying glasses to see the components of the mixture clearly).

2.2.1 Describe the structure Before learners start a formal study of the atom they could try to appreciate the size of an atom using the ‘Scale of the
Atomic of the atom as a Universe’ model: (I)
structure and central nucleus https://scaleofuniverse.com/
the Periodic containing neutrons Start at 100 at the centre of the presentation and scroll to the left
Table and protons An appreciation of the size of an atom gained from exploring this presentation should help learners understand why for
surrounded by such a long time the notion of the atom was theoretical.
electrons in shells
Learners could make posters or prepare short presentations on the history of atomic structure. Alternatively you could
2.2.2 State the relative give small groups of learners a short time to research notable scientists and philosophers, e.g. Democritus, Galileo,
Atomic charges and relative Newton, Boyle, Lavoisier, Dalton, J.J. Thompson, Bohr and share finding in a class discussion.
structure and masses of a proton, a Confirm with an example drawing on the board (for example a carbon atom) how an atom should be represented at this
the Periodic neutron and an level.
Table electron
Point learners to a table of relative masses and charges of the proton, electron and neutron. Emphasise the significance
of the word relative and how the values in the table have no units.

2.2.3 Define proton number / Define proton number / atomic number, and mass number / nucleon number for learners.
Atomic atomic number as the
structure and number of protons in Give learners a copy of the Periodic Table as displayed in the back of the syllabus. They should get used to using this
the Periodic the nucleus of an atom version as well as viewing colourful wall charts and interactive versions on the internet.
Table A
Ask learners to write down a representation of the atom using the ZX formula and explain the meaning of the symbols.

11
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

2.2.4 Define mass number / Point out that in whichever version of the Periodic Table is used, the largest number represents the mass number and
Atomic nucleon number as the that in the Cambridge version, this number is the number at the bottom, not the top as in some Periodic Tables.
structure and total number of
the Periodic protons and neutrons After giving learners some examples of how to calculate the number of particles for example atoms, give them tables to
Table in the nucleus of an fill in so that they can practise calculating the number of particles for different atoms.
atom

2.3.2 Interpret and use

Isotopes symbols for atoms,
12
e.g. 6C and ions, e.g.
35
17 C l–

2.2.5 Determine the Explain the rules of electron filling in the Bohr model of the atom:
Atomic electronic 1st shell = max. 2 electrons, 2nd shell = max. 8 electrons, 3rd shell = max. 8 electrons
structure and configuration of For the 4th shell, only elements with Z=19 and 20 are required for Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry.
the Periodic elements and their Learners often ask what happens after this. You can simply tell them that the situation gets more complex at A Level and
Table ions with proton some shells split into sub-shells.
number 1 to
20, e.g. 2,8,3 Note: In 2.2.5 regarding the electronic configuration of ions, this will be covered in ionic bonding

2.2.6 State that: After explaining ‘the rules’ above, give learners a blank/template Periodic Table for the elements Z = 1 to 20 only. The
Atomic (a) Group VIII noble table you give them should have just the name of the element and empty shells for each atom. Learners simply complete
structure and gases have a full outer each atom with the correct number of electrons. The advantage of doing this is that they straightaway begin to see
the Periodic shell patterns in the Periodic Table. A correctly completed table will look something like the one here:
Table (b) the number of outer www.docbrown.info/page04/4_71atom.htm
shell electrons is equal Scroll down to ‘The first 20 elements in the Periodic Table
to the group number in
Groups I to VII Highlight the following important points using their completed tables:
(c) the number of  Elements with full shells, that is, complete electronic configurations which are the noble gases have stable outer
occupied electron shells
shells is equal to the  The number of outer shells of electrons equals the number in Groups 1 to VII
period number  The number of occupied electron shells is equal to the period number

Simulation: Build an atom:

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/build-an-atom/latest/build-an-atom_en.html
Start by choosing the ‘Atom’ tab at the bottom.

