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GIS BASED GROUNDWATER RECHARGE ESTIMATION: THE CASE OF SHINILE

SUB-BASIN, ETHIOPIA MSc. THESIS PROPOSAL ARBA MINCH

Research Proposal · January 2018

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GIS BASED GROUNDWATER RECHARGE ESTIMATION: THE CASE OF
SHINILE SUB-BASIN, ETHIOPIA

MSc. THESIS PROPOSAL

BAHREDIN AHMED HASSEN

MARCH, 2018

ARBA MINCH
 GIS BASED GROUNDWATER RECHARGE ESTIMATION: THE CASE OF
SHINILE SUB-BASIN, ETHIOPIA

BAHREDIN AHMED HASSEN

A PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE

FUCALTY OF WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATON ENGINEERING,

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES,
ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING

MARCH, 2018

ARBA MINCH
 SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

PROPOSAL APPROVAL SHEET

This is to certify that the thesis proposal entitled “GIS BASED GROUNDWATER
RECHARGE ESTIMATION: THE CASE OF SHINILE SUB-BASIN” has been carrying
out by Bahredin Ahmed Hassen ID. No: PRAMIT/2030/09, under my/our examine.
Therefore, I/we recommend that the student’s proposal is approved for final submission.

Submitted by:

Bahredin Ahmed Hassen _________________ ____________

Approved by: Signature Date

Dr. Samuel Dagalo ________________ __________

Examiner Signature Date

Mr. Shimeles __________________ __________

Chairman Signature Date

Dr. Beshah Mogesse _______________ __________

Advisor Signature Date

Mr. Mekuanent Muluneh ______________ __________

Co-advisor Signature Date

Mr. Sisay Simachew ______________ __________

Department Head Signature & Stamps Date

Dr. Kinfe Kasa ______________ __________

SGS Coordinator Signature Date

i
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background .................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Objective of the study................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Research questions ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.5 Scope of the study area ................................................................................................................. 2
1.6 Significant of the study................................................................................................................. 3
2.0 Literature Review ............................................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Groundwater Resource ................................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Rainfall Runoff Modelling and estimating runoff ........................................................................ 4
2.3 Evapotranspiration computation ................................................................................................... 4
2.4 Groundwater recharge estimation................................................................................................. 5
2.5 GIS application in the Groundwater model .................................................................................. 5
3.0 Materials and Methods ..................................................................................................................... 6
3.1 Description of the study area ........................................................................................................ 6
3.2 Data collection .............................................................................................................................. 8
3.2.1 Rainfall data........................................................................................................................... 8
3.2.2 Land use land cover data ....................................................................................................... 8
3.2.3 Evapotranspiration and Soil data ........................................................................................... 8
3.2.4 Topographic data ................................................................................................................... 9
3.3. Data analysis................................................................................................................................ 9
3.4 Water Balance components and calculation per raster cell ........................................................ 10
3.4.1 Vegetated area ..................................................................................................................... 10
3.4.2 Bare-soil, Open-water, and Impervious surfaces................................................................. 13
4.0 Conceptual framework ................................................................................................................... 14
5.0 Expected output .............................................................................................................................. 15
6.0 Action plan ..................................................................................................................................... 16
7.0 Logistics and financial requirement ............................................................................................... 17
References ............................................................................................................................................ 18

ii
List of tables and figures

Figure: 1 map of the study area .............................................................................................................. 7

Figure: 2 Model processing framework ............................................................................................... 14
Table 1: work activity schedule ............................................................................................................ 16
Table 2: logistics and financials requirement ....................................................................................... 17

iii
Lists of acronyms and abbreviations:

AHP Analytic Hierarchy Process

DEM Digital elevation model

ERDAS Earth Resources Data Analysis System

ETM Evapotranspiration Model

ET Evapotranspiration

GIS Geographical Information System

LAI Leaf Area Index

LULC Land Use Land Cover

MODIS Moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer

MOWRIE Ministry of water resource, Irrigation and Energy

NASA National Astronomy and Space Science

NDVI Normalized distribution vegetation index

NGS National Geological Survey

NMSA National Metrological Service Agency

REM Recharge Estimation Model

RRM Rainfall Runoff Model

RS Remote Sensing

SPSS statistical package for social science

USGS United State Geological Survey

WetSpasswater and energytransferbetweensoils,plantsand atmosphereunderquasiSteady State

iv
1
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background
Groundwater recharge is the process by which water percolates down the soil and reaches the
water table either by natural or artificial methods to replenish the aquifer with water from the
land surface. In arid and semi-arid areas, its assessment is a key challenge in determining
sustainable yield of aquifers (Yongxin and Beekman, 2003; Crosbie et al., 2010). The same is
true in many parts of Ethiopia like Shinile catchment which is found in somali regional state.
shinile is an arid and semi-arid watershed which remains dry for major part of the year. Thus,
understanding of groundwater recharge is a prerequisite to determine the availability of
groundwater for such area where there is no enough surface water.

Most of the time groundwater recharge is determined to a large extent as an imbalance at the
land surface between precipitation and evaporative demand (Gebreryfael, 2008). Now, with
the advent of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), physical-based hydrologic modeling has
become important in contemporary hydrology for assessing these parameters as well as the
impact of human intervention and/or possible climatic change on basin hydrology and water
resources (Alemaw and Chaoka, 2003). Hence, WetSpass was built as a physically based
methodology for estimation of the long-term average, spatially varying, water balance
components: surface runoff, actual evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge (Batelaan and
De Smedt, 2001, 2007). It is an acronym for water and energy transfer between soil, plants and
atmosphere under quasi-steady state that was built upon the foundations of the time dependent
spatially distributed water balance model (Batelaan and De Smedt, 2001, 2007).

Groundwater recharge estimation is influenced by availability of data in space and time,

especially in the case of ungauged catchment finding such data is very difficult (Kovalevsky,
2004). Fortunately, all these hydrological components directly or indirectly related to remote
sensing products in relatively high spatial resolution (Brunner, 2004). Hence, groundwater
recharge, surface runoff and evapotranspiration will be estimated for the Shinile catchment
using GIS with integration of WetSpass model.

1
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Shinile is a watershed well known for its arid and semi-arid areas comprise vast arable land. It
also known by unstable life of pastoral and semi pastoral communities, who travel long
distance searching for water and grazing land. In contrary, it has huge potential of groundwater
which needs investigation of its annual or seasonal recharge to quantify the availability of
groundwater. Of course, nowadays different developmental organizations conducted study in
the area respect to groundwater potential investigation. But, the earlier studies concerning
groundwater potential are unsatisfactory and need more attention.

1.3 Objective of the study

General objective of the study is to estimate annual recharge of Groundwater table in Shinile
sub-basin.

Specific objectives designed to attain the major objective are listed below

• To estimate seasonal and annual runoff by using WetSpass model and relate with
measured runoff at that period of time

• To estimate potential evapotranspiration over the entire sub- catchments by using

WeatSpass model and relate with Penman-Monteith method.

• To estimate groundwater recharge using water balance approach.

1.4 Research questions
• What proportion of the rainfall in the Hararghe highland contributes to the Shinile
aquifer?
• Does the groundwater recharge affect by both runoff and evapotranspiration?
• Is the LULC affects surface runoff and evapotranspiration?
• Is the Shinile groundwater available for water supply of the city inside the catchment?
• How long does take the response of groundwater table to the recharge?
• Is the Groundwater recharged from local rainfall or rainfall from highlands of
Hararghe?
1.5 Scope of the study area
In fact, there are financial and material challenges in measuring discharge from natural outlets
such as springs, rivers, streams, deep wells and hand dug wells per each sub-catchment of
shinile which could have considerable influence on the accuracy of the estimated recharge.

