Aggregates

Concrete is considered to be an artificial stone

obtained by binding together the particles of

relatively inert fine and coarse materials with

cement paste and water.

-M.L.Gambhir
 General
• Aggregates are generally cheaper than cement
and impart greater volume stability and
durability to concrete.
• Used primarily for the purpose of providing
bulk to the concrete
• To increase density of resulting mix, aggregate
is frequently used in two or more sizes.
• Most important function of fine aggregate is
to assist in producing workability and
uniformity in mixture
• Provide about 75% of the body of the concrete
• Must be of proper shape, clean, hard, strong
and well graded
• Should possess chemical stability, abrasion
resistant and resistant to freezing and thawing
 Classification of aggregates
• A) Based on geological origin
– Natural aggregate
• Generally obtained from natural deposits of sand and gravel,
or from quarries by cutting rocks such as granite, quartzite,
basalt, sand stone.
• The river deposits are the most common and are of good
quality.
• Igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic in origin.

– Artificial aggregate
• Most widely used are clean broken bricks (brick aggregate
not suitable for waterproof construction and road work)and
• air-cooled fresh blast-furnace-slag(good fire resisting quality,
sulphate resistance),sintered fly ash, bloated clay.
• B) Based on Size
Largest maximum size conveniently used for concrete
making-80mm
Using largest possible maximum size will result in
• reduction of cement content,
• reduction in water requirement,
• reduction of drying and shrinkage
– The particle size distribution is called ‘grading’
– Maximum size of aggregate may be limited by
• Thickness of section
• Clear cover
• Spacing of reinforcement
• Mixing, handling and placing techniques
classification
– Fine aggregate
• Passing through 4.75mm IS sieve.
• Three types-natural sand, crushed stone sand, crushed
gravel sand.

– Coarse aggregate
• Retained on 4.75mm IS sieve.
• Types- crushed gravel, uncrushed gravel and partially
crushed gravel.
– All-in one aggregate
• Combined aggregates available in nature comprising
different fractions of fine and coarse aggregate.
• not generally used for making high quality concrete.

– Single size aggregate

• Comprising particles falling essentially within a narrow
limit of size fractions
• C) Based on Shape
– Influence workability, Rounded aggregates
are more workable to angular
Classification
– Rounded: Fully water worn(smoothened)or
completely shaped by attrition(pressure)
– Eg. River or seashore gravels,
desert, seashore and
wind blown sands
• Irregular: Naturally irregular or partly shaped
by attrition, having rounded edges. Eg. Pit
sands and gravels, cuboid rock
Angular: Possessing well defined edges
formed at the intersection of roughly planar
faces.
Crushed rocks of all types , talus, screes
(accumulation of broken rock fragments at the
base of cliffs)
– Flaky and elongated
– Material usually angular, of which the
thickness is small relative to the width
and/or length
• Eg. Laminated rocks
• D) Based on Unit weight
– Normal weight aggregate
– Commonly used aggregate (sand and gravel)
– Specific gravity between 2.5 and 2.7 produce
concrete with unit weight 23 to 26 KN/m3
– Crushing strength of concrete at 28 days between
15 to 40 MPa are termed normal weight concrete
– Heavy weight or high density
– Concrete of unit weight 30 to 57kN/m3 can be
produced by using goethite (iron bearing
hydroxide mineral) to scrap iron
– Drawback- not suitably graded and difficult to
have adequate workability
– Light weight
 Bond of aggregate
• Bond between aggregate and cement paste is
an important factor in the strength of
concrete especially the flexural strength.
• Bond is partly due to the interlocking of the
aggregate and the paste owing to the
roughness of the surface of the former
• A rough surface results in better bond, better
bond is also obtained with softer, porous and
mineralogically heterogeneous particles.
 Characteristics
• Strength
• Toughness
• Hardness
• Particle shape and texture
• Specific gravity
• Bulk density
• Voids
• Porosity and absorption of aggregate
• Moisture content
• Bulking of fine aggregate
 Strength
• Ability to resist stress without failure
• Many properties of concrete, such as elastic modulus,
water tightness or impermeability and resistance to
weathering agents are believed to be dependent on
strength
• Compressive strength of concrete cannot exceed that
of the bulk of the aggregate contained therein.
• Aggregate crushing value should not exceed 45% for
aggregate used for concrete other than for wearing
surfaces and 30% for concrete for wearing surfaces,
such as runways, roads and pavements
 Aggregate crushing value
• A sample of aggregate passing through 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10mm is
obtained by sieving and dried in an oven at 100°C for few hours, placed in a
cylindrical mould and tamped.

• The sample is then blown 15 times by standard hammer.

• The crushed sample is sieved through a 2.36 mm sieve and the material passing
though 2.36 mm sieve is weighed .

• 𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 2.36 𝑚𝑚

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 12.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛
10𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒
 Aggregate abrasion value
• Apart from testing aggregate with respect to its crushing
value, impact resistance, testing the aggregate with
respect to its resistance to wear is an important test
aggregate to be used for road constructions, warehouse
floors and pavement construction.

• Deval atrition test(the process of reducing strength of something or effectiveness through

sustained attack or pressure.)

• Dorry abrasion test

• Los Angels abrasion test

Abrasion is the process of scraping or wearing something away.
 Bulk density
• Bulk density or unit weight –
• Gives information on shape and grading of the
aggregate
• Higher the bulk density, lower the void content
to be filled by sand and cement.
 Bulk density
• Aggregates are filled in a container
• Compacted
• Weight of aggregate gives bulk density calculated
in kg/lit or kg/m3
• Knowing specific gravity in saturated and surface
dry condition, void ratio can be calculated
𝐺𝑠 −𝛾
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 = x100
𝐺𝑠
where
• Gs = specific gravity of the aggregate
• ϒ=bulk density in kg/litre
 Specific gravity
• Is made use of in design calculation of
concrete mix
• Weight can be converted into solid volume by
knowing its specific gravity
• Also required in calculating compacting factor
in connection with workability measurement
• Average specific gravity of rock ranges
between 2.6 to 2.8
 Absorption and moisture content
• Aggregates are porous and absorptive
• Porosity and absorption will affect the water
cement ratio and hence workability, durability
(freezing and thawing, chemically aggressive
liquids)
 Water absorption
• Increase in weight of an oven dry sample when
immersed in water for 24 hours
• The ratio of increase in weight to the weight of
dry sample expressed as percentage is known as
absorption of aggregate
• In practice, aggregates are either dry and
absorptive to various degrees or they have surface
moisture
Fine aggregates dredged from river bed usually
contains surface moisture
• Absorption capacity of aggregates is about 0.5
to 1 percent by weight of aggregate.
 Bulking of aggregate
Fine aggregate
• Free moisture forms a film around each particle
• This film exerts surface tension which keeps
particle away from each other
• So no point of contact between the particles,
leading in bulking
• Increase in bulking with the increase in moisture
content up to certain limit and then decreases,
showing no bulking
• Sand bulks more compared to coarse aggregates, so
it is neglected(CA)
• Extremely fine sand and particularly the
manufactured fine aggregate bulks as much as
about 40%
AGGREGATES Contd.
 Alkali aggregate reaction
• Expansion and cracking of concrete leading to
loss of strength and elastic modulus resulting
from chemical reaction involving alkali and
hydroxyls ions from Portland cement paste and
certain reactive siliceous minerals that are
often present in the aggregate is known as
ALKALI – AGGREGATE REACTION
• Recent literature, it is referred to as Alkali-
silica reaction(ASR)
• Types of rocks which contain reactive
constituents include traps, andesites,
rhyolites, siliceous limestones and certain type
of sand stones
• The reaction starts with the attack on the
reactive siliceous materials in the aggregate by
the alkaline hydroxide derived from the
alkalies in cement
• As a result, alkali silicate gels
of unlimited swelling type are
formed.
• It results in disruption of concrete with the
spreading of pattern cracks and eventual failure
of concrete structures
• Basalt rock in Deccan plateau, Madhya Pradesh,
Kathiawar, Hyderabad, Punchal hill(J&K), bengal
and Bihar should be used with caution
 Factors promoting Alkali- Aggregate
reaction
• Reactive type of aggregate
• High alkali content in cement
– Alkali content should be kept less than 0.6 percent
• Availability of moisture
– Lack of water reduces rate of deterioration
• Optimum temperature conditions
– Ideal temperature for the promotion of alkali
aggregate reaction is in the range of 10 to 38°C
Mechanism of deterioration of concrete through the
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
• The mixing water turns to be a strongly caustic solution
due to solubility of alkalies from the cement.
• This caustic liquid attacks reactive silica to form alkali-
silica gel of unlimited swelling type.
• The reaction proceeds more rapidly for highly reactive
substances.
• If continuous supply of water and correct temperature
is available, the formation of silica gel continues
unabated.
• This silica gel grows in size.
• The continuous growth of silica gel exerts osmotic
pressure to cause pattern cracking particularly in
thinner sections of concrete like pavements.
• Formation of pattern cracks due to the stress
induced by the growth of silica gel results in
subsequent loss in strength and elasticity.

• Alkali-aggregate reaction also accelerates other

process of deterioration of concrete due to the
formation of cracks.

• Solution of dissolved carbon dioxide, converts

calcium hydroxide to calcium carbonate with
consequent increase in volume.
Control of Alkali-aggregate reaction
• Selection of non-reactive aggregates
• By the use of low alkali cement
• By the use of corrective admixtures like
pozzolonas
• By controlling void space in concrete
• By controlling moisture condition and
temperature.

Eg. Kaiga Nuclear power project (0.4% alkali content

cement)
Kaiga Nuclear Powerplant
 Deleterious Substances in Aggregate
Impurities which interfere with the process of
hydration of cement
Coatings which prevent the development of
good bond between aggregate and cement
paste
Certain individual particles which are weak or
unsound in themselves.
 Deleterious Substances in Aggregate
Organic impurities (decay of vegetable matter), clay and other
fine material (silt and crusher dust), salt contamination (river
estuary- causes efflorescence).

Iron pyrites, clay nodules, soft shale particles- swell

when wetted (damage the concrete when subjected to freezing and thawing
or wetting and drying)
Building Science and Technology
Cement
 Cement

• Cementing means a joining material

• Portland cement is a cementing material
resembling a natural stone quarried from
Portland in U.K.
• Invented by a mason Joseph Aspidin in
England in 1824.
• It may be defined as a product obtained by finely grounding
and by burning argillaceous material (clay, SiO2,Al2O3
,Fe2O3) and calcareous material( lime stone CaO) at high
temperature in certain proportion.

• Then we obtain a mixture of tricalcium silicate , Dicalcium

silicate, Tri calcium aluminate, Tetra Calcium Alumino Ferrite
.This is called Clinker.

