Chapter one

Overview of research

1. What is research?

 Research is a Process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned &
systematic collection, analysis & interpretation of data

 Research consists Re + Search

 ‘Re’ means again and again

 ‘Search’ means to find out something

 Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions/problems

 Systematic: because there is a definite set of procedures and steps which you will follow.

 Organized: because there is a structure or method that should be followed to perform

research

 It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one.

 It is focused and limited to a specific scope.
 The process of exploring the unknown, studying and learning new things, building new
knowledge about things that no one has understood before - that is what we think of as
performing research

Research is not a solitary activity but an act of community. As a member of the research community,
you are building on the knowledge that others have acquired before you and providing a road map
for those who come after you. You are adding to a body of work that will never be complete.
Research is an ongoing, collaborative process with no finish line in sight.

According to Babbie, 1998, Research involves inductive and deductive methods. Inductive methods
analyze the observed phenomenon and identify the general principles, structures, or processes
underlying the phenomenon observed; deductive methods verify the hypothesized principles through
observations.

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 Research Characteristics

1. Originates with a question or problem:

 Originates with a question in the mind of the researcher.

 The world is filled with unanswered questions, unresolved problems.

 Inquisitive mind is the beginning of research.

 Do not know, do not understand.

 Why? What’s the cause of that? What does it all mean?

2. Requires clear articulation of a goal.

 A clear, unambiguous statement of the problem.
 Must set forth in a grammatically complete sentence exactly what the ultimate goal of
the research
 Without it, research is on shaky ground.

3. Follows a specific plan or procedure.

 Logically designed or planed is necessary to conduct a research.

 Procrastination has no place in the agenda

4. Often divides main problem into sub-problems.

 Whole is composed of the sum of its parts.

 In research the main problem is divides into sub part.

5. Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis.

o Each of the sub problems is then viewed through a construct called a

hypothesis.

 Logical supposition, reasonable guess, an educated conjecture.

6. Requires collection and interpretation of data.

7. By its nature it is more circular and iterative.

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  The research process follows a cycle and begins simply and follows logical,
developmental steps.

Qualities of Good Research

A good research method should lead to

I. Originality/ Novelty: the research must be novel or new.

II. Contribution to knowledge : it must be contribute new knowledge for a given problem.
III. Good research is systematic: research that follow specific steps.
IV. Good research is logical: Research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
(Induction reasoning, Deduction reasoning)
 Induction: - Reasoning from a particular to general.
 Deduction: - Reasoning from some general to particular.
 Logical reasoning makes research meaningful in the context of decision
making.
V. Good Research is Empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or
more aspects of a real situation.
VI. Good Research is Replicable : This characteristic allows research to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

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 Relationship between Methodology and Method

Methodology is the general research strategy that outlines the way in which a research project is
to be undertaken and, among other things, identifies the methods to be used in it. These Methods,
described in the methodology, define the means or modes of data collection or, sometimes, how a
specific result is to be calculated. Methodology does not define specific method. Any description of
a means of calculation of a specific result is always a description of a method, and never a description
of a methodology. It is thus important to avoid using methodology as a synonym for method or
body of methods. Doing this shifts it away from its true epistemological meaning and reduces it to
being the procedure itself, the set of tools or the instruments that should have been its outcome. A
methodology is the design process for carrying out research or the development of a procedure and
is not in itself an instrument, or method, or procedure for doing things.
Types of research
1. Based on purpose
I. Descriptive vs. Analytical:

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. The
main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening. The methods of research utilized in
descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and co relational
methods. Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics
of the population or phenomenon that is being studied. This methodology focuses more on the
“what” of the research subject rather than the “why” of the research subject.

Analytical research: In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyses these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
is using of facts already available/or collected then analyze these to make a critical evaluation.
In this type, researcher has a control over the variables to manipulate in some way and see the
impact. analytical research attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to be.

