1.What is Geographical Information System (GIS)?

There are different definitions for Geographic Information System, each developed from a different
perspective or disciplinary origin. Some focus on the map connection, some stress the database or the software
tool kit and others emphasis applications such as decision support. Defining a GIS can be done by either
explaining what it can do (Functions) or by looking at the components. Both are important to really understand
a GIS and use it optimally. An analysis of the three letters ofthe acronym GIS gives a clear picture of what
GIS is all about:
G Geographic: Implies an interest in the spatial identity or locality of certain entities on, under or above the
surface ofthe earth.
I Information: Implies the need to be informed in order to make decisions. Data or raw facts are interpreted
to create information that is useful for decision-making.
S System: Implies the need for staff, computer hardware and procedures, which can produce the information
required for decision-making that is data collection, processing, and presentation.
A GIS can be defined as a computing application capable of creating, storing, manipulating, visualizing, and
analyzing geographic information. It finds its strongest applications in resources management, utilities
management, telecommunications, urban and regional planning, vehicle routing and parcel delivery, and in
all ofthe sciences that deal with the surface of the Earth
Geographic Information System is a system of hardware, software, data, people, organisations and institutional
arrangements for collecting, storing, analyzing and disseminating information about areas of the earth.

2.Describe different components of GIS

GIS enables the user to input, manage, manipulate, analyze, and display geographically referenced data using
a computerized system. To perform various operations with GIS, the components of GIS such as software,
hardware, data, people and methods are essential.
A GIS can be defined as a computing application capable of creating, storing, manipulating, visualizing, and
analyzing geographic information. It finds its strongest applications in resources management, utilities
management, telecommunications, urban and regional planning, vehicle routing and parcel delivery, and in
all ofthe sciences that deal with the surface of the Earth
Geographic Information System is a system of hardware, software, data, people, organisations and institutional
arrangements for collecting, storing, analyzing and disseminating information about areas of the earth.
Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic information.
Key software components are (a) a database management system (DBMS) (b) tools for the input and
manipulation of geographic information (c) tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
(d) a graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools. GIS software are either commercial software or
software developed on Open Source domain, which are available for free. However, the commercial software
is copyright protected, can be expensive and is available in terms number of licensees.
Currently available commercial GIS software includes Arc/Info, Intergraph, MapInfo, Gram++ etc. Out of
these Arc/Info is the most popular software package. And, the open source software are AMS/MARS etc.

Hardware
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS runs on a wide range of hardware types, from
centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations. Minimum
configuration required to Arc/Info Desktop 9.0 GIS application is as follows:
Product: ArcInfo Desktop 9.0
Platform: PC-Intel
Operating System: Windows XP Professional Edition, Home Edition
Service Packs/Patches: SP 1
SP2 (refer to Limitations)
Shipping/Release Date: May 10, 2004

Hardware Requirements
CPU Speed: 800 MHz minimum, 1.0 GHz recommended or higher
Processor: Pentium or higher
Memory/RAM: 256 MB minumum, 512 MB recommended or higher
Display Properties: Greater than 256 color depth
Swap Space: 300 MB minimum
Disk Space: Typical 605 MB NTFS, Complete 695 MB FAT32 + 50 MB for installation
Browser: Internet Explorer 6.0 Requirement:
(Some features of ArcInfo Desktop 9.0 require a minimum installation of Microsoft
Internet Explorer Version 6.0.)
Data

The most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data or Spatial data and related tabular data
can be collected in-house or bought from a commercial data provider. Spatial data can be in the form of a
map/remotely-sensed data such as satellite imagery and aerial photography. These data forms must be properly
georeferenced (latitude/longitude). Tabular data can be in the form attribute data that is in some way related
to spatial data. Most GIS software comes with inbuilt Database Management Systems (DBMS) to create and
maintain a database to help organize and manage data.
Users

GIS technology is of limited value without the users who manage the system and to develop plans for applying
it. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help
them do their everyday work. 6 These users are largely interested in the results of the analyses and may have
no interest or knowledge of the methods of analysis. The user-friendly interface of the GIS software allows
the nontechnical users to have easy access to GIS analytical capabilities without needing to know detailed
software commands. A simple User Interface (UI) can consist of menus and pull-down graphic windows so
that the user can perform required analysis with a few key presses without needing to learn specific commands
in detail.
Methods

A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are the models and
operating practices unique to each organization.