• For this, a small quantity of gypsum ,which delays the initial

setting time is added.

• This mixture of clinker and gypsum is ground to a very fine

powder to get cement.
 Chemical Composition of Raw materials

Oxide Function Percentage

Lime Controls Strength and soundness. Its deficiency 60-65%
(CaO) reduces Strength and setting time. (say 63%)

Silica Gives strength. Excess of it causes slow setting. 17-25%

(SiO2) (say 20 %)
Alumina, Responsible for quick setting. If it is in 3-8%
(Al2O3) excess it lowers the strength. (say 6 %)

Iron oxide It gives color & helps in fusion of different 0.5-6%

(Fe2 O3) ingredients. (say 3%)

Magnesia Imparts color and hardness. If it is in excess, it 0.5-4%

(MgO) develops Cracks in mortar and concrete and (say 1.5%)
becomes unsound.
Na2O,K2O, These are residues and If it is in excess, causes 0.5-4%
TiO2. efflorescence and cracking and makes cement (1%)
unsound.

SO3 2%
 Soundness of cement

• Soundness of cement is the property by virtue

of which the cement does not undergo any
appreciable expansion (or change in volume)
after it has set, thus eliminating any chances of
disrupting the mortar or concrete.
• The various constituents
combine while burning
and form cement clinker.

• In the manufacture
of Portland cement, clinker occurs as lumps or
nodules, usually 3 millimetres (0.12 in) to 25
millimetres (0.98 in) in diameter, produced by
sintering (fused together without melting to the
point of liquefaction) limestone and alumino-
silicate materials such as clay during the cement
kiln stage.
• The compound formed in the burning process
have the properties of setting and hardening
in the presence of water.

• They are known as bougue compounds. (After

the name of bougue who identified them).
• -C3S,C2S,C3A,C4AF
 Chemical Composition of Cement clinker

principal Formula Name Symbol Percentage

Mineral range
compound
in cement

Tricalcium 3CaO SiO2 Alite C3S 25-50%(40%)

Silicate
Dicalcium 2 CaO SiO2 Belite C2S 25-40%(32%)
silicate
Tricalcium 3 CaO Al2O3 Celite C3A 5-11%(10.5)
Aluminate
Tetra calcium 4CaO Al2O3 Felite C4AF 8-14%(9%)
Alumino Fe2O3
ferrite
• Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of
calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the chemical
formula CaSO4· 2H2O.
• It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer,
and as the main constituent in many forms of
plaster.
• The word gypsum is derived from the Greek word
(gypsos), "plaster".

• Because the quarries of the Montmartre district

of Paris have long furnished burnt gypsum
(calcined gypsum) used for various purposes, this
dehydrated gypsum became known as plaster of
Paris.

• Upon addition of water, after a few tens of minutes

plaster of Paris becomes regular gypsum (dihydrate)
again, causing the material to harden or "set" in
ways that are useful for casting and construction.
 Grades of cement
• 33 grade
• 43 grade and
• 53 grade
• The physical requirement of all
these cements are same except
the compressive strength.
• The grade 33,43 and 53 in cement mainly corresponds to
the average compressive strength attained after 28 days (
6724 hours) in mega pascals (Mpa)(equivalent to N/mm2)

• of at least three mortar cubes ( area of face 50 cm squared

,around 7.1 cm side) composed of one part cement, 3 parts
of standard sand by mass ( conforming to IS 650:1966,
In India it is ENNORE sand, ( Ennore is a place in Tamil
Nadu)

• and P/4 ( P is the percentage of water required to produce

a paste of standard consistency as per IS standard) + 3
percentage( of combined mass of cement plus sand) of
water ,
• i.e. (P/4+3)
• prepared, stored and tested in the manner described in
methods of physical test for hydraulic cement.
 Standard consistency

• The standard consistency is that consistency,

which will permit the vicat plunger to
penetrate to a point 5 to 7mm from the bottom
of the vicat mould.
Water content requirement for
various tests
NAME OF TEST AMOUNT OF WATER REQUIRED

Soundness (Le-chatelier 0.78 P (P=Consistency of standard cement

method) paste)

Setting time 0.85 P (P=Consistency of standard cement

paste)

Compressive strength

Of combined mass of cement and sand.

Bogue’s compounds
 Influence of Compound Composition
on Characteristics of P.C.
C3S C2S C3A C4AF

Rate of Reaction Moderate Slow Fast Moderate

Heat Liberation High Low Very High Moderate

Early Cementitious Value Good Poor Good Poor

Ultimate Cementitious Value Good Good Poor Poor

 Tri Calcium Silicate(C3S):

 It is best cementing material

 It is well burnt.

 It renders the clinker easier to grind, increases resistance to

thawing freezing, hydrates rapidly generating heat of hydration
and imparts early strength and hardness.

 If C3S is increased beyond certain limit the heat of hydration

and solubility in water will be more.

 The early strength of cement is due to this.

 Di Calcium Silicate (C2S):

It hydrates slowly and takes a year to get

strength.
It gives resistance to chemical attack.
If it is increased, the clinker will be difficult to
grind and the early strength will be decreased.
The resistance to freezing and thawing at early
ages is also decreased.
The heat of hydration is also decreased.
 Tri calcium Aluminate (C3A):
 It rapidly reacts with water and is responsible for flash set of
finely ground clinker.

 The rapidity of action is regulated by adding 2-3% of gypsum

at the time of grinding.

 It is responsible for initial set, high heat of hydration and has

greater tendency to volume changes causing cracking .

 Raising C3A content reduces the setting time, weakens

resistance to sulphate attack and lowers the ultimate strength.
 Tetra calcium Alumino
Ferrite(C4AF):
It is responsible for flash set

generates less heat

 It has poorest cementing value

 Raising C4AF reduces strength slightly

• False-Set: is a rapid development of rigidity of
cement paste without generation of much heat.

• Flash-Set: It is the immediate stiffening of

cement paste in a few minutes after mixing
with water.

It is accompanied by large amount of heat

generation upon reaction of C3A with water.
High Alumina It is obtained by melting mixture
Cement of bauxite and lime and grinding
with the clinker it is rapid
hardening cement with initial and
final setting time of about 3.5 and
5 hours respectively
White Cement It is prepared from raw materials
free from Iron oxide.
Coloured cement It is produced by mixing mineral
pigments with ordinary cement.
Pozzolanic Cement It is prepared by grinding
pozzolanic clinker with
Portland cement.
It is used in works where concrete is
subjected to high temperatures, frost,
and acidic action.
It is more costly and is used for
architectural purposes such as pre-cast
wall and facing panels, terrazzo
surface etc.,
They are widely used for decorative
works in floors
It is used in marine structures, sewage
works, sewage works and for laying
concrete under water such as bridges,
piers, dams etc.,
Air Entraining It is produced by adding
Cement indigenous air entraining
agents such as resins, glues,
sodium salts of Sulphates etc
during the grinding of
clinker.
Hydrophobic It is prepared by mixing
cement water repelling chemicals
This type of cement is specially
suited to improve the workability
with smaller water cement ratio
and to improve frost resistance of
concrete.
This cement has high workability
and strength
 Hydration of cement

The chemical reaction between cement and water is known as

hydration of cement.

The reaction takes place between the active components of

cement C4AF ,C3A, C3S and C2S and water.

The factor responsible for the physical properties of concrete

depends on the extent of hydration of cement and resultant
microstructure gel of hydrated cement.
SEM image of Hydrated Portland Cement
At any stage of hydration the hardened cement
paste (hcp) consists of:

• Hydrates of various compounds referred to

collectively as GEL.

1. Crystals of calcium hydroxide (CH).

2. Some minor compound hydrates.
3. Unhydrated cement
4. The residual of water filled spaces – pores.
As the hydration proceeds the deposits of
hydrated products on the original cement grains
makes the diffusion of water to unhydrated
nucleus more & more difficult.

Thus, the rate of hydration decreases with time

& as a result hydration may take several years.

Major compounds start to produce:

• Calcium-silicate-hydrate gels
• Calcium hydroxide
• Calcium-alumino-sulfohydrates
At the beginning of mixing, the paste has a
structure which consists of cement particles
with water-filled space between them.

As hydration proceeds, the gels are formed &

they occupy some of this space.

Gel Pores: 28% of the total gel volume

have diameter of 0.015-0.020 μm. (very
small-loss or gain of water is difficult)
 Capillary Pores: 12.5 μm diameter, with varying sizes, shapes &
randomly distributed in the paste.

 Volume of capillary pores decreases as hydration takes place.

 Water in capillary pores is mobile but can not be lost by
evaporation (neither water can get into the pores).
 They are mainly responsible for permeability.

 The water–cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of water to

the weight of cement used in a concrete mix.
 A lower ratio leads to higher strength and durability, but may
make the mix difficult to work with and form
 Workability can be resolved with the use of plasticizers or
super-plasticizers.
 C2S & C3S: 70-80% of cement is composed of these
two compounds & most of the strength giving
properties of cement is controlled by these compounds.

 Upon hydration both calcium-silicates result in the

same products.
2C3S+6H → C3S2H3 + 3CH
2C2S+4H → C3S2H3 + CH

 Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate (C-S-H gel) is similar to

a mineral called “TOBERMORITE”. As a result it
is named as “TOBERMORITE GEL”
 Upon hydration of C3S & C2S, calcium hydroxide is
also formed which becomes an integral part of
hydration products.

 Cal. Hydroxide does not contribute very much to the

strength of portland cement.

 C3S having a faster rate of reaction accompanied by

greater heat generation developes early strength of the
paste.

 On the other hand, C2S hydrates & hardens slowly,so

results in less heat generation & developes most of the
ultimate strength.
 Higher C3S→higher early strength-higher heat generation
(roads, cold environments)

Higher C2S→lower early strength-lower heat generation

(dams)

 C3A: is characteristically fast reacting with water & may

lead to a rapid stiffening of the paste with a large amount
of the heat generation (Flash-Set)-(Quick-Set).

 In order to prevent this rapid reaction gypsum is added to

the clinker.

 Gypsum, C3A&water react to form relatively insoluble

Calcium-Sulfo-Aluminates.
 C3A+CŚH2+10H→C4AŚH12 (calcium- alumino-
monosulfohydrate)
C3A+3CŚH2+26H→C6AŚ3H32 (calcium-alumino-
trisulfohydrate “ettringite”)

 When there is enough gypsum “ettringite” forms with

great expansion

 If there is no gypsum→flash-set
more gypsum→ettringite formation increases
which will cause cracking
 HEAT OF HYDRATION
 Hydration process of cement is accompanied by heat
generation (exothermic).