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 II. Applied vs. Fundamental:

Applied research or action research: aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing
a society or an industrial/business organization. Example of applied research are: -

i. Developing a SW that convert word files into database format

ii. Innovating new way in doing payroll processing by a computer

iii. Developing a program that copy's files from a computer to a mobile phone

Fundamental research or pure research: It is the formulation of theory. It mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.

• Examples: - research relating to pure mathematics like Driving Formulas. And

research carried out to make generalization about human behavior.

Table blow describe the difference of applied and fundamental research

2. Based on Approach and method

I. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of

quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. Attitude or opinion

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 research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a
particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.

II. Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s)
or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or
to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based
research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation
or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research,
the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his
hypothesis.

Research and scientific methods

Research is science and follows scientific methods. The scientific method might be seen as the
logical scheme used by scientists searching for answers to the questions. The Scientific Method
involves a series of steps that are used to find a solution for a given problem. Scientists perform
many experiments over many years using the Scientific Method to prove or disprove theories that
are generated from one initial question.

Step in scientific methods

STEP 1. Make an OBSERVATION - gather information about an event, phenomenon and process

STEP 2. Define the PROBLEM – ask questions about the observation that are relevant and testable.

STEP 3: Form the HYPOTHESIS – create an explanation, or educated guess, for the observation
that is testable and falsifiable.

STEP 4: Conduct the EXPERIMENT –perform an experiment to test the hypothesis.

STEP 5: Derive a THEORY – create a statement based in the outcome of the
experiment and predicts the likelihood of future observations.

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Research objectives
Research objectives may fall into one of the following”

 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (known as

exploratory or formulated research studies);
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (known as diagnostic research studies);
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (known as hypothesis-
testing research studies).
 To construct/show a new way of doing things

What motivates a research?

What makes people to do research?

 Desire to solve challenges in solving the unsolved problems

 Desire to get a research degree and its benefits
 Desire to formulate appropriate policies
 Desire to contribute to the existing stock of knowledge
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
 Desire to be of service to the society
 Curiosity/interest about new things
 Direction from government and related cases

Benefit/significance of Research
Source for providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social
problems. Therefore,
 To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories;
 To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
 To those students who are to write a thesis, it is a way to attain a high position in the
social structure;
 To professionals in research methodology, it is a source of livelihood/ income;
 To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work.

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 Chapter two

The nature and scope of research

1. Research approach

Research approach is a plan and procedure that consists of the steps of broad assumption to detailed
method of data collection, analysis and interpretation. It is therefore, based on the nature of the
research problem being addressed. Research approach is essentially divided into two categories:

1. Approach of data collection and

2. Approach of data analysis or reasoning

1. Approach of data collection

I. Qualitative Research approaches

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of

underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends
in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary
using unstructured or semi-structured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups
(group discussions), individual interviews, and participation/observations. The sample size is
typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfil a given quota.

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 How to get qualitative data

There are many methods you can use to conduct qualitative research that will get you richly detailed
information on your topic of interest.

 Interviews. One-on-one conversations that go deep into the topic at hand.

 Case studies. Collections of client stories from in-depth interviews.

 Expert opinions. High-quality information from well-informed sources.

 Focus groups. In-person or online conversation with small groups of people to listen to their views
on a product or topic.

 Open-ended survey questions. A text box in a survey that lets the respondent express their thoughts
on the matter at hand freely.

 Observational research. By Observing the study area environment.

II. Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data
that can be transformed into usable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors,
and other defined variables – and generalize results from a larger sample population. Quantitative
Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data
collection methods are much more structured than Qualitative data collection methods. Quantitative
data collection methods include various forms of surveys – online surveys, paper surveys, mobile
surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews.

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2. Approach of data analysis or reasoning

I. Inductive Approaches

In an inductive approach, a researcher begins by collecting data that is relevant to his or her topic of
interest. Thus, when researchers take an inductive approach, they start with a set of observations and
then they move from those particular experiences to a more general set of propositions about those
experiences. In other words, they move from data to theory, or from the specific to the general.