3.Illustrate with examples the different GIS functions

General-purpose GIS software performs six major tasks such as input, manipulation, management, query and
analysis, Visualization.
Input
The important input data for any GIS is digitized maps, images, spatial data and tabular data. The tabular
data is generally typed on a computer using relational database management system software. Before
geographic data can be used in a GIS it must be converted into a suitable digital format. The DBMS system
can generate various objects such as index generation on data items, to speed up the information retrieval by
a query. Maps can be digitized using a vector format in which the actual map points, lines, and polygons are
stored as coordinates. Data can also be input in a raster format in which data elements are stored as cells in a
grid structure (the technology details are covered in following section).
 The process of converting data from paper maps into computer files is called digitizing. Modern GIS
technology has the capability to automate this process fully for large projects; smaller jobs may require some
manual digitizing. The digitizing process is labour intensive and time-consuming, so it is better to use the
data that already exist. 7 Today many types of geographic data already exist in GIS-compatible formats.
These data can be obtained from data suppliers and loaded directly into a GIS.
Manipulation

GIS can store, maintain, distribute and update spatial data associated text data. The spatial data must be
referenced to a geographic coordinate systems (latitude/longitude). The tabular data associated with spatial
data can be manipulated with help of data base management software. It is likely that data types required for
a particular GIS project will need to be transformed or manipulated in some way to make them compatible
with the system. For example, geographic information is available at different scales (scale of 1:100,000;
1:10,000; and 1:50,000). Before these can be overlaid and integrated they must be transformed to the same
scale. This could be a temporary transformation for display purposes or a permanent one required for analysis.
And, there are many other types of data manipulation that are routinely performed in GIS. These include
projection changes, data aggregation, generalization and weeding out unnecessary data.
Management

For small GIS projects it may be sufficient to store geographic information as computer files. However,
when data volumes become large and the number of users of the data becomes more than a few, it is advised
to use a database management system (DBMS) to help store, organize, and manage data. A DBMS is a
database management software package to manage the integrated collection of database objects such as
tables, indexes, query, and other procedures in a database. There are many different models of DBMS, but
for GIS use, the relational model database management systems will be highly helpful. In the relational
model, data are stored conceptually as a collection of tables and each table will have the data attributes related
to a common entity. Common fields in different tables are used to link them together with relations. Because
of its simple architecture, the relational DBMS software has been used so widely. These are flexible in nature
and have been very wide deployed in applications both within and without GIS.
Query

The stored information either spatial data or associated tabular data can be retrieved with the help of
Structured Query Language (SQL). Depending on the type of user interface, data can be queried using the
SQL or a menu driven system can be used to retrieve map data. For example, you can begin to ask questions
such as:
• Where are all the soils are suitable for sunflower crop?
• What is the dominant soil type for Paddy?
• What is the groundwater available position in a village/block/district?
Both simple and sophisticated queries utilizing more than one data layer can provide timely information to
officers, analysts to have overall knowledge about situation and can take a more informed decision
Analysis

GIS systems really come into their own when they are used to analyze geographic data. The processes of
geographic analysis often called spatial analysis or geo-processing uses the geographic properties of features
to look for patterns and trends, and to undertake "what if" scenarios. Modern GIS have many powerful
analytical tools to analyse the data. The following are some of the analysis which are generally performed on
geographic data.
Visualization
GIS can provide hardcopy maps, statistical summaries, modeling solutions and graphical display of maps for
both spatial and tabular data. For many types of geographic operation the end result is best visualized as a map
or graph. Maps are very efficient at storing and communicating geographic information. GIS provides new
and exciting tools to extend the art of visualization of output information to the users.

