ELC 3060: Active Circuits

Introduction & Filter Transfer

Function (Poles/Zeroes)

Spring 2022

Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering

Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
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This Course
Course Contents

Topic
Introduction & Filter Transfer Function (Poles/Zeros)
Single Opamp First and Second Order Filters
Two and Three Opamp-RC Filters
MOS-C Filters + Filter Performance
Filter Approximation & Frequency Transformation
Higher-Order Filters (Cascaded and Leapfrog)
Active Inductors & Negative Resistors
Introduction to Gm-C Filters
Linearized Gm Circuits
Gm-C Filter Implementation
Introduction to Switched-Capacitors (SC)
Circuit Implementation of SC Filters
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This Course
Information

• Instructor:
– Dr. Mohamed Mobarak
• Teaching Assistant:
– Eng. Ahmed Abdelraouf
• Email: mohamedmobarak@eng.cu.edu.eg
• References:
– Course notes / Sheets
– T.L.Deliyannis, Y.Sun, J.K.Fidler, “Continuous-Time Active Filter Design”
(Chapters 2-6, 8-11)
– B. Razavi, “Fundamentals of Microelectronics” (Chapter 14)
– T. Carosune/D. Johns/K. Martin “Analog Integrated Circuit Design”
(Chapter 10)
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Introduction
Why Filters?

• Example 1: Communication Receiver (System’s Selectivity)

Solution: A filter with stop band of 40 dB

• In order to eliminate the unwanted interference that

accompanies a signal, a filter is needed.
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Introduction
Why Filters?

• Example 2: Hard Disk Drive (HDD) (System’s Sensitivity)

• Limit signal and noise bandwidth.

• Provide anti-aliasing prior to
sampling.
• Provide significant contribution to
overall equalization.
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History
Filters

• Early 1920s to Late 1950s: Voice filters were realized in RLC

discrete networks.

• Around 1950s, integrated circuits (IC) were developed.

• In the 1960s: a goal to reduce the size and cost of inductors

by replacing them by active circuits was launched.

• First book on Active RC Circuits “Theory and Design of Active

RC Circuits,” Mc Graw-Hill co., NY 1968.
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History
Filters

• Integrating filters on chip is one of the main demands in most

systems.

• Opamp-RC filters, Gm-C filters, Switched-Capacitor filters are

all types of filters that can be integrated on chip.
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Filter Realizations
Passive Filters - RLC
 Passive realization does not provide gain (at DC)
 Filters parameters are coupled not independent (changing one
component can change different filter parameters)
 Loading effect
 Cannot realize ideal integrator
 Bulky inductors for low frequencies (not suitable for integrated circuits)
☺ Filters constructed with Resistors, Capacitors, and Inductors can result in
complex poles → Arbitrary Q
 Filters constructed with Resistors and Capacitors only result in real poles
→ Poor Q (poor electivity)
Question: What’s the maximum achievable “Q” from a passive RC filter?
– To answer this question, we need to know what type of poles does a passive RC
filter create? Real or Complex?
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Filter Realizations
Why Active RC Filters?

• Use of Resistors and Capacitors along with active

components (mainly Opamps or Transconductors) to
provide high-Q (high selectivity) filters.

• Effectively, inductors are replaced with Active Circuits (that

emulates the inductor functionality).
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Introduction
Active Integrated Filter Implementations

Biomedical Military
Wireless Communication Hard disk drive
Hearing aid mm-Wave
Video Space
Sensors Imaging
Sigma delta converters Wireless Communication
Loop filter in PLL

Hz - kHz MHz GHz 10 GHz

Switched-C Opamp-RC Gm-C LC Microwave

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Filters
Types of Filters

• Low Pass Filter (LPF):

• High Pass Filter (HPF):

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Filters
Types of Filters

• Band-Pass Filter (BPF):

• Band-Stop or Band-Reject
Filter (BSF):
o Notch is a specific case
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Filters
Summary of Filter Classifications
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Filters
Continuous-Time Filters

• In time domain and for a linear time-invariant (LTI) system:

𝑡
– y 𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑥 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• In frequency domain:
– Y 𝑠 =𝐻 𝑠 𝑋 𝑠
– H(s) : Filter transfer function (Laplace transformation of the impulse response)
𝑁 𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 +⋯+𝑎1 𝑠+𝑎0 𝑎 𝑛 ς𝑛𝑖=1(𝑠−𝑧𝑖 )
• 𝐻 𝑠 = = = ς𝑚
𝐷 𝑠 𝑠 𝑚 +𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 +⋯+𝑏1 𝑠+𝑏0 𝑖=1(𝑠−𝑝𝑖 )
– 𝑚≥𝑛
– 𝑚 is the order of the filter
– 𝑎𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑖 are real for all i → Poles and zeroes are real or complex conjugate
– All 𝑏𝑖′ 𝑠 are positive (stability) → All poles in LHP
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Filters
Pole-Zero Locations

𝑁 𝑠 𝑎 𝑛 ς𝑛𝑖=1(𝑠−𝑧𝑖 )
• 𝐻 𝑠 = = ς𝑚
𝐷 𝑠 𝑖=1(𝑠−𝑝𝑖 )
• Since all coefficients of N(s) are real, zeroes of H(s) can be real or
complex conjugate.
• Similarly for D(s), Poles of H(s) can be real or complex conjugate.
For stability purposes, all real part of poles must be negative (< 0).
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Filters
Stability

• Mathematically, for a system to be stable:

∞
– ‫׬‬0 ℎ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑀 < ∞
– Only expressions that are allowed: 𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡)
• Where 𝜎 is a positive → Decaying exponential.
1
• Pole must be on the form of 𝑠+𝑎 , left-half-plane pole (a is positive).