2
Therefore, this study will be limited to the discharge data of gauged outlet of shinile and deep
well data recorded during pumping test from local government offices. These data may use for
calibration to validate the remote sensing data.

1.6 Significant of the study

While groundwater models are simplification of a more complex reality, this study will
simplify the investigation of groundwater problems and provide valuable support for decision-
making in groundwater management. The knowledge of groundwater recharge will have a
paramount importance for the groundwater modeling and forecast the availability of
groundwater for town water supply and irrigation within the basin and abroad. Moreover, this
study will also determine the sustainability of groundwater within the basin even the catchment
is arid and semi-arid.

3
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Groundwater Resource
Groundwater is the major source of water across much of the world, particularly in rural areas
in arid and semi-arid regions. Groundwater is an important source of water and is the dominant
source for domestic supply in many areas, especially the dry areas where surface water is scarce
and seasonal (e.g. Somali region in the east) (Kebede, 2015)

2.2 Rainfall Runoff Modelling and estimating runoff

Rainfall is the principal source for replenishment of moisture in the soil water system and
recharge to groundwater. Surface runoff is calculated in relation to precipitation amount,
precipitation intensity, interception and soil infiltration capacity (Rwanga and Ndambuki,
2017).

Mustafa and Ali (2013) were present the WetSpass model uses the runoff coefficient method
for the estimation of surface runoff. The surface runoff coefficient is a function of vegetation
type, soil texture and slope. Hence, surface runoff in the basin varies spatially with topography
and other catchment characteristics. Its amount was also shows variation during summer and
winter seasons. This variation comes from rainfall differences in the two seasons. They were
also indicating the variation of surface runoff due to soil texture difference in their study area
which concluded that the area with low permeability enhances surface runoff whereas the area
with sandy soil presents less surface runoff.

2.3 Evapotranspiration computation

The annual evapotranspiration is calculated by WetSpass as a sum of evaporation from bare
soil, transpiration of the vegetated cover, interception loss by vegetation and evaporations of
open water body which is one components of water balance to determine groundwater recharge
(Arefaine, Newdaw, & Gebreyohannes, 2012). they olso indicated the evapotranspiration
variation due to spatial variation within the catchment. Mustafa and Ali (2013) were used
WetSpass model with the integration of GIS calculated the total actual evapotranspiration ET
as a sum of water intercepted by vegetation, the transpiration of the vegetative cover and the
evaporation from the bare soil between the vegetation. But they indicated the difference in ET
is due to seasonal variation not due to spatial variation.

4
2.4 Groundwater recharge estimation
Batelaan and De Smedt (2001) developed Water and Energy Transfer between Soil, Plants and
Atmosphere under quasi-Steady State (WetSpass), based on the time-dependent, spatially
distributed water balance model known as WetSpass.

Other recent study uses GIS and WetSpass model simulate accurately the spatial and
temporally distribution of long-term average recharge. It has ability to simulate interception
from vegetated surfaces, runoff from the landscape, evapotranspiration, soil water balance, and
recharge at monthly time step. Therefore, the estimated recharge through WetSpass can be
used in regional steady-state groundwater models and, hence, decrease the uncertainty
estimation of groundwater recharge (Rwanga and Ndambuki, 2017).

2.5 GIS application in the Groundwater model

The advantage of embedding the methodology in GIS is that it allows easy evaluation of the
effects of land cover changes on recharge (Batelaan & De Smedt, 2007). Additionally, the GIS
approach proves to be very useful in the spatial analysis of the simulated recharge, and could
be used to optimize the recharge conditions and improve groundwater protection and
sustainability. They also showed that the GIS structure of the model with parameters as
attribute tables to be advantageous in transferring it to other environments. WetSpass was
successfully applied in Belgium as well as in other type of environments like in the Upper
Biebrza catchment, Poland (Thijs, 2002) and the Geba Basin, Tigray, Ethiopia (Asfaw, 2005)

