MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(A constituent college of Manipal University, Manipal)

Manipal, Karnataka, 576 104

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

for
IV Semester B. Tech (CIVIL ENGG.) Students

PRECIPITATION
CONTENTS:
 Definitions & Forms of Precipitation
 Presentation of Precipitation Data
o Hyetographs
o Mass Curves
o Isohyetal Maps
o Moving Averages Curve
 Formation & Types of Precipitation
 Measurement of Precipitation
 Estimating Mean Precipitation over an area
 Numerical Illustrations]
2.1. Definitions & Forms of Precipitatio
a. Precipitation: The term ‘Precipitation’ as used in Hydrology includes all the forms of
water in which it reaches the earth’s surface from atmosphere. The usual forms of
Precipitation are Rainfall, Drizzle, Snowfall, Dew, Frost, Fog, Hail, Sleet, Glaze, etc.
However, unless otherwise specified, the terms ‘Rainfall’ and ‘Precipitation’ will be used
synonymously, as, rainfall is the principal form of Precipitation in India.
b. Depth of Rainfall/Precipitation (p): This represents the depth to which the water ( or
water Equivalent) will stand on a horizontal level surface, if all the Precipitation/ Rainfall
remained where it fell without any Infiltration, Evapotranspiration or Runoff. Usually it is
expressed in terms of mm or cm depth of rainfall.
c. Intensity of Rainfall/Precipitation (i): This is the rate at which Precipitation is reaching
the earth’s surface, i.e., the rate at which the water (or water Equivalent) will accumulate
on a horizontal level surface, if all the Precipitation/ Rainfall remained where it fell.
Usually it is expressed in terms of depth of rainfall per unit time, such as mm or cm/min;
mm or cm/hr; etc.
 d. Duration of Rainfall/Precipitation (d): It is the time period elapsed since the beginning
of the rainfall to its end; usually, expressed in minute, hours or, even in, days.
e. Normal Rainfall/Precipitation: It is defined as the average of the Rainfall/Precipitation
values for a particular date, particular month, or an year or a season, as required for a
specified period of 30 (or 35) continuous years of record. Thus we have, Normal Daily
Rainfall, Normal Monthly Rainfall, Normal Seasonal Rainfall, or Normal Annual
Rainfall.
2.2. Presentation of Precipitation Data
1 Hyetographs: It is a plot of Rainfall Intensity (i) against time interval (t), usually,
represented as a bar chart.
2 Rainfall Mass Curves: It is a graph of the cumulative values of depth of rainfall (p)
received against a specified time interval (t) plotted in chronological order.
3 Isohyetal Lines & Isohyetal Maps: The lines or contours drawn on a map joining the
places that have received equal rainfall depth are called Isohyetal Lines and such a map
showing Isohyetal lines of various values is called Isohyetal Map.
4 Moving Averages Curve: This curve is drawn to see if there is any particular trend or
cyclic variations in the rainfall data of a particular place. Here, beginning with the earliest
data, the average of 3 or 5 continuous years of rainfall values are found moving
progressively the group of data averaged one year at a time. These average values are
then plotted chronologically and a smooth curve is drawn through the plotted points.
2.3. Measurement of Precipitation
The Precipitation is collected and measured in an instrument called Raingauge. Terms such
as, Pluviometer, Ombrometer and Hyetometer are also sometimes used to refer to a
raingauge. Raingauges are broadly classified as (i) Non-Automatic or Non-Recording
Raingauges; and, (ii) Automatic or Recording Raingauges.
1 Non-Automatic or Non-Recording Raingauges: These gauges only collect the rainfall;
they do not record the amount of rainfall collected. The volume of rainfall collected in
them is measured and converted into depth of rainfall received by dividing the volume of
rainfall received by the c/s area of aperture of the collecting vessel. ‘Symon’s Raingauge’
is the most extensively used Non-Recording Raingauge in India. The Non-Recording
Raingauges gives only the total depth of rainfall received in previous 24 hours; it does
not give duration of rainfall or its intensity in different time intervals. They are simple,
easy to maintain and economical, hence, they are extensively used.
2 Automatic or Recording Rain-gauges: These gauges not only collect the rainfall; they
also record the amount of rainfall collected. They generate a continuous graph of
cumulative depth of rainfall received against time (rainfall mass curve) on a graph paper
fixed around a rotating drum. This graph provides valuable data on Intensity, Duration
 and Timing of the rainfall which is essential in many of the Hydrological Analyses. They
are costly, involve complicated mechanical/electronic arrangements, susceptible to
defects, hence they require proper care and maintenance. However, since it is extremely
important to know not only the total depth of rainfall received, but also, Intensity,
Duration and Timing of the rainfall in many of the hydrological analyses, World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) recommends
that at least 10% of the Rain-gauge Stations should have Recording Rain-gauges. The
commonly used Recording Rain-gauges are: Weighing bucket rain-gauge; Tipping
bucket rain-gauge; and Float (or natural syphon) rain-gauge.
2.4. Formation & Types of Precipitation
1. Formation of Precipitation: There are four basic conditions which are required to be
fulfilled for precipitation to occur. They are –
a. Accumulation of sufficient moisture in the atmosphere;
b. Cooling of air to dew-point temperature to produce saturation condition;
c. A mechanism to produce condensation, i.e., presence of condensation nuclei in
the atmosphere;
d. Growth of water droplets to precipitable size.
Simultaneous occurrence of all these four conditions is necessary for precipitation to
occur. It is common for first three of these conditions to occur but not the fourth. When
only the first three conditions are fulfilled cloud formation takes place and if the fourth
condition is not fulfilled, the clouds will gradually dissipate without producing any
precipitation.
2. Types of Precipitation: An important condition for the formation of clouds and its
subsequent precipitation is that air-masses be cooled to dew-point temperature to produce