 As concrete is a fair insulator, the generated heat in mass

concrete may result in expansion & cracking.

 This could be overcome by using suitable cement type.

 It could also be advantages for cold weather concreting.

 The heat of hydration of OPC is on the order of 85-100 cal/gr.

 About 50% of this heat is liberated within 1-3 days & 75%
within 7 days.
 By limiting C3S & C3A content heat of hydration can be
reduced.
 Heat of Hydration of Pure Compounds

 The amount of heat

Heat of Hydration
(cal/gr) liberated is affected by
the fractions of the
compounds of the
C3S 120
cement.
C2S 62

C3A 207  Heat of

Hydration(cal/gr)=120*(
C4AF 100 %C3S)+62*(%C2S)+207*
(%C3A)+100*(C4AF)
Properties and testing of cement
 FINENESS OF CEMENT
As hydration takes place at the surface of the
cement particles, it is the surface area of cement
particles which provide the material available for
hydration.
The rate of hydration is controlled by fineness of
cement.
For a rapid rate of hydration
a higher fineness is necessary.
However,

• Higher fineness requires higher grinding

(increased cost)
• Finer cements deteriorate faster upon exposure
to atmosphere.
• Finer cements are very sensitive to alkali-
aggregate reaction.
• Finer cements require more gypsum for proper
hydration.
• Finer cements require more water.
 Fineness of cement is determined by air permeability
methods.
 For example, in the Blaine air permeability method a
known volume of air is passed through cement.
 The time is recorded and the specific surface is
calculated by a formula.
 The specific surface is derived from the resistance to
flow of air (or some other gas) through a porous bed
of the powder(cement).
 Fineness is expressed in terms of specific surface of
the cement (cm2/gr).
 For OPC specific surface is 2600-3000 cm2/gr.
 Sieving

Blaine Apparatus
 SETTING
 Setting refers to a change from liquid state to solid
state.

 Although, during setting cement paste acquires some

strength, setting is different from hardening.

 The water content has a marked effect on the time of

setting.
 In acceptance tests for cement, the water content is
regulated by bringing the paste to a standard
condition of wetness. This is called “normal
consistency”.
 Normal consistency of O.P.C. Ranges from 20-30% by weight
of cement.

 Vicat apparatus is used to determine normal consistency.

 Normal consistency is that condition for which the penetration

of a standard weighed plunger into the paste is [40-(5 to 7)]
i.e.33 to 35 mm in 30sec. By trial & error determine the w/c
ratio.

 In practice, the terms initial set&final set are used to describe

arbitrary chosen time of setting.

 Initial set indicates the beginning of a noticeable stiffening &

final set may be regarded as the start of hardening (or complete
loss of plasticity).
 Gillmore Needle

Vicat Needle
Setting can be obtained by using the vicat
apparatus.

Initial setting time>45min

ASTM C150
Final setting time<375min

Initial > ½ hr (30min)

• (IS:4031-Part4-1988)
Final < 10hr (600min)
 Factors Affecting Setting Time
• Temperature & Humidity
• Amount of Water
• Chemical Composition of Cement
• Fineness of Cement (finer cement, faster
setting)

Flash-set
Abnormal Settings
False-set
Flash-Set: It is the immediate stiffening of cement paste
in a few minutes after mixing with water.
It is accompanied by large amount of heat generation
upon reaction of C3A with water.

 Gypsum is placed in cement to prevent flash-set. The

rigidity can not be overcome & plasticity may not be
regained without addition of water.
False-Set: is a rapid development of rigidity of cement
paste without generation of much heat.
 This rigidity can be overcome & plasticity can be
regained by further mixing without addition of water.
 In this way cement paste restores its plasticity & sets in a
normal manner without any loss of strength.

 Probable Causes of False-Set:

1) When gypsum is ground by too hot of a clinker,

gypsum may be dehydrated into hemihydrate
(CaSO4.1/2H2O) or anhydrate (CaSO4).
 When these materials react with water gypsum is formed,
which results in stiffening of the paste.
2) Alkali oxides(NaOH, KOH etc) in cement may
carbonate during storage.

Upon mixing such a cement with water, these

alkali carbonates will react with Ca(OH2) (CH-
Calcium Hydroxide) liberated by hydrolysis of
C3S resulting in CaCO3.

CaCO3 precipates in the mix & results in false-

set.
 SOUNDNESS OF CEMENT
 Soundness is defined as the volume stability of cement paste.

 The cement paste should not undergo large changes in volume

after it has set.
 Free CaO & MgO may result in unsound cement.
 Upon hydration C & M will form CH & MH with volume
increase thus cracking.

1) Lechatelier Method: Only free CaO can be determined.

2) Autoclave Method: Both free CaO & MgO can be determined.
CONCRETE
“The most widely used construction material is
concrete, commonly made by mixing Portland
cement with sand, crushed rock and water.

The total world consumption of concrete last year is

estimated at three billion tons, or one ton for every
living human being. Man consumes no material
except water in such tremendous quantities.”
Concrete is neither as strong nor tough as steel,
so why is it the most widely used engineering
material?
Five primary reasons
• Concrete possess excellent resistance to
water.

Unlike wood and ordinary steel, the ability of

concrete to withstand the action of water
without serious deterioration makes it an ideal
material for building structure to control, store,
and transport water.
• The ease with which structural concrete
elements can be formed into a variety of
shapes and sizes

Freshly made concrete is of a plastic consistency,

which enables the material to flow into
prefabricated formwork.
• Usually the cheapest and most readily
available material on the job.
• The principal components for making
concrete, namely aggregate, water and
Portland cement are relatively inexpensive
and are commonly available.
• Maintenance, fire resistant, resistance to cyclic
loading.
 Properties of concrete
• Fresh concrete or plastic concrete
– Freshly mixed material which can be moulded into
any shape.
– Cement, aggregate and water mixed together,
control the properties of concrete in wet as well
as in hardened state
 Definition
• Workability is that property of freshly mixed
concrete or mortar which determines the ease
and homogeneity with which it can be mixed,
placed, compacted and finished.
• Workablility consists of the following four
partial properties of concrete-
– Mixability
– Transportability
– Mouldability
– compactability
Slump test
 Mixablity
• Ability of the mix to produce a homogeneous green
concrete from the constituent materials of the batch, under
the action of mixing forces.
• A less mixable concrete requires more time of mixing to
produce a homogeneous and uniform mix
 Transportability
• Capacity of the concrete mix to keep the
homogeneous concrete mix from segregating
during limited time period of transportation,
when forces due to handling operations of
limited nature act.
 Mouldability
• Ability of fresh concrete mix to fill completely
the forms or moulds without loosing
continuity or homogeneity under the available
techniques of placing the concrete for a
particular job
• Complex property: considered under dynamic
conditions
 Compactibility
• Ability of a concrete mix to be compacted into a
dense, compact concrete, with minimum voids,
under the existing means of compaction at the
site.
• The best mix from the point of view of
compactibility should close the voids to an extent
of 99% of the original voids present, when the
concrete was placed in the moulds.
• Sometimes the terms ‘ consistency of the mix and
plasticity’ are used to denote the property of
workability.
• Consistency of the mix really means the wetness
of the mix and wetter mix need not have all the
above desired properties
• Too wet mix may cause segregation
• Plasticity is the cohesiveness of the mix that is the
property of certain concrete mixes to hold the
individual grains together by the binder which is
the cement paste.
 Factors affecting workability
• Water content
• Mix proportions
• Size of aggregate
• Shape of aggregate
• Surface texture of aggregate
• Grading of aggregate
• Use of admixtures
 Compaction or consolidation
• Is the process of molding concrete within the forms
and around embedded items and reinforcing steel to
eliminate pockets of empty space and entrapped air.

• The operation is carried out by hand rodding and

tamping, mechanical methods such as power tampers
and vibrators that make it possible to place stiff
mixtures with low water-cement ratio or high content
of coarse aggregate.

• Caution- vibrators should be used only to compact, not

to move it horizontally, to avoid segregation
Plate compactor
Vibratory compactors
Gyratory compactor
Vibratory roller
Soil compactors(sheep footed)
Compactors
Pan mixer
Drum mixer
• According to size the fine aggregate may be
described as coarse sand, medium sand and
fine sand. IS specifications classify the fine
aggregate into four types according to its
grading as fine aggregate of grading Zone-1 to
grading Zone-4.
• The four grading zones become progressively
finer from grading Zone-1 to grading Zone-4.
• 90% to 100% of the fine aggregate passes 4.75
mm IS sieve and 0 to 15% passes 150 micron
IS sieve depending upon its grading zone
 Water Content
• Higher the water content per cubic meter of
concrete, higher will be fluidity
• From the desirability point of view, increase of
water content is the last resource to be taken for
improving workability even in the case of
uncontrolled concrete
• More water can be added, provided a
correspondingly higher quantity of cement is also
added to keep the water-cement ratio constant,
so that the strength remains same
 Mix proportion
• Aggregate occupy 70-75 percent of the total
volume of the concrete
• Higher the aggregate / cement ratio, leaner is the
concrete
• In lean concrete, less quantity of paste is available
for providing lubrication, per unit surface area of
aggregate and hence mobility of aggregate is
restrained(can be used for filling)
• In case of rich concrete, with lower
aggregate/cement ratio, more paste is available
to make the mix cohesive and fatty to give better
workability
Lean and rich concrete mix
• An increase in water content results in
monotonous increase in workability but
eventually a state is reached where
segregation and bleeding occur, and use of
higher water content will result in the more
serious problems of shrinkage and creep of
hardened concrete
• Water-cement ratio itself determines the
intrinsic properties of cement paste
• When concrete is subjected to compressive loading it
deforms instantaneously. This immediate deformation
is called instantaneous strain.
• Now, if the load is maintained for a considerable
period of time, concrete undergoes additional
deformations even without any increase in the load.
This time-dependent strain is termed as creep.