4.List and Explain the GIS operations

5.Illustrate with examples the major generic questions answered by GIS.
5 Types of Questions GIS can Answer
1.Where is it?
This is a question that GIS answers by locating geographic places or objects. For instance, you can search for
towns by the name of Lokichoggio, or the nearest petrol station based on your location. The results of such
queries are returned as coordinates, shown on a map, or used as input for a subsequent process.

You could probably answer such questions on your own, but GIS excels in multi-criteria decision analysis.
For example, it can come up with your perfect holiday by finding destinations that have good weather, natural
beauty, and entertainment for the kids at an affordable cost. If you plan on farming, GIS can assist you in
finding vacant and affordable agricultural land, with the right weather and soil conditions, and good access to
markets for growing coffee or any other crop.

2. What is at?
This question inverses the first one and helps you to query conditions at a point location or within a defined
area. When presented with an opportunity to buy a dream house in Mombasa, you can use GIS to look up
property values and trends, crime statistics, and traffic volumes within the area. In addition, you might want
to use GIS to calculate the distance from your house to social amenities like schools, hospitals, and shopping
centers.

3.What has changed?

This involves the previous two questions and looks at changes over time through temporal analysis. To put
this differently, we can either track the movement of objects or phenomena or study how an area changes over
time.

As an example of tracking movements, GIS can compare forest cover in Kenya between 1980 with 2010, or
compare the sightings of elephants from the last two wildlife counts in Tsavo National Park. With GPS one
can also track moveable assets and measure how much a delivery truck has moved over the last hour.

To illustrate changes in an area, GIS can compare land use in Laikipia between 1990 and 2015 to quantify
changes in land use (e.g. conversion from grazing land to farmland). In the town of Nairobi, GIS can look at
changes in traffic volume on Uhuru Highway over different days of the week or times of the day.

4.What patterns/relationships exist?

Data is often easier to interpret when visualized in the form of a map, but such interpretations are subjective
or at best qualitative. Spatial statistics helps us to quantify patterns and relationships within spatial data in a
scientific manner.

Analysis of patterns answers questions like whether incidences of malaria in Nairobi occur in a dispersed,
clustered or random manner. It can also identify hotspots and coldspots of crime, or measure the mean center
of a town’s population.
Many of us use or have used regression analysis, but did you know that GIS can measure and quantify
relationships between variables in a geographic context? This is powerful since it can determine whether the
factors that cause poverty in Garissa County are significantly different from the ones in Nairobi. Insights in
these factors will help in coming up with the right policy interventions.

The above examples looked at the coincidence of features, but another type of relationship that can be analyzed
is connectivity. This helps to answer questions like what’s the quickest route from home to work, or which
customers are connected to a water main that needs repair.

5.What if …?
So far, we have mainly looked at various types of questions that GIS can answer through data management
and analysis. As a next step, GIS can use spatial relationships to build predictive models that help to answer
questions in respect of the future.

For example, GIS could predict how much traffic will pile up at Kenya National Hospital when the widening
of Ngong Road is completed. Or to use a simpler example, when a pizza will be delivered when ordered for.
Answering these questions requires geographic and other information or models.

6.What are Strengths and Weaknesses of GIS?

Advantages:
• Gеоgrарhіс Information Sуѕtеmѕ can visualize ѕраtіаl information.
• It саn be uѕеd fоr a vаѕt rаngе оf tаѕkѕ іnvоlvіng gеоgrарhу.
• It саn provide thе solutions fоr thе рrоblеmѕ аnd it саn model natural disaster асtіvіtу
рrесіѕеlу.
• GIS tесhnоlоgу offers tіmе mаnаgеmеnt.
• It offers a ԛuісk соllесtіоn of dаtа.
• It presents a catalog оf dаtа.
• Display spatial information ( Spatial = Graphics + Tables)
• It hаѕ hіgh ассurасу and рrеѕеntѕ better рrеdісtіоnѕ аnd analysis.
• It has thе ability оf іmрrоvіng thе оrgаnіzаtіоnаl іntеgrаtіоn which helps software to talk
each other.
• GIS wоuld also allow vіеwіng, questioning, undеrѕtаndіng, visualizing аnd іntеrрrеtіng the
dаtа into numbеr оf wауѕ whісh wіll rеvеаl relationships, trеndѕ аnd раttеrnѕ іn the form
оf globes, mарѕ, charts and rероrtѕ.
• A GIS hеlрѕ you аnѕwеr thе ԛuеѕtіоnѕ аnd ѕоlvе the рrоblеmѕ bу analyzing уоur dаtа and
outputed in a easy and meaningful way.
• GIS data іѕ uѕеd in thе nаturаl rеѕоurсе mаnаgеmеnt thаt саn іnсludе hillslope grаdіеntѕ,
аѕресt, ѕtrеаm nеtwоrk, stream grаdіеnt, slope, catchment area and more.