Each map in GIS format is saved at specified time increment, and then used for graphical
presentation to see the complete temporal and spatial variation of each variables during a model
simulation. In this study the WetSpass model will be used to simulate the water balance and
estimate average annual and seasonal water balance components, such as surface runoff,
evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge. Recently, many studies conducted through
indices of groundwater potential models. Some of them are as follows: frequency ratio, weights
of evidence and AHP. Based on GIS, appropriate locations for drilling wells and ground water
withdrawal can be determined. Combining spatial data in GIS and expert choice software was
used in order to determine areas having high potential for ground water resources
(Zeinolabedini and Esmaeily, 2015).

5
3.0 Materials and Methods
3.1 Description of the study area
Shinile is located in the Eastern part of Ethiopia in Somali Regional state. It is positioned with
geographic coordinates between 41o16'51" to 43o19'59"E and 9o24'55" to 11o12'17"N. The
average distance from the capital city Addis Ababa is 550km to east. The Djibouti-Ethiopia
Railway crosses the catchment while it runs from Djibouti to Dire Dewa and from Dire Dewa
to Addis Ababa. When the catchment is observed, its part falls in Oromia administrative zone
which is the highland that contributes flow to the lowland even causing over flooding. The
remaining is found in Somali region and Dire Dewa Administration, characterized as arid and
semi-arid plain lowland that receive high runoff from the Hararghe highlands. The geological
description of the Shinile sub-basin was found the upper part highly weathered and could be
good aquifer; however, the lower part is less weathered and fresh (UNICEF,2009).

6
Figure: 1 map of the study area

7
3.2 Data collection
As the title of the study tells, it will depend on remote sensing data and local meteorological
data for GIS input to reach the objective of this study. It may use the measured data for
Validation of Remote Sensing Data. WetSpass will be integrated in GIS ArcView as a raster
model, coded in Avenue. Inputs for this model include grids of land use, precipitation, potential
evapotranspiration, wind-speed, temperature, soil, and slope where land-use and soil types are
connected to the model as attribute tables of their respective grids.

3.2.1 Rainfall data

In estimating of groundwater recharge, amount of rainfall over the basin is very crucial for
water balance approach. On the other hand, rainfall and runoff have their own relation even
though other external factors like, land use land cover, soil types, topography and the extent of
anthropogenic activities in the catchment. Therefore, their relation will be done in the area.
The catchment will be disintegrated into different similar micro-basins and the relation made
independently. Hourly or daily rainfall data and other ground stationed climate data will be
collected from the existing stations and also from the newly installed metrological station.

3.2.2 Land use land cover data

Seasonal land use land cover change of the area will obtain from satellite imageries obtained
from 30mx30m grid cell and soil classification map will be collected from National Geologic
survey. Ground station data are equally important as RS data and will be collected from
national metrologic services agency (NMSA), Ministry of water resources irrigation and
electricity (MoWRIE) and national geological survey (NGS). For the land-use type, land cover
maps will be used.

3.2.3 Evapotranspiration and Soil data

Evaporation either from water surface, bare soil or vegetation cover is significant in conduction
water balance analysis. Thus, critical estimation of evapotranspiration is vital. Potential
evapotranspiration, which possibly computed with different models may or may not tell the
exact amount of water that evaporate from bare soil and transpire from vegetation. However,
both cases are highly relay on the availability of moisture in the root zone. If soil moisture is
depleted from top horizon of soil, the actual evapotranspiration can be much less than the
potential evapotranspiration over the area, in return this lead to over estimation of ET and under

8
estimate recharge amount. To address this problem estimation of soil water holding capacity
of the catchment along with estimation of ET will be done.