Drying shrinkage (often, simply shrinkage) is the

reduction in volume of hardened concrete due to loss
of moisture by evaporation.
• There are several similarities and dissimilarities
between creep and shrinkage.
• First, the source for both the effects are the
same, which is loss of adsorbed moisture from
the hydrated cement paste.
• In shrinkage, the loss is due to difference in the
relative humidity of concrete and the
environment, in creep it is due to sustained
applied stress.
• Second, the strain-time curves of both the
phenomenon are very similar.
 Size of aggregate
• Bigger the size of aggregate, the less is the
surface area of concrete and hence less
amount of water is required for wetting the
surface and less matrix or paste is required for
lubricationg the surface to reduce internal
friction
 Shape of aggregate
• Shape of aggregate influences workability in
good measure
• Angular, elongated or flaky aggregate makes
the concrete very harsh when compared to
rounded aggregate(cubical)
• Rounded aggregate will have less surface area
and less voids than angular or flaky aggregate
• Frictional resistance is also greatly reduced(for
rounded).
 Surface texture
• Total surface area of rough textured aggregate
is more than surface area of smooth rounded
aggregate of same volume
• Rough textured aggregate will show poor
workability
• Smooth or glassy textured aggregate – better
workability, due to inter particle frictional
resistance
 Grading of aggregate
• This has maximum influence on workability
• Well graded aggregate- least amount of voids
Total voids are less – better lubricating effect
With excess amount of paste, the mixture
becomes cohesive and fatty, which prevents
segregation.
Better the grading, less void content, higher
workability
 Use of admixture
• Most important factor affecting workability
• Plasticizer and super plasticizers
– Slump
– Air entraining agent – surface active, reduce
internal friction between particles also act as
artificial fine aggregates of smooth surface
 Measurement of workability
• Slump cone test
• Compaction factor test
• Vee Bee consistometer test
Slump cone test
Compaction factor test
Compaction factor test
VEE BEE CONSISTOMETER
 batching
• Volume batching
• Weigh batching
 Weigh batching
• Correct method of measuring the materials
• Facilitates accuracy, flexibility, and simplicity
• Large weigh batching plant will have automatic
weighing equipment
• In small jobs, cement is often not weighed; it is
added in bags assuming the weight of the bag as
50 kg.
• but in reality, due to transportation and handling
there is loss of weight sometimes of the order of
5 kg.
• therefore in major concreting jobs, cement
should be weighed
 Volume batching
• Not a good method- due to difficulty in
measuring granular material
– Volume of moist sand and it weighs much less
than same volume of dry sand
• Used for unimportant concrete or for small job
• Cement is always measured by weight
– for each batch mix, one bag of cement is used
• Measurement of water must be done accurately.
It is suggested to use a horizontal or vertical tank,
fitted to mixer and filled up after every batch
• Modern batching plant have sophisticated
automatic microprocessor controlled weigh
batching arrangements.
• It is also measuring the moisture content of
aggregate, so that correction can be made while
adding water
Batching plant
 Mixing
• Essential for the production of uniform concrete
• Two methods
– Hand mixing
– Machine mixing
• Hand mixing
– Is practiced for small scale unimportant concrete works
– Should be done over an impervious concrete or brick floor
of sufficiently large size to take one bag of cement
– Spread the fine and coarse aggregate in alternate layers
– Pour the cement on top of it, and mix them dry by a
shovel, until uniform colour is attained
• This uniform mixture is spread out in thickness
of about 20 cm.
• Water is taken in a water can fitted with a rose
head and sprinkled over the mixture and
simultaneously turned over. This operation is
continued till a good uniform, homogeneous
concrete is obtained.
• Caution - Water is not poured, but sprinkled
 Machine mixing
• Used for medium or large scale mass concrete work
• Efficient and economical
• Two types of mixers
– Batch mixers
• Produce concrete batch by batch
• Used in normal concrete work
– Continuous mixers
• Produce concrete continuously without stoppage till the plant
is working
• Materials are fed continuously by screw feeders and they are
mixed and continuously discharged
• Used in large works as dams
Concrete pan mixer
 Transporting Concrete
• Variety of methods and equipment
• Homogeneity should be maintained
• Methods
– Mortar pan
– Wheel barrow, hand cart
– Crane, bucket and ropeway
– Truck mixers and dumpers
– Belt conveyers
– Chute
– Skip and hoist
– Transit mixer
– Pump and pipe line
– helicopter
Mortar pan
Wheel barrow, hand cart
Crane, bucket and ropeway
Truck mixers and dumpers
Belt conveyers
Chute
Skip and hoist
Transit mixer
Pump and pipe line
 Placing concrete
• Concrete must be placed in systematic manner to
yield optimum results
• Precautions must be taken while placing the
concrete in the below situations
– Placing concrete within earth mould (foundation
concrete for wall or column)
– Placing concrete within large earth mould or timber
plank formwork (road slab and air field slab)
– Placing concrete in layers within timber or steel
shutters (mass concrete in dam construction or
construction of concrete abutment or pier)
– Placing concrete within usual formwork (column,
beam and floor)
– Placing concrete under water
• Concrete is invariably laid as foundation bed
below the walls or columns. Before placing the
concrete in the foundation, all the loose earth
must be removed from the bed
• Any root of trees passing through the
foundation must be cut, charred or tarred
• If dry, must be made damp
• If too wet or rain-soaked, should be removed
• Seepage to be checked and diverted
• Road construction, airfield slabs, surface must
be free from loose earth and organic matters
• Earth must be properly compacted and made
sufficiently damp to prevent absorption
• A polyethylene film may be used between
concrete and ground
• Provision for contraction joints should be
given if placed in bays
• Layers should be 15 to 30 cm thick in case of
general and 35 to 45 cm in mass concrete

• Fresh concrete on previous layer- cleaned with

jet of water, sand blasting, scrubbing by wire
brush, cement slurry or mortar
• To minimize segregation, concrete should not
be moved over too long a distance during the
placement into forms.
• In general, the concrete mixture is deposited
in horizontal layers of uniform thickness, and
each layer is thoroughly compacted before the
next is placed.
• The rate of placement is kept rapid enough so
that the layer immediately below is still plastic
when a new layer is deposited. This prevents
cold joints, flow lines, and planes of weakness
that occur when fresh concrete is placed on
hardened concrete
 Curing
• Importance –
– Inadequate curing frequently causes lack of proper
strength and durability
• Objectives –
– To prevent loss of moisture i.e. preservation of adequate
water content in the concrete
– Maintenance of the most favorable temperature of the
concrete for good hydration
– Preservation of fairly uniform temperature throughout the
whole of concrete
– Protection of structural members from mechanical
disturbances, excessive vibration etc., during curing period
– Ensuring adequate curing period for hydration of cement
and hardening of concrete to the degree necessary for the
safe use in service of article or structure which it forms
 Methods
• Retaining formwork
• Shading of concrete work
• Covering of surfaces with hessian or cotton
mats, etc., which are kept continuously moist
• Continuous sprinkling of water over exposed
surfaces
• Ponding method
• Membrane curing
• Steam curing
• Electrical method of curing
 Retaining formwork
• Useful for curing vertical surfaces of structural
elements
• Eg. Walls, columns, ceiling
• Formwork used for casting concrete kept in
place for four to seven days. Formwork
preserve the moisture inside concrete
 Shading of concrete work
• Consists of curing surfaces by canvas stretched on
frames in initial stages of hardening, even prior to
setting
• Canvas or burlap should be placed directly on the
surface the concrete.
• In hot and dry climate, it is used to prevent
evaporation
• In cold climates, it is used to preserve the heat of
hydration
• Limitation
– Hard to handle in case of strong winds
– Inefficient when w/c ratio are low
– Not recommended when smooth concrete finish is
expected
 Covering concrete surface with wet
material
• Most widely used
• Done by covering the concrete surfaces by wet
hessian cloth, canvas or sackling and is kept
constantly wet for at least 7 days from the
date of placing concrete.
• Frequency of wetting is depend upon the
temperature, velocity of wind, humidity etc.
• Concrete should not be allowed to dry and
exposed to extremes of temperature even for
short intervals
 Continuous sprinkling of exposed
surfaces
• Done by spraying water through hose.
• Ensure the surface is continuously kept wet
for 3 days and later on spraying may be
intermittent
• Using single hose pipe. For larger areas,
perforated hosepipe can be used
• Used only when ponding method is not
feasible, as total requirement of water is more
 Ponding method
• Most efficient method
• For first 18 to 24 hours, the exposed surface is
covered with moist hessian or canvas
• After that small banks of dykes of clay or earth
are built across and along the slab, dividing the
slab into number of rectangular ponds
• These ponds are filled with water.
• Suitable for construction of floors, roof slabs,
roads and airfields
• This method is very efficient for concrete with
w/c ratio 0.4
• Disadvantage
– Difficult to remove mud from the slab on completion
of curing process
 Membrane curing
• Method of maintaining a satisfactory state of
wetness in the body of concrete to promote
continuous hydration when original
water/cement ratio used is not less than 0.5
• To achieve best results, membrane is applied
after one or two days of actual wet curing
• Membrane should be of good quality
• Sealing compounds are sprayed on to the
concrete surfaces to form impervious coating,
which prevents the loss of water
Different sealing compounds are

Bituminous and asphaltic emulsion or cutbacks

Coal tar thinned by means of a solvent
Rubber latex emulsions
Emulsions or solutions of resins, varnishes, Waxes,
drying oils, and water repellant substances
Emulsions of paraffin or boiled linseed oil with
stabilizers
• For effective sealing of the surface, two coats
of the compounds is necessary
• Black color coatings absorb more heat from
atmosphere and result in loss of moisture. So
should be applied in the interior surface
 Steam curing
• Often adopted for prefabricated concrete
elements
• Difficult in the case of in situ constructions
• Prefabricated elements should be stored in a
big chamber
• Door is closed and steam is applied either
continuously or intermittently
• Results in accelerated hydration, concrete
products attain 28 days strength in 3 days
• Concrete subjected to higher temperature at the early
period of hydration is found to lose some of the
strength gained at a later stage. Such concrete is said to
undergo “retrogression of strength”
• Concrete subjected to higher temperature at early age
attains higher strength in short duration, but suffers
considerable retrogression of strength. On the
contrary, concrete cured at a comparatively lower
temperature takes longer time to attain strength but
strength attained will not be lost at later ages
 Electrical Curing
• Applicable in cold climatic regions
• Concrete can be cured electrically by passing
an alternating current through the concrete
itself between two electrodes either buried in
or applied to the surface of the concrete.
• Care must be taken to prevent the moisture
from going out leaving the concrete
completely dry.
 Tests on Fresh Concrete as per IS
• Tests for Workablity
– Slump Test
– Compacting factor test
– Vee-Bee consistometer test
– Flow of cement concrete by use of flow table
 Structure of Hardened Concrete

• Concrete has a highly heterogeneous and

complex structure.
• Three components of concrete structure-
1. The hydrated cement paste,
2. The aggregate，
3. Interfacial transition zone between
cement paste and aggregate
• Structure is the description of the type,
amount, size, shape, and distributions (of
components or inclusions) in a solid constitute.
• Macrostructure: gross structure, visible to
human eye(200μm)
• Microstructure: microscopically magnified
portion of a macrostructure about 105times
(roughly <100nm)
An understanding of some of the element of the
concrete structure (in macro and micro levels) is
essential prior to discussing the factors
influencing the important engineering properties
of concrete- strength, elasticity, shrinkage, creep,
cracking, durability.
At the macroscopic level, concrete is considered to be 2
phase material, consisting of aggregate particles
dispersed in a matrix of the cement paste.