• What about the impulse response of a right-half plane pole?

– ℎ 𝑡 ~ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 ∶ Positive exponential → Unstable

Poles on the LHP Poles on the jω axis Poles on the RHP

Decaying (good) Oscillatory (not good) Unstable (not good)
Continuous-Time Filters 17
Filters
Continuous-Time Filters

• If the signal is sinusoidal with frequency ω , Replace s with 𝑗ω

• 𝐻 𝑠 → 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 Frequency Response
• 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) 𝑒 𝑗𝜙(𝜔)

• In most cases, we represent the magnitude and phase as :

– 𝐴 𝜔 = 20log( 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) ) (dB) [Even Function : 𝐴 𝜔 = 𝐴(−𝜔)]
– 𝜙 𝜔 = arg 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 (degree) [Odd function: 𝜙 𝜔 = −𝜙 −𝜔 ]
• Group delay: Sometimes it is useful to look at the group delay of a
𝑑𝜙 𝜔
filter 𝜏𝐺 𝜔 = − (sec.)
𝑑𝜔
• Units of group delay is time. Group delay represents the time
delay that each frequency component will experience due to the
filter characteristics.
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Poles and Zeroes
Insight View
𝑗𝜔
|𝑠 − 𝑠𝑥 | 𝑠 ∠(𝑠 − 𝑠𝑥 )
• 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑥
– 𝑠 represents any point on the s-plane. 𝑠𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝑗𝜔𝑥

– 𝑠𝑥 is a specific value, can be real or complex. 𝜎

– 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑥 : is a vector between them which can
also be defined as a distance (magnitude) s-plane
and a phase.
• To obtain frequency response 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔.
It moves only on the 𝑗𝜔 axis.
• Locations of poles and zeroes of the
transfer function determines the filter’s
shape (type).
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Poles and Zeroes
Frequency response
𝑗𝜔
• Moving only on the 𝑗𝜔 axis.
𝑠𝑥 = −𝜎𝑥 + 𝑗𝜔𝑥
• |𝑗𝜔 − 𝑠𝑥 | |𝑗𝜔 − 𝑠𝑥 |
– Maximum distance between 𝑠 and 𝑠𝑥 = ∞,
it happens at 𝜔 = ∞. 𝜎

– Minimum distance between 𝑠 and 𝑠𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 ,

this value happens at 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑥 .
• ∠ 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑥
−𝜔𝑥
– @ 𝜔 = 0, ∠ = tan−1
𝜎𝑥
– @ 𝜔 = ∞, ∠ = 90𝑜
– @ 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑥 , ∠ = 0
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Poles and Zeroes
Real Poles
𝑗𝜔
1 1
• 𝐻 𝑠 = =
𝑠−𝑠𝑝 𝑠+𝜎𝑝 𝑗𝜔 +𝜎𝑝
– 𝑠𝑝 : Is called a Pole.
– Minimum distance exists at 𝜔 = 0 →
−𝜎𝑝 𝜎
Maximum 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 happens at 𝜔 = 0. 𝐻 𝑗𝜔
– Distance increases as 𝜔 increases → 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 decreases. 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
– Phase at DC = 0 2
– Phase gradually increases till it reaches −90𝑜
at 𝜔 = ∞. 𝜔
𝑜
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔
– @𝜔 = 𝜎𝑝 → ∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = −45
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜔
→ 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑜
2 −45
This is called cut-off frequency
−90𝑜
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Frequency Response
Bode Plot

A B

▪ Filter (A) has a frequency response with -20dB/decade

(or -6dB/octave) roll-off
▪ Filter (B) has a frequency response with -40dB/decade roll-off
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Poles and Zeroes
Real Zeroes
𝑗𝜔

• 𝐻 𝑠 = 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑧 = 𝑠 + 𝜎𝑧
𝑠 + 𝜎𝑧
– 𝑠𝑧 : Is called a Zero.
– Minimum distance exists at 𝜔 = 0 →
Minimum 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 happens at 𝜔 = 0. −𝜎𝑧 𝜎
𝐻 𝑗𝜔
– Distance increases as 𝜔 increases →
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 increases.
2𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
– Phase at DC = 0 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
– Phase gradually increases till it reaches
90𝑜 at 𝜔 = ∞. 𝜔
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔
– @𝜔 = 𝜎𝑧 → ∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = +45𝑜
90𝑜
45𝑜
• What if 𝑠𝑧 is at the RHP?
𝜔
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Poles and Zeroes
Examples (First Order Filters)

• What is the expected response?