For these tasks temperature, wind speed, humidity, sunshine hours, soil classification Map and
LULC of the target catchment are input. Therefore, such data will be collected both from RS
devices and ground station. Moreover, LAI will assume to be an important parameter for the
determination of soil moisture in the soil, so remote sensing imagery from far infrared MODIS
data will be acquired from USGS and NASA Library possibly through University of
Connecticut. Beside these, primary data collection will be conducted at three representative
locations using Penman-Monteith evaporation method for different time of the year.

Meanwhile, soil moisture observation will also be conducted at each soil group and both
climate regions in June - September, October -February and March - May. The timing of data
collection may review based on the imagery analysis focusing on period where change of
vegetation cover observed in 30mx30m grid cell size.

3.2.4 Topographic data

The topographic data will be obtained from the numerical elevation data sets from USGS and
NASA with a DEM 30x30m. To check the validity of the data set, flow directions will be
estimate from the elevation data set and the rivers may generate. Then this will overlie with
the actual river network.

3.3. Data analysis

Using statistical analysis tools, the remotely sensed data will be collected from USGS and/or
NASA that will retrieved using ERDAS program and then validated with ground station data
using SPSS. At the end of this activity calibration and validation factors and level of error may
produce for further use of converting remote sensing data to the ground truth within the
acceptable limit of error. Once the validated remote sensing data obtained, the forth coming
task will estimate targeted parameters of the study depending on spatially distributed WetSpass
model with integration of GIS raster data format. At this junction, GIS Arcview3.2 is an
important tool in storing, reclassifying and manipulating input data and displaying outputs in
colorful graphs and tabular formats.

9
3.4 Water Balance components and calculation per raster cell
Since the model is a distributed one, the water balance computation will be performed at a
raster cell level. Individual raster water balance will be obtained by summing up independent
water balances for the vegetated, bare soil, open water, and impervious fraction of a raster cell.
The total water balance of a given area will be calculated as the summation of the water balance
of each raster cell.

ETraster = avETv + asEEs + aoEo + aiEi ………………………………………………………… (1)

Sraster=avSv+asSs+aoSo+aiSi ………………………………………………………………..... (2)

Rraster = avRv + asRs + aoRo + aiRi…………………………………………………………...... (3)

When ETraster, Sraster, Rraster are the total evapotranspiration, surface runoff, and groundwater
recharge of a raster cell respectively, each having a vegetated, bare-soil, open-water and
impervious area component denoted by av, as, ao, and ai, respectively. Precipitation will be
taken as the starting point for the computation of the water balance of each of the above
mentioned components of a raster cell, the rest of the processes (interception, runoff,
evapotranspiration, & recharge) follow in an orderly manner. This order will become a
prerequisite for the seasonal time scale with which the processes will be quantified. The water
balance for the different components will treated thereafter.

3.4.1 Vegetated area

The water balance for a vegetated area depends on the average seasonal precipitation (P),
interception fraction (I), surface runoff (Sv), actual transpiration (Tv), and groundwater
recharge (Rv) all with the unit of [LT-1], with the relation given below.

P=I+ Rv+ Sv +Tv ………………………………………………………………………...…. (4)

Depending on the type of vegetation, the interception fraction will represent a constant
percentage of the annual precipitation value. Thus, the fraction will decrease with an increase
in an annual total rainfall amount (since the vegetation cover will be assumed to be constant
throughout the simulation period) (Batelaan and Woldeamlak, 2007).

10
3.4.1.1 Surface runoff
Surface runoff will be calculated in relation to precipitation amount, precipitation intensity,
interception and soil infiltration capacity. Initially the potential surface runoff (Sv-pot) will be
calculated as:

Sv-pot =Csv (P-I) …………………………….………………………………...…………… (5)

When, Csv is a surface runoff coefficient for vegetated infiltration areas, and is a function of
vegetation, soil type and slope. According to the WetSpass model manual, the surface runoff
coefficient at saturated surface runoff occurs in groundwater discharge areas giving rise to a
very high surface runoff could be assumed constant. In the second step, actual surface runoff
will be calculated from the Sv-pot by considering the differences in precipitation intensities in
relation to soil infiltration capacities as the following equation.