12
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

1. At first, encourage learners to build neutral atoms, inspecting the mass number and noting that the net charge is zero
(explain the term net charge).
 They should always start by adding protons to define the element.
 Next add neutrons to the nucleus.
 Finally add the electrons noting that for example, the simulation does not allow you to add more than 2 electrons
to the first shell (since 2 electrons is the maximum number allowed).
Suggest that they concentrate on the elements with proton numbers 1–20 as specified in the syllabus.

A
2. Next they repeat the above exercise relating the particles to the ZX azX formula.
3. Finally learners can play a range of games in pairs by selecting the ‘Game’ tab.

Making 3D atomic models

Learners can be creative and build 3D atoms from any materials they choose. Emphasise that every atom has unique
properties and uses. Once they have built their chosen atom ask them to find out something about their atom, its
properties and uses etc.
Here are some example models to make:
www.ehow.com/how_7711317_make-3d-atom.html
https://sciencing.com/make-3d-model-atom-5887341.html

After building and displaying, learners could give a short presentation about their atom and the element’s properties and
uses and any other information illustrating the uniqueness of their chosen element.

Extension activity: Stretch and prepare for A Level

In this topic, interested learners will ask many questions about other elements in the Periodic Table and how their
electron shells are filled. Explain to them briefly that in the A level description of electron filling, some of the electron
shells are split into sub-shells. You could encourage these learners to investigate the electronic structures of rubidium,
strontium, selenium, bromine and krypton. They should notice that the outermost still corresponds to the group number.

2.3.1 Define isotopes as Present the following species with symbol ‘X’:
Isotopes different atoms of the 35 37
X and 17 X
17
same element that
have the same number
Ask learners: Which particles are the same in number? (protons and electrons).
of protons but different
Point to the Periodic Table and ask: Which element is Z = 16 (sulfur) and Z = 18 (argon)? Ask: Therefore, what must Z =
numbers of neutrons
17 be? (chlorine).
Move learners towards the idea that there must be two ‘versions’ of chlorine and these are called isotopes.
2.3.4 Calculate the relative
Isotopes atomic mass of an
Next ask learners: How are the two isotopes different from each other? (different numbers of neutrons)
element from the

13
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

relative masses and Ask learners to try to define isotopes in their own words, saying which particles are the same and which are different in a
abundances of its single sentence.
isotopes Finally reveal the definition of an isotope according to the learning objective.

2.3.3 State that isotopes of Next ask learners to calculate the number of particles in the following isotopes:
Isotopes the same element Hydrogen, deuterium and tritium: (hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3)
have the same Isotopes of carbon: (carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14)
chemical properties
because they have the Give learners tables where they should complete the number of electrons, protons and electrons. From this they can
same number of identify which are isotopes.
electrons and
therefore the same Calculating the relative atomic mass of an element
electronic Point learners towards the Periodic Table and ask them to comment on the atomic mass of chlorine [35.5]
configuration Explain that this arises because chlorine is a mixture of isotopes 35-Cl and 37-Cl in a ratio of 3:1
Learners should become familiar with being able to calculate relative atomic mass in this way.
www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zwn8b82/revision/6

Explain that all of these isotopes exist but some of them are stable and some are unstable.
Learners can use the ‘build an atom’ simulation to test this.
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/isotopes-and-atomic-mass/latest/isotopes-and-atomic-mass_en.html
Learners will see that carbon-12 and -13 are stable but when carbon-14 is built, the nucleus wobbles and it says that it is
unstable. Likewise hydrogen-1 and hydrogen-2 are stable but hydrogen-3 is unstable.

Extension activity: Stretch and prepare for A Level

Learners research what it means for an isotope to be unstable and what radioisotopes are used for. Learners could find
examples and make a short presentation to their peers about their findings.