2 phases of the structure are neither homogeneously

distributed with respect to each other nor are they
themselves homogeneous

In the presence of aggregate: the structure of hcp in the

vicinity of large aggregate particles is usually very
different from the structure of bulk paste or mortar in
the system: this gives rise to third phase i.e transition
zone.
• Each of the three phase is itself multiphase in
nature.
• Several materials and voids, microcracks
present in each phase, change with time.
The aggregate phase is predominantly
responsible for the unit weight, elastic modulus
and dimensional stability of concrete.
These properties of concrete are determined by
the physical rather than chemical characteristics
of the aggregate structure.
• Crushed rocks have a rough texture, flat or
elongated particles
• the larger the size of the aggregate, the greater
the tendency for water films to accumulate
next to the aggregate surface,
• thus weakening the cement paste-aggregate
transition zone due to internal bleeding
• Anhydrous portland cement is a gray powder
that consists of angular particles typically in
the size range 1 to 50μm.

• When portland cement is dispersed in water,

the calcium sulfate and the high temperature
compounds of calcium tend to go into solution.
• Within a first few minutes of cement
hydration, the needle shaped crystals of a
calcium sulfoaluminate hydrate called
ettringite make their appearance.
• A few hours later, large prismatic crystals of
calcium hydroxide and very small fibrous
crystals of calcium silicate hydrates begin to
fill the empty spaces
• After few days, ettringite becomes unstable
and decompose to form the monosulfate
hydrate
• microstructural inhomogenities in cement
paste can lead to serious effects on strength
and other related mechanical properties
because these properties are controlled by the
microstructural extremes.(voids, weak
parts,edges etc.)
 Calcium silicate hydrate

C-S-H gel makes up 50 to 60%of the volume of

solids
From poorly crystalline fibers to reticular
network referred to as C-S-H gel or tobermorite
gel
(W/C ratio has not so much influence on the
chemical components, but on the porosity.)
 Calcium hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide constitute 20 to 25% of hcp, has a
definite stoichiometry Ca(OH)2. It tends to form large
crystals with a distinctive hexagonal-prism morphology.

Compared with C-S-H, the strength contributing

potential of calcium hydrate due to Vander-waals forces
(weak, short-range electrostatic attractive forces
between uncharged molecules)is limited.
 Calcium sulfoaluminate

• Occupies about 15 to 20% of volume of hcp

• It has minor role in the structure-property
relationships
• It makes the concrete vulnerable to sulfate
Attack.
 Unhydrated clinker grains
• some unhydrated clinker grains may be found
in the microstructure of hcp, even long after
hydration.
The average bulk density of the hydration
products is considerably lower than the density
of anhydrous portland cement;

it is estimated that 1cm3 of cement, on complete

hydration requires about 2cm2 of space to
accommodate the products of hydration.
 Pores in concrete

The capillary voids may range from 10 to 50nm

and more.
larger than 50nm, referred to as macropores are
assumed to be detrimental to strength and
permeability while voids smaller than 50nm,
referred to as micro-pores are assumed to be
more important to drying shrinkage and creep
• The capillary voids are irregular in shape, the
air voids are generally spherical.
• Entrapped air voids may be as large as 3mm
• Entrained air voids usually 50 to 200micro m
are capable of adversely affecting its strength
and impermeability
 Water in hcp

• Capillary water:
• Larger than 50nm, which may be considered as
free water because its removal does not cause
any volume change

• Smaller than 50nm, the water held by capillary

tension in small capillaries which on removal
may cause shrinkage of the system.
• Adsorbed water: Close to the solid surface
• Under the influence of attractive forces, water
molecules are physically adsorbed onto the
surface of solids .
• Major portion of the adsorbed water can be
lost by drying the hcp to 30% relative
humidity.
• Responsible for the shrinkage of the hcp on
drying
• Interlayer water is associated with the C-S-H
structure. Monomolecular water layer between
the layers of C-S-H is strongly held by
hydrogen bonding
• Chemically combined water is an integral part
of the structure of various cement hydration
products. This water is not lost on drying
 Strength
• Principle source of strength in the solid products of
the hcp is the existence of the van der Waals forces of
attraction.
• Small crystals of C-S-H possess enormous surface
areas and adhesive capability that tend to adhere
strongly not only to each other, but also to low
surface area solids such as calcium hydroxide,
anhydrous clinker grains, and fine and coarse
aggregate particles.
• There is an inverse relationship between
porosity and strength
• In the hcp, the interfacial space within the
CSH structure and the small voids cannot be
considered detrimental to strength
Dimensional stability
• Saturated hcp is not dimensionally stable when
exposed to environmental humidity, the material will
begin to lose water and shrink.
• As soon as the RH(Relative humidity) drops below
100%, the free water held in large cavities(>50nm)
begins escape to the environment
• Mechanisms which are responsible for drying
shrinkage are also responsible for creep of the hcp.
• In the case of creep, a sustained external stress
becomes the driving force for the movement of the
physically adsorbed water.
• Thus creep strain can occur even at 100% RH.
 Durability(permeability)

• The hcp is alkaline, therefore, exposure to

acidic environment is detrimental.
• Under these conditions, impermeability also
called water-tightness becomes a primary
factor in determining durability.
• Strength and permeability of the hcp are two
sides of the same coin in the sense that both
are closely related to the capillary porosity or
the solid/space ratio
 Significance of the transition zone
• Composition of concrete when tested
separately in a uniaxial compression remain
elastic until failure, whereas concrete itself
shows inelastic behaviour
• The compressive strength of a concrete is
higher than its tensile strength.
• The transition zone that exists between large
particles of aggregate and the hcp is
responsible for this behavoir of concrete.
 Structure of the transition zone
Poorly crystalline CSH and a second generation
of smaller crystalles of ettringite and calcium
hydroxide fills the empty space that exists
between the framework created by the large
ettringite and calcium hydroxide crystals.
• The rate of corrosion of steel is greatly
influenced by the permeability of concrete. It
should be noted that the permeation of air and
water is necessary for corrosion of the steel in
concrete.
• ITZ (interfacial transition zone)increases the
permeability.
• (The effect of the water/cement ratio on
permeability and strength of concrete is
generally attributed to the relationship that
exists between the water/cement ratio and the
porosity of the hcp in concrete.)
• In general, everything remains the same, the
larger the aggregate and the higher the local
water/cement ratio in the transition zone and
consequently, the weaker and more permeable
will be the concrete.
 Compressive strength

• The compressive strength of concrete is the

most common measure for judging not only
the ability of the concrete to withstand load,
but also the quality of the hardened concrete.
• Test results obtained from compressive
strength tests have proved to be sensitive to
changing mix materials and mix proportions as
well as to differences in curing and
compaction of test specimens.
Factors influencing compressive strength
• Water:cement ratio (W/C)
• Mineral components
• Aggregate
Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of a material is defined
by the slope of the stress:strain curve. The
higher the elastic modulus, the more resistant
the material is to deformation.
• Concrete is not a perfectly elastic material and
therefore the stress:strain curve indicates a
varying elastic modulus (the slope of the
tangent).
Factors influencing modulus of elasticity

Aggregate type - The modulus of elasticity is

mainly influenced by the stiffness of the
aggregate and its volume concentration.

Relationship between modulus of elasticity and

compressive strength is governed by the
aggregate properties.
 Deformation and structural
integrity
Concrete deforms due to elastic creep, shrinkage and
thermal strains.
In general, deformation may cause excessive deflection,
cracking, loss of prestress of structural elements,
buckling of long columns and excessive joint
movements.
These detrimental effects can be minimised if the
structural designer allows for the elastic, creep and
shrinkage potential of the concrete.
 Tests

• 1. Split tensile test

• 2. compression test
• 3. flexural test
STONE MASONRY
• Stone masonry - coursed, rubble and ashlar
stone masonry, Joints in masonry
 What is stone masonry?
• Stone masonry is made of stone units
bonded together with mortar.
Classification of stone masonry
Stone masonry
Rubble masonry
1. Randam rubble masonry
- Coursed - uncoursed
2. Square rubble masonry
- Coursed - uncoursed
3. Polygonal rubble masonry
4. Flint rubble masonry
5. Dry rubble masonry
Ashlar masonry
1. Ashlar fine masonry
2. Ashlar rough tooled
3. Rock (or) quarry faced
4. Ashlar chamfered
5. Ashlar block in course
 Random rubble masonry

• Coursed
 Continue….

• In this type of masonry, the stones used are of

widely different sizes. This is the roughest and
cheapest form of stone masonry.
• In coursed random rubble masonry, the
masonry work is carried out in courses such
that the stones in a particular course are of
equal height.
• uncoursed
 Continue….

• In this type of masonry, the stones used are of

widely different sizes. This is the roughest and
cheapest form of stone masonry.
• In uncoursed random rubble masonry, the
coarses are not maintained regularly.
• The larger stones are laid first and the spaces
between them are then filled up by means of
spalls.
 Square rubble masonry

• Coursed
 Continue…

• In this type of masonry stones having straight

bed and sides are used. The stones are usually
squared and brought to hammer dressed or
straight cut finish.
• In the coursed square rubble masonry, the
work is carried out in courses of varying depth.
• uncoursed
 Continue…

• In this type of masonry stones having straight

bed and sides are used. The stones are usually
squared and brought to hammer dressed or
straight cut finish.
• In the uncoursed square rubble masonry, the
different sizes of stones having straight edges
and sides are arranged on face in several
irregular patterns.
Polygonal rubble masonry
 Continue…

• In this type of rubble masonry, the stones are

hammer dressed.
• The stones used for face work are dressed in
an irregular polygonal shape. Thus the face
joints are seen running in an irregular fashion
in all directions.
Flint rubble masonry
 Continue…

• In this type of masonry, stone used are flints or

cobbles. These are irregularly shaped nodules
of silica. The stones are extremely hard. But
they are brittle and therefore they break easily.
Dry rubble masonry
 Continue…

• In this type of masonry, mortar is not used in

the joints. This type of construction is the
cheapest and requires more skill in
construction. This may be used for non-load
bearing walls such as compound walls, etc…
 ASHLAR MASONRY

1. ASHLAR FINE MASONRY

 Continue…

• In this type ashlar masonry, each stone is cut to

uniform size and shape with all sides
rectangular, so that the stone gives perfectly
horizontal and vertical joints with adjoining
stone. This type of ashlar masonry is very
costly.
Ashlar rough tooled masonry
 Continue…