Sv = CHor Sv-pot …………………………………………………………………………….... (6)

When CHor is a coefficient for parameterizing the part of a seasonal precipitation contributing
to overland flow.

In general, employing ArcGIS and WetSPass software runoff will be determined at the outlet
of watershed. The outlet which will be considered in this research, will be decided from the
assumption that extremely unique in topography and geologic formation in addition to LULC
and Soil characteristics.

3.4.1.2 ET Computation
For the calculation of seasonal evapotranspiration, a reference value of transpiration will be
obtained from open-water evaporation and a vegetation coefficient:

Trv=cEo……………………………………………………………………………………… (7)

Trv = the reference transpiration of a vegetated surface [LT-1];

Eo = potential evaporation of open water [LT-1] and

c = vegetation coefficient [–].

11
This vegetation coefficient can be calculated as the ratio of reference vegetation transpiration
as given by the Penman-Monteith equation to the potential open-water evaporation, as given
by the Penman equation:
𝛾
1+
𝑟 …………………………………………………………………….………. (8)
𝛥
𝑐= 𝛾
1+ ⁄𝛥(1+ 𝑐 )
𝑟𝑎

𝜸= psychrometric constant [ML-1T-2C-1]

𝞓= slope of the first derivative of the saturated vapor pressure curve (slope of saturation vapor
pressure at the prevailing air temperature) [ML-1T-2C-1];

rc = canopy resistance [TL-1] and

ra= aerodynamic resistance [TL-1] given by

1
𝑟𝑎 = 𝑘 2 𝑢 (ln⁡((𝑧𝑎 − 𝑑)/𝑧𝑎 ))2……………………………………………………..………. (9)
𝑎

k is the Von Karman constant (0.4) [–];

ua is the wind speed [LT-1] at measurement level za = 2m;

d is the zero-plane displacement length [L] and

zo is the roughness length for the vegetation or soil [L].

3.4.1.3 Recharge Estimation

Spatially distributed water retention and actual Evaporation are principal components of
recharge estimation. In this section Interception of vegetation and impervious layers need to
be estimated so that the net amount of water retained in the catchment soil and aquifer will be
known. Leaf area index (LAI) from Remote Sensing devices will be retrieved for the estimation
of interception. In addition, the output from ET and Rainfall Runoff modeling will be
organized as an input for recharge estimation. Basically the inputs for groundwater recharge
estimation will be determined in spatial distributed manner by using ArcGIS and other
supportive tools. Once such parameters determined recharge estimation is easy task. In fact,
there are some challenges in measuring discharge of springs, rivers, streams and artificial
discharges in the highland of the sub-basin, which could have substantial influence on the
accuracy of the estimated recharge. Accordingly, WetSpass model considers the following

12
equation of water balance to determine the recharge required which may be validated by
measured recharge of related catchment.

Rv= P-ETv-Sv-I………………………………………………………………….…………. (10)

Where Rv = recharge

P = rainfall

ETv = Actual Evapotranspiration given as the sum of transpiration Tv and Es (the

evaporation from bare soil found in between the vegetation).

Sv = surface Runoff

I = Interception

3.4.2 Bare-soil, Open-water, and Impervious surfaces

A similar procedure as that for the vegetated surfaces will be followed for the calculation of
the water balance for bare-soil, open-water, and impervious surfaces. The only difference in
this case will be there is no vegetation, thus there is no interception and transpiration term. The
ETv in this case will become evaporation from soil surface.