Disadvantages:

• Gеоgrарhіс Infоrmаtіоn Sуѕtеm (GIS) іѕ very expensive ѕоftwаrе.

• It requires the еnоrmоuѕ amount оf data inputted tо bе practical for task so there is changes
of error.
• It hаѕ rеlаtіvе resolution loss.
• It has a privacy violation.
• Gеоgrарhіс Information System’s error increases for larger scale map because of the earth
shape ( not perfect round).
• Funding for GIS is nееdеd because іt іѕ more costly.
• If GIS is run by non-GIS group, Geography might suffer.
• GIS layers may саuѕе ѕоmе соѕtlу mistakes whеn it is handled by non-GIS person.
 • The data is fuel for GIS, if there is no data then GIS can not function.
• GIS output will be accurate if the input Data is correct, so GIS Expert has to be alwasys
aware of fact that all data are not always correct.
• There is always a failure to fully complete the GIS implementation in an organization.
• It’ѕ vеrу hаrd tо mаkе GIS рrоgrаmѕ which are both fast and user-friendly, GIS ѕуѕtеmѕ
typically rеquіrе соmрlеx соmmаnd lаnguаgе.
• Data fіеldѕ, and thеіr ассеѕѕіbіlіtу are not vеrу undеrѕtооd and data саn bесоmе
incomplete, оbѕоlеtе or еrrоnеоuѕ, rendering thе GIS misleading.

7.What are the common misconceptions about the nature and use of GIS?

GIS is Complicated.

Just like all technology, the early systems were complicated and required special knowledge. Take computers
for example – in the early days one needed to know machine language to program even a simple
operation. Then along came rudimentary languages, punch cards, then sophisticated languages, scripting
languages et al, and now there are app builders and configuration tools that actually build and configure
applications without any programming. As computers matured and became easier to use, the growth of those
using computers grew exponentially. Now we use very sophisticated cloud based systems and apps on mobile
phones without thinking of the past and how complicated things used to be. This is the same with GIS.

GIS is Expensive

Similar to Myth #1, technology used to be very expensive – it required specialized hardware, extensive training
and custom data. GIS is now not only available as enterprise platform technology, but as desktop and SaaS
software using common applications such as Microsoft Excel and PowerPoint. GIS requires no special
hardware, training or data to get started. Global basemaps, imagery and data are now just part of the
platform. The Living Atlas is a curated set of geographic data that anyone using the Esri platform has access
to. We will save return on investment analysis for a future blog, but the economic benefits of improved
efficiency, increased productivity and the improved quality of critical decisions are obviously vast.

GIS Requires Customization

GIS technology was originally developed with broad goals to manage disparate data sets, invent and perform
spatial analysis, and visualize geographic data in new ways. As the use of GIS has grown and has become an
integral part of many organizations, common requirements, workflows and processes have emerged. Take for
example, managing land records and mapping parcels. There are only eight or nine things you can do to a
parcel - i.e. split, merge, subdivide, etc. In the past, these workflows were custom built and every country,
province, state, city and country did them differently. GIS has matured into domain specific solutions
including parcel editing. Now everyone can benefit from a standardized set of best practices and software
configurations.