Plan an experiment
The syllabus tells us that ‘isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties because they have the same
number of electrons and therefore the same electronic configuration’
Ask learners to plan an experiment to verify this statement.
If they need clues, you could mention the squeaky pop test (for hydrogen), or bleaching (for chlorine), etc.

Extension activity: Stretch and prepare for A Level

Learners research why physical properties of the isotopes of the same element would be different. Then they find out
which physical properties are different, e.g. density, mass, melting and boiling points, rate of diffusion.

14
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

2.4.5 Describe the giant Discuss briefly the idea of chemical bonding in chemistry. Refer learners back to 2.1.1 at the start of this topic, where a
Ions and lattice structure of ionic range of substances were discussed. Point out that most materials have some kind of chemical bonding (with the
ionic bonds compounds as a exception of noble gases, such as monoatomic helium atoms). You could write the broad classifications of bonding at
regular arrangement of this level (ionic, metallic, simple covalent molecules and giant covalent) for learners, giving a few examples of
alternating positive substances which fall into each category. This would provide a basic ‘road map’ for learners.
and negative ions
Start by showing learners the lattice structure of sodium chloride. If you don’t have a model of this, show the following
2.4.2 State that an ionic image:
Ions and bond is a strong https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/9-3-bonding-in-crystalline-solids [scroll to figure 9.8]
ionic bonds electrostatic attraction At this stage learners may not know what an ion is but they can see there is a 3-dimensional array of particles of two
between oppositely different types (chloride ions and sodium ions).
charged ions
Ask learners: What is the ratio of sodium to chloride particles? (1:1) Ask: Therefore what is the formula of sodium
chloride? (NaCl).
2.4.3 Describe the formation
Ions and of ionic bonds between Learners could try to build their own 3-D models of lattice structures. Here is one example built from marshmallows and
ionic bonds elements from Group I toothpicks:
and Group VII, www.youtube.com/watch?v=dTlanwEpLFY
including the use of
dot-and-cross Ask learners to suggest how the particles stay together in reality (obviously not with sticks joining them). They may come
diagrams up with the correct term, or you will need to elicit the word ‘attraction’. Have a discussion about opposite charges
attracting (an idea they may know from static electricity, or you could use the analogy of North and South poles of
magnets).
Finally explain that sodium ions and chloride ions are versions of their atoms which are charged and attract each other in
2.4.6 Describe the formation a regular 3-D lattice. Ensure that learners are able to use the term ‘electrostatic attraction’ to explain how the ions attract
Ions and of ionic bonds between each other in this way.
ionic bonds metallic and non-
metallic elements, To help learners comprehend the size of the particles involved they could read this article about the world’s largest lattice
including the use of structure of NaCl ever built. Learners should note that even though the model is over 3m high it represents a crystal only
dot-and-cross 0.0000096mm across:
diagrams www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-34796501

Extension activity: Stretch and prepare for A Level

Like all models used in science they are never perfect. Learners could try to explain what the limitations of the model are.
[for example: not to scale, the sticks may be easily interpreted as the ionic bonds but each ion attracts every other ion in
the lattice structure, ions are not to scale]

15
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

2.4.1 Describe the formation Using the example above of sodium chloride explain to learners that they are going to see how the ions are formed from
Ions and of positive ions, known atoms – in this case the oppositely charged ions in NaCl.
ionic bonds as cations and
negative ions, known 1. Ask learners to draw atom diagrams and electron configurations of sodium and chlorine atoms.
as anions 2. Show the transfer of the outermost electron from sodium to chlorine.
3. Write down the new electron configurations for the resulting ions and write down their charges. (Na + and Cl-)
4. Explain that each ion has now attained a noble gas structure. (Na + 2, 8 is isoelectronic with neon and Cl- 2,8, 8 is
isoelectronic with argon)

Points to look out for:

1. Often learners understand that when chlorine gains an electron it forms a negative ion, but they do not always
understand why sodium forms a positive ion. If this is the case, make sure learners compare the total number of
charged particles (protons and electrons) in the sodium atom and sodium ion before and after transfer.
2. Learners frequently forget to show that they have formed ions – they omit the charges on the ions.
3. Sometimes learners think electrons are different from each other because we represent them as dots and
crosses. Stress that all electrons are the same.
4. Ionic compounds are formed between metals and non-metals.