• In this type of ashlar masonry, the beds and

sides are finely chisel-dressed. But the face is
made rough by means of tools. A strip, about
25mm wide and made by means of chisel is
provided around the perimeter of the rough
dressed face of each stone.
Ashlar rock or quarry faced masonry
 Continue…

• In this type of ashlar masonry, a strip about

25mm wide and made by means of chisel is
provided around the perimeter of every stone
as in case of rough-tooled ashlar masonry. But
the remaining portion of the face is left in the
same form as received from quarry.
Ashlar chamfered masonry
 Continue…

• In this type of ashlar masonry, the strip is

provided as shown. But it is chamfered or
beveled at an angle of 45 degrees by means of
chisel for a depth of about 25mm.
Ashlar back in course masonry
 Continue…

• This is combination of rubble masonry and

ashlar masonry. In this type of masonry, the
face work is provided with rough tooled or
hammer dressed stones and backing of the wall
may be made in rubble masonry.
 Joints in stone masonry
Following are the common types of joints provided in stone masonry, to secure the
stones firmly with each other :
• Butt joint or square joint
• Rebated joint or lapped joint
• Tongued and grooved joint or joggle joint
• Bed joint or tabled joint.
• Cramp joint
• Plugged joint
• Dowel joint
• Rusticated joint
 Joints in stone masonry
1. Butt joint or square joint
• This is most commonly used joint in stone masonry. The dressed edges of two
adjacent stones are placed side by side
2. Rebated or lapped joint
• This type of joint is provided in arches, gables, copings etc. to prevent the
possible movement of the stones. The length of the rebate or lap depends upon
the nature of work, but it should not be less than 70 mm.
• 3. Tongue and grooved joint or joggle joint
• This type of joint is provided to prevent sliding along the side joints. The joint is
made by providing projection or tongue in one stone and a corresponding
groove or sinking on the adjacent stone
 Butt Joint

(b) Reboted Joints

Rebated Joint

Joggle Joint
4. Tabled or bed joint
This joint is used to prevent lateral movement of stones such as in sea walls where the
lateral pressure is heavy. The joint is made by forming a joggle in the bed of the stone.
The height of the projection is kept about 30 to 40 mm, while the width equal to above
1/3 the breadth of the stone.

5. Cramped Joint:
The joint uses metal cramp instead of dowels. Holes made in the adjacent stones
should be of dovetail shape. The cramps are usually of non-corrosive metals such as
gunmetal, copper etc., with their ends turned down to a depth of 4 to 5 cm.
The length, width and thickness of cramps vary from 20 to 30 cm, 2 to 4 cm and 5 mm
to 10 mm. Wrought iron cramps may also be used but they must be either galvanised
or dipped in oil while hot, to prevent their corrosion. After placing the cramp in
position, the joint is grouted and covered with cement, lead or asphalt. Cramps prevent
the tendency of the joints to open out due to slippage of the stones
Bed joint or tabled joint
 Cramped joint
Rich cement mortar
Lead
 Plugged joint
• This is an alternative to cramped joints. It consists of making plug holes of
dovetail shape in the sides of adjacent stones. After placing the adjacent stones,
a common space for plug is formed which is filled with molten lead. Sometimes
rich cement grout is used in the place of molten lead.

Molten lead
 Dowelled joint
Dowel

(a) (b)
FIG. 5.40. DOWELLED JOINT.

• This is a simple type of joint used to ensure stability of the adjacent stones
against displacement or sliding. The joint is formed by cutting rectangular
holes in each stone and inserting dowels of hard stone, slate, gunmetal, brass,
bronze orcopper. These dowels are set in cement mortar.
 Rusticated joints
• This joint is used in those stones whose edges are sunk below the
general level, such as for plinth, quoin, outerwalls of lower storeys etc.,
such a joint gives massive appearance to the structure.
FLOORS

1
Introduction
The Floor is a level surface capable of supporting the occupants of a building,
furniture, equipment and sometimes internal partitions.

Requirements of floor:
Adequate strength and stability.
Adequate fire resistance.
Sound insulation.
Damp resistance.
Thermal insulation.

2
Introduction
The floors resting on the ground surface is known as ground floor, while the floors of
each storey, situated above the ground level are known as upper floors.

3
Components of floors
A floor is composed of two essential components.
Sub floor, base course or floor base.
Floor covering or flooring.

The Floor base is a structural component, which supports the floor covering. For the ground
floors, the object of floor base is to give proper support to covering so that it does not settle,
and to provide damp resistance and thermal insulation.

4
Selection of flooring material
Factors that affect the choice of flooring materials are:
1. Initial cost: The cost of the material should be in conformity with the type of building.
2. Appearance: Covering should give pleasing appearance.
3. Cleanliness: The flooring should be capable of being cleaned easily & it should be non-
absorbent.
4. Durability: The flooring should have sufficient resistance to wear, temperature changes,
disintegration with time & decay.
5. Damp resistance: It should offer sufficient resistance against dampness.
6. Sound insulation: Flooring should insulate the noise. Also it should not produce noise when
users walk on it.

5
Selection of flooring material
7. Thermal Insulation: The flooring should offer good thermal insulation so that comfort is
imparted to the residents of the building.
8. Fire resistance: This is more important for upper floors. Flooring material should offer
sufficient fire resistance so that fire barriers are obtained between different levels of a
building.
9. Smoothness: The flooring should be smooth & should have even surface also non slippery.
10. Hardness: It should be sufficiently hard so as to have resistance to indentation marks,
imprints etc..
11. Maintenance: The flooring material should require least maintenance & easily repairable.

6
Types of floors
1. Mud & Muram flooring 9. Timber flooring
2. Stone Slabs/ Flag stones Flooring 10. Asphalt flooring
3. Brick flooring 11. Rubber flooring
4. Flag stones flooring 12. Linoleum flooring
5. Cement concrete flooring 13. Cork flooring
6. Terrazzo flooring 14. Glass flooring
7. Mosaic flooring 15. Plastic or PVC flooring
8. Tiled flooring
9. Marble flooring

7
Types of floors
Cement concrete flooring: This is a commonly used for residential , commercial and even
industrial buildings. Since, it is moderately cheap, quite durable & easy to construct.
The floor consists of two components
 Base concrete
 Topping or wearing surface
The base course may be 7.5cm to 10cm thick. It is done in a lean cement concrete 1:3:6 to 1:5:10.
The base course is laid on well compacted soil, compacted properly & levelled to rough surface & curved.
When the base concrete has hardened, its surface is brushed with stiff broom & cleaned
thoroughly. The topping is laid in square or rectangular panels by use of wooden battens set on mortar.
The topping consists of 1:2:4 cement concrete laid to desired thickness. Prior to laying the cement
concrete in a panel, a coat of neat cement slurry is applied. This cement slurry laid on rough finish base
course ensures proper bond of topping with base course.

8
Types of floors
Cement concrete flooring:

10
 Concrete flooring with red oxide topping

6 -10 MM TOP LAYER

30-40 MM UNDER LAYER – 1:2:4

75-100 MM SUBGRADE – 1: 4: 8 or 1:5:10

Types of floors
Terrazzo flooring: Terrazzo flooring is another type of floor finish that in thin layer over
concrete topping. It is very decorative and has good wearing properties. Due to this it is widely
used in residential buildings, hospitals, offices, schools, and other public buildings. Terrazzo is a
specially prepared concrete surface containing cement and marble chips in proportion 1:1/4 or
1:2. when the surface has set, the chips are exposed by grinding operation. Marble chips may
vary from 3mm to 6mm size. Color can be mixed to white cement to set desired tint. The
flooring is however more expensive.
The sub-base preparation and concrete base laying is done in a similar manner, as
explained for cement concrete flooring. The top layer may have about 40mm thickness,
consisting of
(a) 34mm thick cement concrete layer (1:2:4) laid over the base concrete, and
(b) About 6mm thick terrazzo topping.

12
 Terrazzo Finish

3MM-6 MM FINISHING 1:1.25 or 1:2 Cement: Marble chips

34 MM LAYER 1:2:4 Cement Concrete

75-100 MM BASE COARSE – 1:3:6 OR 1:5:10

Types of floors
Terrazzo flooring:

14
Terrazzo Flooring
 Types of floors
Mosaic flooring: Mosaic flooring is made of small pieces of broken tiles of china glazed or
cement , or of marble, arranged in different pattern. These pieces are cut to desired shape &
sizes. A concrete base is prepared as in case of concrete flooring & over it 5 to 8cm thick lime
surkhi mortar is spread and levelled. On this 3mm thick cementing material is spread & left to
dry for about 4 hrs. Thereafter small pieces of broken tile of different colours are arranged in
definite patterns & hammered into the cementing layer. The surface is gently rolled by stone
roller of 30cm dia & 40 to 60cm long. Polished using pumice stone. Water is sprinkled on the
surface. The floor is allowed to dry for two weeks before use.

16
 Mosaic flooring

FINISHING LAYER – MOSAIC

3 MM 2:1:1 slaked lime: powdered marble: puzzolana

50-80 MM BEDDING LAYER – 1:2 lime : surkhi

75-100 MM BASE COARSE – 1: 3: 6

Stone slabs or flag stones
Any laminiscated sandstone available in uniform thickness of 4 to 10 cm is called stone
slabs.
The stone slabs may be square or rectangular with width not less than 38cm and
thickness 4 cm.
The subgrade is prepared by laying a 10 – 15cm thick layer of lime concrete over hard
bed.
On this subgrade well wetted flag stones
are laid on 20 - 25mm thick mortar.
When the stone slabs are properly set
mortar in the joints is raked out to a depth
of about 20mm and flush pointed with
cement mortar 1:3.
A slope of 1 to 40 is necessary to be given
in flag stone flooring for proper drainage
Merits of Stone slabs
It is hard, durable and resistance to wear and tear
and as such used in workshops, motor sheds and
godowns
It is easy repairable
It is easy in construction
In stone districts, it can be used with economy
De - merits
Its usage is not comfortable
It does not give pleasing appearance and hence cannot be
used for residential or important public buildings
Types of floors
Tiled flooring: Tiled flooring is constructed from square, hexagonal or other shapes made of
clay ,cement concrete or terrazzo. These are available in different sizes & thickness. These are
commonly used in residential houses. Offices, schools, hospitals & other public buildings. The
tiles are laid on concrete base. The subsoil is properly compacted, over which 10 to 15cm thick
lean cement concrete is laid. This forms the base course of floor. Then the tiles are laid over 25
to 30 mm thick layer of bed mortar. Before laying the tiles, neat cement slurry is spread over the
bedding mortar & the tiles are laid flat over it, gently pressing them into the bedding mortar
with the help of wooden mallet, till levelled surface is obtained. Curing is done for 7 days &
grinding & polishing is also done.