GIS is for Experts

No, GIS is for everyone. Whether you want to develop a map and app for local bike trails or build a story map
that shows off the historic properties in your community, you can do it. The SaaS GIS, ArcGIS Online (if you
don’t have one, you can create a free non-commercial account), provides mapping, analysis, and sharing
capabilities that can anyone can do. There are widgets. wizards and app builders that give you the ability to
create maps and apps that can be used on any device – iPhones, Androids, and desktops. This give you access
to your maps and data on any device, anywhere and at any time. There are GIS experts, and there will always
be experts, but to other GIS is an essential tool in their work. GIS now is for everyone.

8.What are the limitations of using a GIS? Under what conditions might the technology hinder
problem solving, rather than help?
Limitations:
It expensive: A GIS system is not cheap thanks to the complex interconnection of the various
components that make up a GIS system. Besides the hardware and the software, there is need to
have a fully trained human personnel that is expensive to train and acquire.
Excessive damage in case of an internal fault: Owing to the fact that a GIS system includes very
complex components internally, any fault or internal outage will result into an elaborate damage
that will take long hours or long periods of time to repair back to operationalization.
Integration with traditional maps is difficult: A GIS system is made up of extremely complex
map structures and information that may be difficult to integrate with the traditional maps to gain
any meaningful information. This means a GIS system only works with and interprets information
that has been collected using the software from the start.
Complex data structures: The data collected and stored in GIS system is usually complex with
plenty of definition and restructuring required. This means that special skills are required to
understand and interpret the data collected in a GIS system.
Simulation is difficult: A GIS system captures complex data arrays that require special analysis to
comprehend. For this reason, it may be difficult to create a simulation of the data or information captured in a
GIS system.

Some data analysis is impossible to perform: Because of the complexity of the data structures captured or
recorded in a GIS system, some spatial data may be impossible to analyze hence leading to incomplete
information. Not all information captured in a GIS system can be analyzed completely.

Less impressive: Unlike other forms of data analysis techniques, the data captured in a GIS system is usually
less “pretty” or impressive leading to some level of difficulty or complexity in the analysis of the data that
would otherwise have been easy. The presentation of the data in GIS system may also not be organized for
easy end-user consumption.

Difficulty in projection transformation: Sometimes it may be difficult to perform a projection

transformation using a GIS system thanks to the complexity of the data structures.

Generalization may lead to loss of important information: In performing data analysis using a GIS system,
there is a lot of generalization due to the massive data being analyzed. The user stands to lose a lot of
information due to the generalization of data.

Large amounts of data: A GIS system stores extremely large amounts of data at any given time. This may
create problems when it comes to analysis due to the complexity of the data and the risk of generalization. It
also creates problems when it comes to interpretation.

Large storage: GIS data requires extremely large storage space due to the large data sizes and data types
used. This also increases the cost of storage and the manpower required to manipulate the data to make sense.

Expensive data collection: The data collection process using a GIS system is usually expensive in the long
run since not all the data collected will be useful and yet all require storage and analysis.

Difficult overlay operations: GIS data require complex overlay operations that are difficult to achieve
especially when the personnel involved are not properly trained.

Time consuming: The process of collecting, storing and analyzing of information using a GIS system is long
and tedious and therefore time consuming. It may take a long time to get complete information regarding a
particular set of data due to the vastness of the data available.
9.Define a data model and describe three primary differences between the two most commonly used
data models.

A data model refers to the logical inter-relationships and data flow between different data elements involved
in the information world. It also documents the way data is stored and retrieved. Data models facilitate
communication business and technical development by accurately representing the requirements of the
information system and by designing the responses needed for those requirements. Data models help
represent what data is required and what format is to be used for different business processes.
A data model is a method of representing spatial and aspatial components of real-world entities on a computer.
The two primary models are vector and raster models. A vector model is most like a typical map that we think
of. It has points, line and polygons. Size and dimensions of the entity are not important in these models, only the
location. A raster model divides the area into a grid-like pattern and every square has a value. This makes it
much bigger than a vector model in terms of file size. It is the natural way to represent continuous data. Raster
models are relatively simple, compared to vector models and are east to modify or program. Vector models can
have continuous curves but are poor for images, whereas raster models are good for digital images but have
stair-step curves.
vector data model: [data models] A representation of the world using points, lines, and polygons. Vector
models are useful for storing data that has discrete boundaries, such as country borders, land parcels, and
streets.

raster data model: [data models] A representation of the world as a surface divided into a regular grid of
cells. Raster models are useful for storing data that varies continuously, as in an aerial photograph, a satellite
image, a surface of chemical concentrations, or an elevation surface.
All I have understood from the above is that both vector and raster data constitute of "latitudes and
longitudes", only. The difference is in the way they are displayed.