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Filters
Types of Filters

• All-Pass Filter (APF):

– All-pass filters do not change the magnitude of the input, rather they
only change the phase.
– Can be used in phase equalization.

• Amplitude Equalizers:
– The amplitude equalizer has an amplitude response that does not
belong to any of the filter responses considered above.
– It is used to compensate for the distortion of the frequency spectrum
that the signal suffers when passing through a system (cable, wire,
optical fiber … etc.).
– Its amplitude response is therefore drawn as complementary to the
signal spectrum.
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How to Implement a First-Order Filter?

𝜔0
• 𝐻1 𝑠 = (ideal or lossless integrator)
𝑠

𝑘
• 𝐻2 𝑠 = 𝑠 (1st order filter or lossy integrator)
(1+ )
𝜔0
𝑠
(1+𝜔 )
• 𝐻3 𝑠 = 𝑠
𝑧
(1+𝜔 )
𝑝
– Left-half plane zero.
𝑠
(1−𝜔 )
• 𝐻4 𝑠 = 𝑠
𝑧
(1+ )
𝜔𝑝
– Right-half plane zero
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Ideal Operational Amplifier

• Ideal op amp is a special case of ideal differential amplifier with infinite gain,
infinite Rid and zero Ro .

v
v = o and lim vid = 0
id A A→ 

– If A is infinite, vid is zero for any finite output voltage.

– Infinite input resistance Rid forces input currents i+ and i- to be zero.
– Zero output resistance
– Infinite BW
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𝐻1 𝑠 : Lossless Integrator
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𝐻2 𝑠 : First Order Filter (Lossy/Damped Integrator)

☺ Independent Tuning
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Implementation Performance of a Filter

☺ Parasitic Insensitive
☺ Independent Tuning
☺ Small Parameter Sensitivity
☺ Small Component Spread
☺ No Opamp input Swing (virtual ground)
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Alternative Realization of First Order Filter

• Prone to “parasitic capacitance”

• Voltage swing on the input terminals of
the Op-amp → tough Op-amp design
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Parasitic Capacitance

• There exist a capacitance between any two nodes.

• If this capacitance is unintended and unwanted, we name it a

“parasitic capacitance”.

• For simplicity, we consider only parasitic capacitances to

ground.
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Effect of Parasitic Capacitance

𝐾
𝐶𝑝
𝐶 + 𝐶𝑝 𝑅
𝐻 𝑠 =
1
𝑠+
𝐶 + 𝐶𝑝 𝑅

• The existence of 𝐶𝑝 changed the transfer

function.
• This architecture is “parasitic sensitive”.
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Effect of Parasitic Capacitance

• No change in the original transfer function.

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Input Swing (Two-Stage Op-amp)

• Output swing (depends on Vov and limited by VDD)

• Input swing (limited by VTH)
• Larger input swing → more complex design
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Sensitivity

dP dC P=Parameter
SC =
P
P C C=Component

• Sensitivity measures the variation of a filter parameter due to

variation of a filter component.

Δ𝑃/𝑃 𝐶 𝜕𝑃
• 𝑆𝐶𝑃 = =
Δ𝐶/𝐶 𝑃 𝜕𝐶

• As a rule of thumb, for a good design 𝑆𝐶𝑃 should be ≤ 1.

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Example: Sensitivity

0 = 1 / (R1C1 )
d 0 −1
=
dR1 R12C1
d 0 dR1
=−
0 R1
0
S R1 = −1
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Sensitivity: Some properties (Sections)

𝑘𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
• 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑆𝑘𝑥 = 𝑆𝑥

1/𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
• 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑆1/𝑥 = −𝑆𝑥

𝑦𝑛 𝑦 𝑦 1 𝑦
• 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑛𝑆𝑥 & 𝑆𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑆
𝑛 𝑥

𝑦 𝑦
• 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑆𝑥2 × 𝑆𝑥𝑥2

‫𝑛ח‬
𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 𝑦
• 𝑆𝑥 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑆𝑥 𝑖
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Analog IC Design
Design Kit

TSMC 90nm 1P7M 1.2V PDK=Process Development Kit

CDK = Component Design Kit

Remember Z dimensions cannot be changed and are fab dependent

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IC Fabrication
Basic Layers in a CMOS Process

• Drain/Source regions is composed of donor/acceptor atoms (n+/p+)

• Gate material is Polysilicon (not perfect conductor but its resistance is low)
• Silicon dioxide is used as a gate oxide (insulator) and field oxide (FOX)
• Metal is used to connect n+/p+ source and drain (diffusion or active) to other
components in the circuit
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Analog IC Design
Integrated Resistors
 41
Analog IC Design
Integrated Resistors
 42
Analog IC Design
Integrated Capacitors: Poly-Poly

▪ In range of pF
▪ Accuracy +/-15%
 43
Analog IC Design
Integrated Capacitors: MIM (Metal-Insulator-Metal)
 44
Analog IC Design
Integrated Capacitors: MOM (Metal-Oxide-Metal)
 45
Analog IC Design
Integrated Inductors

✓ Widely Used in RF circuits (L in the range of nH)

 Low quality factor
 46
Integrated Inductors
Inductor Design