13
4.0 Conceptual framework

Figure: 2 Model processing framework

14
5.0 Expected output
The output of successful completed above activities will give the additional information with
respect to groundwater recharge. These outputs will be used for decision making about the
characteristics of the catchment. These additional outputs will be:

 Surface runoff within sub-catchments and at the outlet of total catchment

 Interception loss due to vegetation cover within the catchment
 Evaporation from bare soil and, transpiration due to plants and,
 Actual evapotranspiration of the catchment

15
6.0 Action plan
Table 1: work activity schedule

March April May June July august

Activity
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 41 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 23 4
1.Course work and
Proposal development x x
2.Literature Review x x
3.Proposal Defense x
4.Secondary and RS Data
Collection x x x x
5.pan Installation x
6.pan observation x
7.ET and runoff model x x
8.SoilMoisture
estimation x x x x
9.Rainfall and
Temperature x x x
10.Data Analysis and
calibrate x x x
11.Thesis Write up and
submission of final report x x x x x x
12.Revising and
defensing x

16
7.0 Logistics and financial requirement
Table 2: logistics and financials requirement

a Material cost Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost

1 Printing paper Packet 6 300 1,800.00

2 Photo copy paper Packet 6 150 900

3 Rewritable CDs No 20 30 600

4 External hard disk No 1 2,500.00 2,500.00

5 Reference books and various Ls 1 2,000.00 2,000.00

publications

Sub-total 7800.00

b Service Cost

1 Internet service Ls 200hr 60 12,000.00

2 Telephone service charge Ls - - 1,000.00

3 Typing and printing, Compiling Ls 1,800.00 5 9,000.00

and binding

Sub-total 22,000.00

c Transportation and perdiem 9000.00

cost

Total Cost 38800.00

17
References
Alemaw, B.& Chaoka, T. 2003. A continental scale water balance model: a GISapproach For
Southern Africa. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 28: 957-966.
Arefaine, T., Newdaw, D., & Gebreyohannes, T. (2012). Groundwater Recharge,
Evapotranspiration and Surface Runoff Estimation using WetSpass modeling
method in Illala catchment,Northern Ethiopia. Mekelle: Momona Ethiopian
Journal of Science.
Asfaw, M.G., 2005. Groundwater recharge and water balanceassessment in Geba basin,
Tigray, Ethiopia. MSc-thesis IUPWARE,Vrije Universiteit Brussel,
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.
Batelaan, O & DeSmedt, F. 2001. WetSpass: a flexible, GIS based, distributed recharge
methodology for regional groundwater modeling. Proceedings of a symposium
held during the Sixth IAHS Scientific AssemblyatMaastricht, TheNetherlands,
. July 2001, IAHS Publication, 269:117p
Batelaan, O & DeSmedt, F. 2007. GIS based recharge estimation by coupling surface-
subsurface water balance. Journal of hydrology, 337:337-355.
Brunner, P. 2004. Using remote sensing to regionalize local precipitation recharge rates
Obtained from the Chloride Method. Journal of Hydrology, 294(4), 241-250.
Gebreryfael, H., 2008. Groundwater resource assessment through distributed steady-state
flowmodeling, Aynalem well field. Mekelle, Ethiopia. MSc Thesis,
International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth observation
enschede The Netherlands (unpubl).
Kebede, T. 2015. CHARACTERIZING THE GROUNDWATER POTETIAL OF WABI.
Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University.
Kovalevsky, V. (Ed.). 2004. Groundwater Studies. Paris: United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Mustafa Al Kuisi and Ali El-Naqa. 2013. GIS based Spatial Groundwater Recharge estimation.
in the Jafr basin, de Ciencias Geológica, 96-109
Rwanga S. and Ndambuki J. 2017. Approach to Quantify Groundwater Recharge Using GIS

18
 Based. Int'l Journal of Advances in Agricultural & Environmental Engg, 172.
Tesfamichael, G. 2009. Regional groundwater flow modeling of the Geba basin, Northern
Ethiopia. PhD Thesis, Vrije Universiteit, Brussel (unpubl).
Thijs, G., 2002. Calibration and sensitivity analysis of groundwaterdischarge modelling of the
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