Show learners one or two further examples of how ionic substances are formed in the same way as above, paying close
attention to the points to look out for.

As a gentle progression, learners try forming the following substances:

MgO, CaCl2, Li2O.
Diagrams for each of the structures:
www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z6k6pbk/revision/1
Remind learners that once they have formed each particle MgO or CaCl2 or Li2O, the compounds actually exist as giant
ionic lattices as for NaCl.

Interactive activity for learning about ionic bonding:

https://pbslm-contrib.s3.amazonaws.com/WGBH/arct15/SimBucket/Simulations/chemthink-ionicbonding/content/
index.html

2.4.4 Describe the This could be a mini research activity for learners.
Ions and properties of ionic They will find that ionic compounds have high melting/boiling points and are good conductors of electricity as aqueous
ionic bonds compounds: solutions or when molten. Evidence these ideas by doing the following:
(a) high melting points  Heat some sodium chloride in an ignition tube over a roaring Bunsen flame. Learners will observe the glass start
and boiling points to melt, but not the sodium chloride.

16
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

(b) good electrical  Take some sodium chloride and dissolve it in water. Explain that only some ionic compounds are soluble in
conductivity when water and so this method only works if the compound is soluble. Ask learners how its electrical conductivity could
aqueous or be tested. After discussion, set up a circuit and test it.
molten and poor when  As sodium chloride has such a high melting point, it cannot be performed in the lab. Show learners a video of
solid molten sodium chloride conducting electricity:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=NfNIn4R8tg4
 You can also demonstrate that solid sodium chloride does not conduct electricity.
2.4.7 Explain in terms of Ask learners why conduction does not occur.
Ions and structure and bonding
ionic bonds the properties of ionic During their research, learners may also write down that ionic compounds are brittle and hard which are both correct.
compounds:
(a) high melting points
and boiling points
(b) good electrical
conductivity when
aqueous or molten and
poor when solid

2.5.1 State that a covalent Show learners a bottle of hexane (or another simple covalently bonded compound).
Simple bond is formed when a Write down its chemical structure as: C6H12
molecules pair of electrons is Ask learners to explain why it cannot be an ionic compound. (It does not contain a metal). Other good answers might
and covalent shared between two include that it is not solid at room temperature.
bonds atoms leading to noble
gas electronic Molecules with single covalent bonds
configurations Explain how the molecules H2, Cl2, CH4, NH3, HCl and CH3OH are formed.
Guide learners though the key ideas that for hydrogen, a full outer shell means two electrons sharing, and for all other
atoms at IGCSE, eight electrons sharing.
2.5.2 Describe the formation
Simple of covalent bonds in Simulations and interactives to aid understanding:
molecules simple molecules, https://javalab.org/en/covalent_bond_en/ (H2 and H2O only)
and covalent including H2, Cl2, H2O, www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zxxn82p/revision/1 (HCl only)
bonds CH4, NH3 and HCl.
Use dot-and-cross Stress that at this level the 3-D layout of the atoms relative to each other is not important though learners often enjoy
diagrams to show the being able to appreciate these molecules more if they build molecular models (such as Molymods).
electronic Example of methane:
configurations in these www.sciencephoto.com/media/75166/view/methane-molecular-model
and similar molecules.
Molecules with double and triple covalent bonds