22
Types of floors
Rubber flooring: It consists of sheets or tiles of rubber, in Variety of patterns and colour with
thickness varying from 3 to 10mm. The sheet or tile is manufactured by mixing pure rubber with
fillers such as cotton fibre, granulated cork or asbestos fibre. The sheets or tiles are fixed to
concrete base or wood by means of appropriate adhesives. Rubber floorings are resilent and
noise proof. However, they are costly. They are used only in office or public buildings.

23
Types of floors
Linoleum flooring: It is covering which is available in rolls, and which is spread directly on
concrete or wooden flooring. Linoleum sheet is manufactured by mixing oxidized linseed oil in
gum, resins, pigments, wood flour, corkdust and other filler materials. The sheets are either
plain or printed, and are available in 2 to 6 mm thickness, and 2 to 4 m wide rolls. Linoleum tiles
are also available , which can be fixed (or glued) to concrete base or wood floor, in different
patterns. Linoleum sheet is either spread as such, or also may be glued to the base by inserting a
layer of saturated felt. Linoleum covering are attractive, resilient, durable and cheap, and can be
cleaned very easily. However, it is subjected to rotting when kept wet or moist for somé time. It
cannot, therefore, be used for bath-rooms, kitchens etc.

24
Types of floors
Linoleum flooring:

25
Types of floors
Linoleum flooring:

26
Types of floors
Glass flooring: This is a special purpose flooring, used in circumstances where it is desired
transmit light from upper floor to lower floor, and specially to admit light at the basement from
the upper floor. Structural glass is available in the form of tiles or slabs, in thicknesses varying
from 12 to 30 mm. These are fixed in closely spaced frames so that glass and the frame can
sustain anticipated loads. Glass flooring is very costly, and is not commonly used.

27
Types of floors
Glass flooring:

28
Types of floors
Glass flooring:

29
Types of floors
Plastic or P.V.C. flooring: It is made of plastic material, called Poly-Vinyl-Chloride (P.V.C.),
fabricated in the form of tiles of different sizes and different colour shades. These tiles are now
widely used in all residential as well as non-residential buildings. The tiles are laid on concrete
base. Adhesive of specified make is applied on the base as well as on the back of P.V.C. tile with
the help of a notched trowel. The tile is laid over it when the adhesive has set sufficiently (say
within 30 minutes of its application) pressed with the help of a 5 kg weight wooden roller and
the oozing out adhesive is wiped off. The floor is washed with warm soap water before use.
P.V.C. tile flooring is resilient, smooth, good looking and can be easily cleaned. However, it is
costly and slippery, and can be damaged very easily when in contact with burning objects.

30
Types of floors
Plastic or P.V.C. flooring:

31
Paving Tiles
 Paving Tiles
Square or hexagonal in shape
Thickness varies from 12mm to 50mm
The size of square tiles varies from 150mm to 300mm
To prepare coloured floor tiles the colouring substance is added in the clay at
the time of its preparation
 BRICKS

The bricks are obtained by moulding clay in

rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by
drying and burning these blocks.
 Composition of good brick earth:
Alumina(Al2O3):
• Chief constituent of clay
• Good brick earth should contain 20 to 30 %
• It imparts plasticity to the earth so that it can be moulded
• If alumina is excess the raw brick shrinks and becomes too hard
when burnt
Silica ( SiO2 ):

A good brick should contain about 50 – 60% of Silica.

The presence of this constituent prevents cracking, shrinking and

warping of raw bricks

It imparts uniform shapes to the bricks

Durability of bricks depends on the proper proportion of silica in

brick earth

Excess of silica destroys the cohesion between particles and

bricks become brittle
Lime (CaO):
• A good brick should have a small quantity of lime not
exceeding 5 %.
• It should be present in a very finely powdered state or
else it will cause flaking(fall away from a surface in
flakes)
• The lime prevents shrinkage
• The excess of lime causes the brick to melt and hence its
shape is lost.
Oxide of Iron :
A good brick should have a small quantity of oxide of
Iron of about 5 – 6%.
It imparts red colour to the bricks
The excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue
or blackish.
If the content is very less it makes the bricks yellow in
colour
Magnesia (MgO):
• A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth
imparts yellow tint to the bricks and decreases
shrinkage.
• Excess of magnesia leads to decay of bricks
 Harmful ingredients in brick earth :

• Alkalies(soda and potash)

• Pebbles
• Vegetation and organic
matter
Steps in making a brick:
• Preparation of clay

• Moulding either manual or machinery

• Drying

• Burning(about 650 degree Celsius in kilns)

Preparation of clay
Moulding either manual or machinery
Drying
Burning
table moulded
bricks
ground moulded bricks
 Tests for bricks:

Absorption :
• A dry brick is taken and weighed
• Immersed in water for about 16 hours
• It is weighed again and the difference in
weight indicates the amount of water absorbed
by the brick
• It should not exceed 20 % of weight of dry
brick
Compressive strength:

• Three numbers of whole bricks from sample collected should

be taken , the dimensions should be measured to the nearest
1mm
• Immerse in water at room temperature for 24 hours .Remove
the specimen and drain out any surplus moisture at room
temperature. Fill the frog and all voids in the bed faces flush
with cement mortar (1 cement,1 clean coarse sand of grade
3mm and down).
• Store it under the damp jute bags for 24 hours filled by
immersion in clean water for 3 days .Remove and wipe out
any traces of moisture.
• Place the specimen with flat faces horizontal and mortar filled face
facing upwards between plates of the testing machine.

• Apply load axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2

(140kg/cm2) per minute till failure occurs and note maximum load
at failure.

• The load at failure is maximum load at which the specimen fails to

produce any further increase in the indicator reading on the testing
machine.

The average of result shall be reported.

Hardness :
• In this test a scratch is made on a brick surface with the help of a finger
nail.
• If no impression is left on the surface the brick is treated to be sufficiently
hard
 Presence of soluble salts :

• If present will cause efflorescence on the surface.

• For finding it has to be immersed in water for 24 hours
• It is taken out and dry in shade
• Absence of grey or white deposits on its surface indicates absence of soluble salts
• 10 % presence – Slight
• 50 % - moderate
>50 % - heavy or serious
Shape and Size :
• It should have sharp edges

Soundness :
• Two bricks are taken and are struck together
• It should not break
• A clear ringing sound should be produced

Structure :
• A brick is broken and examined
• It should be homogeneous
• Compact and free from any defects such
as holes , lumps etc.
TYPES OF BRICKS
First Class bricks:
• This brick is the well burnt table moulded brick,
which is red or copper colour. This first class brick
has the uniform length and width and sharp well
defined edges. This kind of bricks have reasonable
smooth surface without having any flaws, cracks and
stone grits. This is used for the construction of
superior work.
First class bricks characteristics
• They are sound well burnt bricks of uniform color.
• They are hard enough, so that scratch with finger will not leave a
mark.
• They are uniform in size, rectangular in shape and well defined
sharp edges.
• They are not very smooth but they have clean surface.
• If it stuck against the same type of brick, good metallic sound is
obtained.
• If it is fractured, the interior surface of the bricks shows the uniform
textures.
• They do not absorb water of more than 15% of the dry weight
• They have of the minimum crushing strength of 10.5N/mm 2
• Efflorescence presence is very little. These are characteristics
of first class bricks.
First class bricks Uses
• This brick is used for sound work of permanent nature, construction
of load bearing walls, reinforced brick work, pavements, walkaways
and flooring.
Second Class Bricks:
This brick is the well burnt table moulded brick, which is
red or copper colour. This second class bricks has the
uniform length and width and sharp well defined edges. This
kind of bricks have reasonable smooth surface with fine hair
cracks and mild distortion.
Characteristics of Second Class Bricks
• They are well burnt or slightly over burnt
• If they struck against the same type of brick they use to
emit ringing sound.
• They are rectangular in shape and have well defined edges
but not in equal size
• They have clean surface but with certain small irregularities
• They are free from cracks but have slight flaws and chips
• Even if it soaked for 24 hours it will absorb less than 22%
of water.
• They have the minimum crushing strength of 7 N/mm2.
Uses of Second Class Brick
• The second class bricks are used in masonry
constructions, where all faces are to be
plastered, is used for the construction of load
bearing walls of single storey houses. Used as
brick ballast in R.C.C work.
Third Class Bricks:
Third class bricks are burned in clamps and they are
ground moulded bricks, and also they may be table moulded
bricks which are slightly under burnt.
Characteristics of Third class Bricks
• The bricks are slightly under burnt.
• They are light colored and are relatively soft.
• When they stuck with the same type of brick it emits dull sound.
• They are not in uniform sizes and slightly distorted.
• They do not have well defined sharp edges and corners.
• They may show intensive sign of efflorescence
• In the fractured surface of the bricks they don’t have the proper
uniform textures, it may show pebbles.
• These bricks will have the water absorptions of 20 % to 25 %.
• They have the minimum compressive strength of 3.5 N/mm2.
Third class bricks uses
• This third class bricks are used in the construction of unimportant
structures; they are used in the constructions of low height, where
the loads are much less, such as construction of huts, sheds, etc;
used in the construction of boundary walls; used in the areas where
it is not exposed to rain.
Fourth Class Bricks:
• These are overburnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour
• These bricks are used as aggregates for concrete in foundations,
floors, roads etc.
Properties of bricks:
• Light in weight and easily transportable
• Dressing is not required
• Not much skilled level is required in brickwork
• Wherever there is abundance of clay available in the area it can
replace the stones
Qualities of a good brick
• Table moulded and well burnt in kilns
• Free from cracks with sharp and square edges
• Colour should be uniform and bright
• Uniform in shape and of standard size
• When struck together a clear ringing sound
• They should be sound proof
• Low thermal conductivity
• Bricks should not break into pieces when dropped
flat on hard ground from a height about 1 meter
Shape of Bricks
Bullnose brick : A brick moulded with a round angle is termed as Bullnose

Channel brick: These bricks are moulded to the shape of a gutter or a channel

Cownose brick: Brick moulded with double bullnose on end is known as cownose

Curved sector brick: They are used in the construction of Circular brick
masonry,pillars
Hollow bricks:
• These are also known as cellular or cavity bricks
• They are light in weight about 1/3rd the weight of
ordinary brick
• They are used in the construction of brick partitioning

Paving bricks
• These are used in garden walks, street
pavements, stable floors
• These bricks also render the floor less slippery
Perforated bricks
• Used in construction of brick panels for lightweight structures
• Perforations may be circular ,square or any other regular shape
• The compressive strength should not be less than 7 N/mm2

Purpose made brick

In order to achieve certain purpose these bricks are made
• Arch bricks are made of wedge shape to keep mortar joint
• The splay bricks are made for jambs of doors and windows
• Ornamental bricks are prepared for corbels, cornices.
Refractory brick /Fire clay brick
• Fire clay is clay which is able to resist a very high temperature.
• Refractory bricks are made up of fire clay which is able to
resist a very high temperature of the order of 1700o C.
• It is the material used for the insulation of heated chambers
such as ovens, boilers, furnaces.
• Where ever extremely high temperatures reaching beyond
1000°C you must have special surfaces that are resistant to
heat.
• Otherwise due to the high heat generated, the surfaces exposed
to the high temperature will get oxidized and the oven will not
be left to be used a second time.
Bricks for Fire Pit Types of Firebricks
Composition of refractory bricks:
Silica (SiO2)
• It becomes soft at 1500C and finally fuses and becomes a
glassy substance at about 1700C. it melts about 1760C. Due
to this high softening and melting point, it is used as a
principal material in making the refractories or fire bricks.
Alumina (Al2O2)
• Has still higher softening and fusion temperature. It melts at
about 3720F it is therefore used with silica in making fire
bricks.
• The exact composition of refractory brick varies, depending
on the applications it is designed for.
Applications/uses
• For lining of furnaces to develop great heat for the melting of ores and
metals in manufacturing process.
• For construction of boilers, combustion chambers and chimney flues.