saturation condition. This is normally accomplished by adiabatic cooling of air-masses
through a process of being lifted-up to higher altitudes where they expand and are
subjected to cooling. Large masses of air are lifted-up by any one of the following three
processes which can subsequently cause precipitation.
According to the dominant cause of this cooling of air-masses and subsequent
precipitation, the resulting precipitation is classified into following three types:
a. Convectional Precipitation: This type of precipitation is most common in tropics. In
these regions, on very hot days, a localised high temperature zone is created by
unequal heating of the earth’s surface. A packet of air in this high temperature zone,
which is warmer than its surrounding air-mass, rises-up because of its lesser density.
The place of the rising packet of air-mass is taken-up by the air from the cooler
surroundings, and thus, a convectional current is sets-up. As the warmer air-packet
 continues to rise-up, it undergoes adiabatic cooling resulting in condensation and
subsequent precipitation, under favourable conditions.
Depending upon the moisture content of the air, its temperature and other conditions,
light showers to heavy thunder storms can occur. Usually the areal extent of such
rains is small, maximum being about 10 km in diameter.
b. Orographic Precipitation: This type of precipitation results from the upward
movement of air caused by the lifting-up of air-masses due to topographic barriers,
like mountains or high hill ranges. The lifting-up of air masses results in condensation
and subsequent precipitation, under favourable conditions. The windward sides will
receive very heavy rainfall and leeward sides receive lesser rainfall. These rainfalls
will often be steady, continuous rainfalls of long durations and large areal extent.
c. Cyclonic Precipitation: Cyclonic precipitations are associated with the passage of
cyclones. A cyclone is a large low pressure air-mass with circular vortex motion
originated over ocean/sea surfaces and traversing over the adjacent land areas. Two
types of cyclones are recognised, depending upon whether they occur within the
tropics or beyond them, namely, Tropical Cyclone and Extropical Cyclones. Each of
them have distinct characteristics. Tropical cyclones cause heavy rainfall over the
entire area occupied by their passage, which is of a very large extent of the order of
thousands of sq. km. They cause heavy floods in streams and extensive damages to
life, property. Extropical cyclones, generally, cause relatively light to moderate rainfall
but of longer duration and larger areal extent than tropical cyclones.
2.5. Estimating Mean Precipitation over an area
The rain-gauge measurements give only the point sampling of the areal distribution of the
rainfall; where as Hydrological Analyses require average rainfall over an area such as the
river basin. The average rainfall over an area is calculated from rain-gauge measurements
by any of the following three methods
1. Arithmetic Average Method: This is the most simplest, but, least accurate method. In
this method, the average rainfall over an area is taken as the arithmetic average of the
rainfall values recorded at all the gauges that are located within that specified area. This
method can give satisfactory results only when the rain-gauges are uniformly distributed
over the entire area and the rainfall values at each of the gauges does not vary too much.
Since these conditions rarely occur, this method is not generally used.
2. Thiessen Polygon Method: This method takes into account the non-uniform areal
distribution of raingauges by giving an appropriate weightage to the rainfall values
recorded at each of the stations. Hence, this method is also called ‘Weighted Averages
Method’. The procedure for average rainfall calculation is as follows:
a. Raingauge stations within the basin and in its immediate neighbourhood are marked
on the basin map. Adjacent stations are joined by straight lines to form a series of
 triangles. Perpendicular bisectors are then drawn on each side of the triangles so
formed.
b. The Perpendicular bisectors intersect each other to form a series of Polygons, each of
which enclose one & only one raingauge station. These polygons are called
‘Thiessen Polygons’ and the area of the polygon is called the commanded area of the
rain-gauge station enclosed within it. This area will be closest to that gauge than any
other gauge. If the bisectors are cut by the boundary of the basin, then the outer limit
of the polygon is taken as the boundary of the basin itself.
c. The area enclosed by the Thiessen Polygons is measured using a planimeter. Let, P 1,
P2, P3,………Pn, be the rainfall values recorded at the ‘n’ rain-gauge stations; A1, A2,
A3,………..An, be the areas of their enclosing Thiessen Polygons respectively; and,
A=∑ [A1, A2, A3,………An] be the total area of the basin, then, average rainfall over
the area, , is given by,
n
P  A  n
A 
P    i i ; OR, P    i  Pi 
i 1  A  i 1  A 
Here Ai are the weightage factors called Thiessen Weights.
A
This method is more reliable than Arithmetic Average Method, because, weightages are
given to the rain-gauge values based on the extent of the area which is closest to it. But,
it does not take into account any orographic influence, local centers of heavy rainfall, if
any.
3. Isohyetal Method: This method This is perhaps the most reliable method if, there are
large number of raingauge stations within the basin and in its immediate neighbourhood.
The procedure for average rainfall calculation is as follows:
a. Raingauge stations within the basin and in its immediate neighbourhood are marked
on the basin map, along with the rainfall values recorded by them. Considering these
values as a guide and interpolating between them, lines or contours joining places of
equal rainfall values, called, ‘ISOHYETAL LINES’, are drawn.
b. The area enclosed between two isohyetal lines is measured using a planimeter. If the
isoheytal lines are cut by the boundary of the basin, then the outer limit of the area is
taken as the boundary of the basin itself.
c. Let, P1, P2, P3,……….Pn+1, be the values of the ‘n+1’ isohyetal lines; A1, A2,
A3,…..An, be the areas enclosed between them, respectively; and, A=∑[A1, A2,
A3,………An] be the total area of the basin, then, average rainfall over the area is
given by,