II. Deductive Approaches and Some Examples

Researchers taking a deductive approach take the steps described earlier for inductive research and
reverse their order. They start with a theory that they find compelling and then test its implications
with data. That is, they move from a more general level to a more specific one. A deductive approach

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to research is the one that people typically associate with scientific investigation. The researcher
studies what others have done, reads existing theories of whatever phenomenon he or she is studying,
and then tests hypotheses that emerge from those theories.

The main difference between inductive and deductive approaches to research is that whilst a
deductive approach is aimed and testing theory, an inductive approach is concerned with the
generation of new theory emerging from the data. For deductive approaches the emphasis is
generally on causality, whilst for inductive approaches the aim is usually focused on exploring new
phenomena or looking at previously researched phenomena from a different perspective. Inductive
approaches are generally associated with qualitative research, whilst deductive approaches are more
commonly associated with quantitative research. One specific inductive approach that is frequently
referred to in research literature is grounded theory, pioneered by Glaser and Strauss. This approach
necessitates the researcher beginning with a completely open mind without any preconceived ideas
of what will be found. The aim is to generate a new theory based on the data. Once the data analysis
has been completed the researcher must examine existing theories in order to position their new
theory within the discipline.
Steps in Conducting Research
Consists of the following stages
I. Problem Stage
II. Planning Stage
III. Execution Stage
I. Problem Stage
 Identify the PROBLEM area.
 Survey the LITERATURE relating to the problem.
 Identify and define relevant CONCEPTS or VARIABLES.

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 II. Planning Stage
 Construct the RESEARCH DESIGN to maximize internal and external validity:
i. control and/or manipulate variables if required;
ii. establish criteria to evaluate outcomes;
iii. engage in instrumentation – select or develop measuring instrument(s), if necessary.
 Specify the DATA COLLECTION procedures, and
 Select and specify the DATA ANALYSIS methods.

III. Execution Stage

 Execute research as planned;
 ANALYSE the data, answering research questions, meeting research objectives and testing
hypotheses specified; report findings of tests.
 EVALUATE the results and draw CONCLUSIONS relating these to the problem area.

HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile research project and
that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it. Generally, a research proposal
should contain all the key elements involved in the research process and include sufficient
information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study. Regardless of your research area and the
methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions:

 What you plan to accomplish,

 Why you want to do it and
 How you are going to do it.

The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your readers that you have an important
research idea, that you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues, and that
your methodology is sound. The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality
of your proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good research project
may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written. Therefore, it pays if your
writing is coherent, clear and compelling. This paper focuses on proposal writing rather than on the
development of research ideas under the following areas:

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1. Title of Project: It should be concise and descriptive. Often titles are stated in terms of a
functional relationship, because such titles clearly indicate the independent and dependent
variables. However, if possible, think of an informative but catchy title. An effective title not
only pricks the reader's interest, but also predisposes him/her favorably towards the proposal.

In selecting the title, the following points should be taken care of:

 Reflect the aim of the research

 Be descriptive.
 Be brief (concise) and short
 Language be simple and unambiguous
 Be specific to a particular domain
 Bracket; arithmetic figures, etc be avoided
2. Introduction: The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or
context for your research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest
problem in proposal writing. If the research problem is framed in the context of a general,
rambling literature review, then the research question may appear trivial and uninteresting.
However, if the same question is placed in the context of a very focused and current research
area, its significance will become evident. Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how
to frame your research question just as there is no prescription on how to write an interesting and
informative opening paragraph. A lot depends on your creativity, your ability to think clearly
and the depth of your understanding of problem areas. However, try to place your research
question in the context of either a current "hot" area, or an older area that remains viable.
Secondly, you need to provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop. Thirdly, provide the
contemporary context in which your proposed research question occupies the central stage.
Finally, identify "key players" and refer to the most relevant and representative publications. In
short, try to paint your research question in broad brushes and at the same time bring out its
significance. The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with
a focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for the
proposed study.

