Chlorination

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This article is about a water treatment process. For chlorination in organic chemistry, see  Halogenation.

Chlorination is the process of adding the element chlorine to water as a method of water purification to make it
fit for human consumption as drinking water. Water which has been treated with chlorine is effective in
preventing the spread of waterborne disease.

The chlorination of public drinking supplies was originally met with resistance, as people were concerned about
the health effects of the practice. The use of chlorine has greatly reduced the prevalence of waterborne disease
as it is effective against almost all bacteria and viruses, as well as amoeba.

Chlorination is also used to sanitize the water in swimming pools and as a disinfection stage in sewage
treatment.

Shock chlorination is a process used in many swimming pools, water wells, springs, and other water sources
to reduce the bacterial and algal residue in the water. Shock chlorination is performed by mixing a large amount
of sodium hypochlorite, which can be in the form of a powder or a liquid such as chlorine bleach, into the water.
Water that is being shock chlorinated should not be swum in or drunk until the sodium hypochlorite count in the
water goes down to three ppm or less.

Contents
 [hide]

1 History

2 Chemistry in

water

3 Drawbacks

4 Alternatives

5 See also

6 References

7 External links

[edit]History

The first scientists to suggest disinfecting water with chlorine were Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau (in
France) and William Cumberland Cruikshank (in England), both around the year 1800.[1]

The technique of purification of drinking water by use of compressed liquefied chlorine gas was developed in
1910 by U.S. Army Major (later Brig. Gen.) Carl Rogers Darnall (1867–1941), Professor of Chemistry at
the Army Medical School.[2] Shortly thereafter, Major (later Col.) William J. L. Lyster (1869–1947) of the Army
Medical Department used a solution of calcium hypochlorite in a linen bag to treat water.

For many decades, Lyster's method remained the standard for U.S. ground forces in the field and in camps,
implemented in the form of the familiar Lyster Bag (also spelled Lister Bag). Darnall's work became the basis
for present day systems of chlorination of municipal water supplies, which were perfected in the 1930s and
widely established in the United States by World War II. [3]

[edit]Chemistry in water

When chlorine is added to water, it reacts to form a pH dependent equilibrium mixture of chlorine, hypochlorous
acid and hydrochloric acid[4] :

Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + HCl

Depending on the pH, hypochlorous acid partly dissociates to hydrogen and hypochlorite ions:

HClO → H+ + ClO-

In acidic solution, the major species are Cl2 and HOCl while in alkaline solution effectively only
ClO- is present. Very small concentrations of ClO2-, ClO3-, ClO4- are also found.[5]

[edit]Drawbacks

Disinfection by chlorination can be problematic, in some circumstances. Chlorine can react with
naturally occurring organic compounds found in the water supply to produce compounds known
as disinfection byproducts (DBPs). The most common DBPs are trihalomethanes (THMs)
and haloacetic acids (HAAs). Due to the potential carcinogenicity of these compounds, drinking
water regulations across the developed world require regular monitoring of the concentration of
these compounds in the distribution systems of municipal water systems. TheWorld Health
Organization has stated that the "Risks to health from DBPs are extremely small in comparison with
inadequate disinfection."

There are also other concerns regarding chlorine, including its volatile nature which causes it to
disappear too quickly from the water system, and aesthetic concerns such as taste and odour.

[edit]Alternatives

Chlorine in water is more than three times more effective as a disinfectant against Escherichia
coli than an equivalent concentration of bromine, and is more than six times more effective than an
equivalent concentration of iodine.[6]

Several alternatives to traditional chlorination exist, and have been put into practice to varying
extents. Ozonation is used by many European countries and also in a few municipalities in
the United States. Due to current regulations, systems employing ozonation in the United States still
must maintain chlorine residuals comparable to systems without ozonation.

Disinfection with chloramine is also becoming increasingly common. Unlike chlorine, chloramine

has a longer half life in the distribution system and still maintains effective protection against
pathogens. The reason chloramines persist in the distribution is due to the relatively lower redox
potential in comparison to free chlorine. Chloramine is formed by the addition of ammonia into
drinking water to form mono-, di-, and trichloramines. Whereas Helicobacter pylori can be many
times more resistant to chlorine than Escherichia coli, both organisms are about equally susceptible
to the disinfecting effect of chloramine.[7]

Water treated by filtration may not need further disinfection; a very high proportion of pathogens are
removed by microorganisms in the filter bed. Filtered water must be used soon after it is filtered, as
the low amount of remaining microbes may proliferate over time.

The advantage of chlorine in comparison to ozone is that the residual persists in the water for an
extended period of time. This feature allows the chlorine to travel through the water supply system,
effectively controlling pathogenic backflow contamination. In a large system this may not be
adequate, and so chlorine levels may be boosted at points in the distribution system,
or chloramine may be used, which remains in the water for longer before reacting or dissipating.

Another method which is gaining popularity is UV disinfection. UV treatment leaves no residue in
the water due to use of light instead of chemical disinfectants. However, this method alone (as well
as chlorination alone) will not remove bacterially produced toxins, pesticides, heavy metals, etc.
from water. Often, multiple steps are taken in commercially sold water.

Yet another method is using silver for its disinfecting properties.