  Pi  Pi 1  
 Ai   
 
n
2
P 
i 1  A 
 
 
This method is more reliable than other methods, because, orographic influences, local centers of
heavy rainfall, if any, can be taken into account while drawing the isohyetal lines. But, it requires
large number of rain-gauge stations within the basin and in its immediate neighbourhood; and
also, a skilled person to draw the isohyetal lines.

2.6. Rain gauge Network

Aims at optimum density of gauges from which reasonably accurate information about the
storms can be obtained
 Catching area of rain gauge is very small compared to the areal extent of storm
 No. of rain gauges should be as large as possible
 Economic considerations, topography, accessibility restrict the number of gauges to be
maintained
World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) Recommendation
2
Flat regions of temperate, Ideal 1 station for 600-900 km
Mediterranean and 2
tropical zones Acceptable 1 station for 900- 3000 km
2
Mountainous regions of Ideal 1 station for 100-250 km
temperate, Mediterranean 2
and tropical zones Acceptable 1 station for 25-1000 km
2
Arid and Polar zones 1 station for 1500-10000 km (depending on feasibility)

Indian Standard (IS:4987-1968) Recommendation (from practical consideration)

Plains 1 station per 520 km2

In regions of average elevation 1000 m 1 station per 260-390 km2

Predominantly hilly areas with heavy rainfall 1 station per 130 km2
2.7. Optimum rain gauge density
𝐶 2
Optimum number of rain gauge stations given by: 𝑁 = ( 𝜀𝑣)

where
N - Optimal number of stations
 Allowable degree of error in the estimation of mean rainfall
Cv - Coefficient of variation of the rainfall values for the existing m stations (%)
If P1, P2, P3…….Pm are the values of rainfall measured at m stations, coefficient of variation is
given by Cv = (Sigma/P) *100
∑𝑚 ̅ 2
1 (𝑃𝑖 −𝑃)
where  is the sample standard deviation given by 𝜎 = √[ ]
𝑚−1

𝑃̅ - mean precipitation
2.8. Estimation of missing rain gauge data
When the Continuity of record may be broken due to missing data, this can be estimated
using the data of the neighbouring stations. Normal rainfall is used as a standard of
comparison
Annual precipitation values P1, P2, P3…….Pm for M stations and Normal annual
precipitation of the M+1 stations including the station with missing data are available. To
determine the annual precipitation of a station X in the vicinity of the M stations
 When the normal annual precipitation of station X is within 10% of the normal
annual precipitation of the various M stations
1
Simple arithmetic average 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑀 (𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ 𝑃𝑚 )

 If the normal annual precipitation varies considerably

𝑁𝑥 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
Normal ratio method 𝑃𝑥 = (𝑁1 + 𝑁2 + 𝑁3 + ⋯ … . . 𝑁𝑚 )
𝑀 1 2 3 𝑚