17
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

2.5.4 Describe the formation When learners understand the basic concept that the octet rule is always fulfilled (for all elements except hydrogen), they
Simple of covalent bonds in should be able to try examples with multiple bonds.
molecules simple molecules, Work through an example with them, for example oxygen.
and covalent including CH3OH, Allow them to build oxygen with a single bond first and see that both oxygen atoms only have seven electrons sharing.
bonds C2H4, O2,CO2 and N2. Then persuade learners to draw a dot-and-cross structure with a double bond, thus fulfilling the stable octet for each
Use dot-and-cross oxygen atom.
diagrams to show Allow learners to draw the molecules of ethene, carbon dioxide and nitrogen and build them from molecular models if
the electronic available.
configurations in these Learners can check their drawings against this page (I):
and similar molecules www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zxxn82p/revision/2

Extension activity: Stretch and prepare for A Level

For a deeper understanding of covalent bonding:
https://pbslm-contrib.s3.amazonaws.com/WGBH/arct15/SimBucket/Simulations/chemthink-covalentbonding/content/
index.html

Another extension activity: Learners who are interested in the 3-D shapes of the molecules could try building their own
molecules using this desktop app:
http://molview.org/
Learners draw the structures in 2-D and they are converted to rotatable 3-D models.

2.5.3 Describe in terms of Challenge learners to explain the properties of simple molecular compounds. You could present learners with the
Simple structure and bonding following statements which they have to interpret and explain in pairs:
molecules the properties of
and covalent simple molecular 1. ‘Covalent bonds holding individual molecules together are usually strong. Despite this they have low melting
bonds compounds: points and low boiling points. Many simple covalent substances are gases at room temperature.’
(a) low melting points
and boiling points The key to being able to comment accurately on the first statement is to understand the term ‘intermolecular forces’ and
(b) poor electrical to know that these are weak forces operating between individual molecules.
conductivity
This page presents a nice analogy of intermolecular bonds and their strengths compared to the bonds holding the
2.5.5 Explain in terms of individual molecules together (Note: here they use the term ‘intramolecular’ which some learners find confusing):
Simple structure and bonding www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/covalent-bonds/a/intramolecular-and-intermolecular-forces
molecules the properties of
and covalent simple molecular 2. ‘In the liquid form or even when covalent compounds dissolve in water they do not conduct electricity.’
bonds compounds:
(a) low melting points To interpret this statement correctly, learners must appreciate that there are no ions present and so charge cannot be

18
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

and boiling points in carried through the substance. Also, unlike in metals, there are no free electrons present.
terms of weak
intermolecular forces Simulation to build covalent molecules:
(specific types of https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/build-a-molecule
intermolecular forces Java will need to be installed on your computer
are not required)
(b) poor electrical Common misconceptions:
conductivity Learners often get confused about when to consider the forces between molecules and the actual covalent bonds
themselves.

2.6.1 Describe the giant Use physical models if possible to show, and to enable learners to appreciate, the difference between these two
Giant covalent structures of structures. There are many commercial models available.
covalent graphite and diamond
structures Alternatively, groups of learners could build them from simple materials:
www.ehow.com/how_4487799_build-model-molecular-structure-diamond.html [made from toothpicks and candies]
2.6.2 Relate the structures www.rainbowresource.com/pdfs/products/prod032392_smpl1.pdf
Giant and bonding of
covalent graphite and diamond Or learners could compare the following images:
structures to their uses, limited www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/structures/giantcov.html [diamond]
to: www.researchgate.net/figure/The-atomic-structure-of-graphite-The-dashed-lines-indicate-the-weak-connection-
(a) graphite as a between_fig1_3811818 [graphite]
lubricant and as an
electrode Or pause the following video with the volume turned down initially:
(b) diamond in cutting www.youtube.com/watch?v=swssg7Mz-i8 (pause the video at 0.32 for diamond and at 1.23 for graphite).
tools
Whichever method you choose for your learners, ask them first to discuss and state the number of bonds each carbon
atom has to it (make sure learners choose a central atom in each case).
Learners draw a dot-and-cross diagram for a central carbon atom for carbon and graphite. They will see the major
difference between the two structures is that the carbon atom for diamond has four shared pairs of electrons (four single
covalent bonds) whereas graphite only has three shared pairs (three covalent bonds).