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 The introduction generally covers the following elements:
 State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study.
 Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth
doing.
 Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research.
 Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment Alternatively,
specify the phenomenon you want to study.
 State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological research,
you may not have any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical
null hypothesis.)
 Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a
clear focus.
 Provide definitions of key concepts.
 Set some methodology by relate with the methodology that will use in your work

3. Statement of the Problem

 Problem may be defined as the issue that exist in the literature, theory and in practical
situation

 This attempt to give direction to the research process.

 It must be limited enough in scope to make a definite conclusion possible.

 “Why does this research need to be conducted.”

 List the gap that are get from the previous research considered as research problem

 The statement of the problem should be written in specific clear-cut words.

4. Objective

 It summarizes what is to be achieved by the study.

 It is closely related to the research problem.

Key points to keep in mind when preparing a purpose statement.

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 1. Try to incorporate a sentence that begins with “The purpose of this study is . . .”

2. Clearly identify and define the central concepts or ideas of the study.

3. Identify the specific method of inquiry to be used.

 It has both General objective and Specific Objective

General objective : - states what is expected to achieve from the study in general terms.

 General objective is just one sentence indicating what you will do in the research

Specific Objective : - break down a general objective into smaller, logically connected parts; called
specific objectives.

 Specific objectives should systematically address the various research questions.

 specific objective used to achieve the general objectives

Specific objectives should meet the SMART Criteria.

 Specific-each objective has a single key result

 Measurable-each objective relates to behavior that can be measured

 Attainable-each objective is realistic

 Relevant-each objective is central to district or job site goals; and makes a difference in job
performance or student achievement

 Timely-each objective should be able to be accomplished within the time frame established
for the staff development event

5. Literature Review: Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction
section. However, most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough
review of the literature. The literature review serves several important functions:
1. Finding out information/knowledge gaps
 Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research
 Demonstrates(prove) your knowledge about the problem
 Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information

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  Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and
substantial contribution to the literature

(i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the literature).

6. Scope and Delimitation of the Study

 It tells what has to be covered in the research.

 In this part, you will tell exactly what will be done & where the information used in the study
specifically came from.

 Scope of the research should be clear and can be stated in terms of

 Geography
 Concept
 Data and data source
 Technology
Delimitation of the Study

 It describes the work that will not be undertaken in the research.

 It also identifies the constraints or weaknesses of the study which are not within the control
of the researcher.

 It might provide avenues for valuable future research direction.

6. Significance of the study

– The significance of the study should discuss the importance of the proposed research
and its relevance.

– The investigation might be relevant for theory, practice and future research.

– The investigator should explain why it is important for the study to be undertaken
and
– indicate the likelihood of its contribution to the advancement of knowledge.

• Without mentioning significance of the study, it becomes difficult to convince others that the
problem in question is worth study.

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7. Methods: The Method section is very important because it tells your Research Committee how
you plan to tackle your research problem. It will provide your work plan and describe the
activities necessary for the completion of your research. The guiding principle for writing the
Method section is that it should contain sufficient information for the reader to determine
whether methodology is sound. Some even argue that a good proposal should contain sufficient
details for another qualified researcher to implement the study. You need to demonstrate your
knowledge of alternative methods and make the case that your approach is the most appropriate
and most valid way to address your research question.

a. This is the heart of the research proposal

b. The research activities should be described as much detail as possible

c. It includes all methodological steps

i. General approach, specific methods, sampling techniques and size, data

collection and analysis, issues related to validity are also part of this section

d. It should include a justification for all decisions you made

8. Work Schedule/Timeline:

 The schedule or timeline for the proposed completion of the research.

 Details of the major activities of the research should be clearly indicated together
with the associated timeline.

9. Budget plan:

 cost that are needed for conducting a research

 Breakdown of the different cost components should be clearly itemized in terms of

unit costs and total costs.

10. References

 References cited in the research proposal should be included in the reference list

 Follow a specific and consistent guideline regarding use of references in text and in the
reference list.

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