Properties:

• The Colour is whitish, yellow, or light brown.

• The water absorption is 4 -10%.
• The minimum average compressive strength is 3.5 N/mm2
• They have got the capacity of resisting a very high temperature of the order
of 1700oC.
BRICK BONDS

Building Material
 Bricks
• Standard Size : 19cmX9cmX9cm
• Strength of the brick masonry mainly depends
upon
a) Quality of bricks
b) Quality of mortar
c) Method of bonding used
Size and Joint
 Terminologies
• Stretcher: Longer face of the brick (i.e. 19cmX9cm).
The course of brick in which all the bricks are laid as
stretchers on facing is known as stretcher course.
• Header: Shorter face of the brick(i.e.9cmX9cm). The
course of brick in which all the bricks are laid as
headers on facing is known as header course.
• Length of stretcher = 2 X width of header + 1 joint
• Lap: The horizontal distance between the vertical joint
of successive brick courses.
• Closer: Portion of the brick with the cut made
longitudinally and is used to close up bond at the end of
the course.
Bricks
 Terminologies
• Queen closer: It is a portion of a brick obtained by
cutting a brick lengthwise in two portions.
• Quoins: It is a corner or external angle on the face side
of a wall.
• Racking back: It is the termination of a wall in a
stepped fashion.
• Toothing: It is the termination of the wall in such a
fashion that each alternate course at the end projects, in
order to provide adequate bond if the wall is continued
horizontally at the later stage
• Bat: Brick cut across the length. We can have ½, ¾ bat
Rules for bonding :
For getting good bond following should be observed
1. The bricks should be of uniform size. The length
of the brick should be L = 2 X width + 1 joint, so
that uniform lap is obtained. Good bond is not
possible if lap is non uniform
2. The amount of lap should be minimum ¼ brick
along the length of the wall and ½ brick across
the thickness of the wall.
3. Use of brick bats should be discouraged except
in special location.
 Rules for bonding…
4. In alternate courses central line of the header should
coincide with the central line of stretcher in the course
below or above it.

5. Vertical joints in the alternate courses should be in the

same perpend(a vertical layer of mortar between two
bricks).

6. Stretchers should be used only in the facing, they

should not be used in the hearting. Hearting should be
done in headers only.

7. It is preferable to provide every sixth course as a

header course on both the sides of the wall.
An arris is any edge of the brick where two faces meet.
 Types of bonds
1. Stretcher bond 7. Brick on edge bond
2. Header bond 8. Dutch bond
3. English bond 9. Racking bond
4. Flemish bond 10. Zig zag bond
5. Facing bond 11.Garden wall bond
6. English cross bond
 Stretcher bond
• In this type of bond,
all the bricks are laid
as stretchers on the
faces of wall.
• The length of the
bricks are along the
direction of the wall.
This is preferred only Stretcher
when the thickness
of the wall is only 9
cm or half brick
thick.
STRETCHER BOND
 Header bond
• Here all the bricks are laid as headers on the
faces of walls.
• The width of the brick is are thus along the
direction of wall.
• This can be used when the thickness of the wall is
one brick.
• Overlapping is usually half the width of a brick.
This is achieved by using 3/4 brick bats in each
alternate courses as quions.
• This is unsuitable for load bearing wall. Can be
useful for curved brickwork.
 Header bond

3/4 brick bats

 English bond
• This is the most commonly
used wall as it is the strongest
bond.
Bond consists of alternate
courses of headers and
stretchers.
• In this bond, the vertical
joints of header courses come
over each other. Similarly the
joints of stretcher courses
come over each other.
• It is essential to place queen
closers after the first header
(quoin header) in each
header course.
Queen Closer
Quoin: an external angle of a wall or building
English Bond
English Bond
 Features of English bond
• Alternative courses will show either headers or
stretchers in elevation.
• Every alternate header comes centrally over the
joints between two stretchers in course below.
• In the stretcher course, the stretchers have a
minimum lap of ¼ th their length over headers.
• There is no continuous vertical joint.
• Walls of even multiple of half bricks (1,2,3 brick)
present the same appearance on both faces. Thus
a course showing stretchers on the front face will
also show stretchers on the back face.
 Features of English bond…
• Wall of odd multiple of half bricks (1½ , 2½ etc.) will
show stretchers on one face and headers on the other
face.
• The hearting (middle portion) of each of the thicker
walls consists entirely of headers
• At least every alternate transverse joint is continuous
from face to face.
• A header course should never start with queen closer,
as it will get displaced. The queen closer should be
placed just next to the quoin header. Queen’s closers
are not required in stretcher courses.
 Flemish bond
• Each course is comprised
of alternate headers and
stretchers.
• Every alternate course
starts with a header at the
corner (i.e. quoin header).
Queen closers are placed
next to the quoin header in
the alternate courses
• Every header is centrally
supported over the
stretcher below it.
• Flemish bonds are of two FLEMISH BOND
types viz. Double Flemish
bond, Single Flemish bond. Queen Closer
FLEMISH BOND
 Double Flemish bond
• Each course presents the same appearance both
in the front face as well as in the back face.
• Alternate headers and stretchers are laid in each
course and hence this bond presents better
appearance than English bond.
 Features: Double Flemish bond
• Every course consists of headers and stretchers
place alternatively.
• Facing and Backing of the wall have same
appearance.
• Queen closers are used next to quoin header in
every alternate course.
• In odd multiples of ½ bricks  ½ bat and ¾ bats
are used
• In even multiple of ½ bricks No bats required.
Flemish bond with long bricks
 Features: Single Flemish bond
• Comprised of Double
Flemish bond on
facing and English
bond on backing and
hearting in each
course.
• This bond uses
strength of English
bond and appearance
of Flemish bond.
• Can be used for wall
thickness ≥ 1½ brick
thick
Single Flemish
 English Vs. Flemish
• English bond is stronger than Flemish bond for
walls thicker than 1½ brick thick.
• Flemish bond gives more pleasing appearance
than the English bond
• Broken bricks can be used in the form of bats
in Flemish bond. However more mortar is
required.
• Flemish bond requires greater skill compared
to English bond.
English Cross Bond
 English Cross Bond
• Modification of English bond
• Alternate courses of headers and stretchers as
in English bond.
• Queen closers are placed next to the quoin
header.
• A header is introduced next to the quoin
stretcher in every alternate stretcher course.
Dutch Bond
 Dutch Bond
• Alternate courses of headers and stretchers
are provided as in English bond
• Every stretcher course starts at the quoin with
¾ bat
• In every alternate stretcher course a header is
placed next to the ¾ brick bat provided at the
quoin.
 Silverlock’s Bond
Headers are placed on bed and stretchers are placed on edge forming
continuous cavity. Weak in strength. Economical
 Silverlock’s bond
• This is a form of bonding brick-work in which
bricks are laid on edge.
• It is economical but weak in strength and
hence it is only recommended for garden
walls or partition walls.
• In this bond, the bricks are laid as headers
and stretchers in alternate courses in such a
way that headers are laid on bed and the
stretchers are laid on edge forming a
continuous cavity.
 Raking bond
• This bond is used in thick walls
• Bonding bricks are kept at an inclination to the
direction of the wall. Due to this longitudinal
stability is increased.
• This bond is introduced in certain intervals
along height of the wall
• There arc two common forms of raking bond.
(a) Herring bone bond (b) Diagonal bond
 Features of Raking bond
• Bricks are arranged in inclined direction, in the space
between the external stretchers of the wall
• Racking or inclination should be in opposite direction
in alternate courses of racking bond.
• Raking bond is not allowed in successive courses. It is
provided in regular interval of 4 to 8 courses in the
height of the wall
• The raking course is generally provided between the
two stretcher courses of the wall having thickness
equal to even multiple of half bricks, to make the bond
more effective.
Herring-bone bond
 Herring-bone bond
• This type of bond is best suited for very thick
walls usually not less than four bricks thick.
• In this arrangement of brick work, bricks are
laid in course inclined at 45° in two directions
from the centre.
• This bond is also commonly used for brick
pavings
Diagonal Bond
This bond is best suited for walls
which are 2 to 4 brick thick.
This bond is usually introduced at
every fifth or seventh course
along the height of the wall.
In this bond, the bricks are placed
end to end in such a way that
extreme corners of the series
remain in contact with the
stretchers.
 Zig zag bond
• This is similar to herring-
bone bond with the only
difference that in this
case the bricks are laid
in a zig-zag fashion. This
is commonly adopted in
brick paved flooring.
Zig zag bond
 Facing Bond
• This arrangement of bricks is adopted for thick walls,
where the facing and backing are desired to be
constructed with bricks of different thickness.
• This bond consists of heading and stretching courses
so arranged that one heading course comes after
several stretching courses.
• Since the number of joints in the backing and the
facing differ greatly, the load distribution is not
uniform. This may sometimes lead to unequal
settlement of the two thickness of the wall.
 Garden wall bond
• This type of bond is suitably adopted for one brick thick wall
and height does not exceed 2 m.
• Used for construction of garden wall or a boundary wall.
• This type of bond is not so strong as English bond but it is
more attractive.
• On accounts of its good appearance, this bond is sometimes
used for the construction of the outer leaves of cavity walls.
• There are two types of garden wall bond,
(a) English garden wall bond,
(b) Flemish garden wall bond
Garden Wall English Bond
Garden Wall Flemish Bond