Explain to learners how the four strong covalent bonds in diamond extending in 3-D makes it very hard and it therefore
has a use in cutting tools. It has no free electrons so does not conduct electricity.

When discussing graphite, emphasise its layered structure and that there are free electrons (one for each carbon) which
are free to move and conduct electricity when a voltage is applied. Demonstrate this using a graphite pencil. Also talk
about the softness of graphite by writing and leaving layers of graphite on the page. Explain its use as a lubricant.

19
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

Extension activity: Stretch and prepare for A Level

Learners could investigate the nature of the intermolecular forces holding the layers of graphite together.
They could research the uses of graphene, Bucky balls and nanotubes and give a presentation about them.

2.6.3 Describe the giant Display a piece of quartz and some sand.
Giant covalent structure of If possible, present learners with a 3-D model of silicon (IV) oxide asking them what the general shape resembles and
covalent silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2 what properties they think the substance might have.
structures If a model is not available show an image of it:
www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/silica/silicah.htm Try to zoom in on the 3-D structure only and not reveal the formula.
2.6.4 Describe the similarity
Giant in properties between Ask learners to focus on the atoms inside the structure and to try to determine the ratio of atoms present.
covalent diamond and There are twice as many oxygen atoms as silicon atoms and so the formula is SiO 2.
structures silicon(IV) oxide,
related to their Also ask learners to predict the properties of SiO2. They will find that the properties are in many ways similar to diamond.
structures

2.7.1 Describe metallic Ask learners, in pairs, to make a list of the properties of typical metals. This should be revision from previous courses.
Metallic bonding as the For electrical conductivity, guide learners to the idea of free electrons / sea of delocalised electrons.
bonding electrostatic attraction
between the positive Allow learners time to copy a diagram of metallic bonding:
ions in a giant metallic www.chemistrygcse.co.uk/4-2%20Bonding/7%20-%20Metallic%20Bonding%20&%20Properties.html
lattice and a ‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons This video helps explain how metallic bonds are formed:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bi0rUNV8mEw&t=207s [start at 2.54]

2.7.2 Explain in terms of Emphasise that the outermost electrons in metals are loosely held by their nuclei, allowing them to become delocalised
Metallic structure and bonding throughout the piece of metal. In contrast, the electrons of non-metals are tightly held and so this situation cannot occur.
bonding the properties of
metals: Malleability and ductility
(a) good electrical These terms are often confused by learners but have specific meanings and clear differences.
conductivity Chewing gum could be used to demonstrate ductility. The gum can be pulled out into an increasingly thin piece but when
(b) malleability and you stop pulling it does not return (does not spring back). Show learners a roll of copper wire, explaining that it has been
ductility produced by extrusion from a block of copper.
You can easily demonstrate malleability by hitting copper, a soft metal, hard with a hammer.

Watch these videos to appreciate the difference between ductility and malleability:

20
 Scheme of Work

Syllabus ref. Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities

www.youtube.com/watch?v=yawQP474RF0 (raising a copper bowl – malleability)
www.youtube.com/watch?v=GaO2UikPio8 (extruding copper wire – ductility)

Animations which show at an atomic level why metals conduct electricity and are malleable and ductile:
www.ausetute.com.au/metallic.html

Extension activity: Stretch and prepare for A Level

Learners who want to find out more about metals and their properties can research why metals conduct heat, have
metallic lustres and are generally strong with high melting points and boiling points.

Revision This provides a good revision opportunity for covalent and ionic bonding (I):
https://teachchemistry.org/classroom-resources/ionic-covalent-bonding-simulation

Past and specimen papers

Past/specimen papers and mark schemes are available to download at www.cambridgeinternational.org/support (F)

21
Scheme of Work

22