Latitudes and Longitudes in Vector data are displayed in the form of lines, points, etc.

Latitudes and Longitudes in Raster data are displayed in the form of closed shapes where each pixel has a
particular latitude and longitude associated with it.

10.Explain the difference between vector data and raster data

11.What are the respective advantages and disadvantages of vector data models vs. raster data
models?

Advantages of Raster-
1. It is simple data structure.
2. The best way to represent continuous features data.
3. Overlay operations easy to perform.
4. Due to same cell size it is easy for simulation.
5. Overlay and combination of maps and remote sensed images easy
6.Some spatial analysis methods simple to perform
7.Simulation easy, because cells have the same size and shape
8. Technology is cheap
Disadvantages of Raster-
1. Difficult to perform coordinate transformation process.
2. Difficult in topological representation.
3. The cell-size determines the feature resolution.
4.The use of large cells to reduce data volumes means that phenomenonologically recognizable structures can be lost and
there can be a serious loss of information
5. Crude raster maps are considerably less beautiful than line maps
6. Network linkages are difficult to establish
7. Projection transformations are time consuming unless special algorithms or hardware is used.
Advantages of Vector-
1. Projection transformation can be done smoothly.
2. Easily edit the data and Graphic output is usually aesthetically pleasing.
3. Connects easily between topologies and networks.
4. High spatial resolution.
5. • Good representation of phenomenonology
• Compact
• Topology can be completely described
• Accurate graphics
• Retrieval, updating and generalization of graphics and attributes possible
• light data easily manageable
• Fast processing
Disadvantages of Vectors-
1. Difficult to represent continuous data.
2. Time consuming and expensive.
3. Complex data structure.
• Complex Data Structures
• Combination of several vector polygon maps through overlay creates difficulties
• Simulation is difficult because each unit has a different topological form
• Display and plotting can be expensive, particularly for high quality color
The technology is expensive, particularly for the more sophisticated software and hardware
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons are impossible

12.Under what conditions are mixed cells a problem in raster data models? In what ways may the problem of
mixed cells be addressed?

Normally each cell receives one value, so when there are multiple values for one cell, difficulties arise. One
solution is to simply represent only one feature. This means there may be data loss. Another solution is to make
the cells small enough so that there will ever be multiple features in one cell. This means the data set may have
to get a lot larger. There are ways to record multiple instances in one cell, but it may slow access.
13.Define a datum. Describe how datums are developed. Why is datum being important in GIS?
A geodetic datum is a reference from which spatial measurements are made. In surveying and geodesy,
a datum is a set of reference points on the earth's surface against which position measurements are made, and
(often) an associated model of the shape of the earth (reference ellipsoid) to define a geographic coordinate
system. Horizontal datums are used for describing a point on the earth's surface, in latitude and longitude or
another coordinate system. Vertical datums measure elevations or depths. In engineering and drafting,
a datum is a reference point, surface, or axis on an object against which measurements are made.

Developing Datums
As mapping expanded globally, cartographers established coordinate reference frameworks that helped
standardize mapping activities across wide areas. The resulting datums were typically limited in extent and
were tied to an origin point on the earth's surface. The North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27) is a classic
example of an early, local earth-surface-based datum. The spheroid NAD27 uses Clarke 1866 that originates
at a surface point at Meades Ranch, Kansas. Many NAD27 control points were calculated from observations
taken in the 1800s. The calculations were done manually, in sections, over many years, and errors vary from
station to station.
importance
Prior to satellite mapping technology, the best approximation of the shape of the earth was the mathematically
calculated geoid, which evolved into slightly flattened spheroids or ellipsoids. Geographic coordinate systems
use a spheroid to calculate positions on the earth. A datum defines the position of the spheroid relative to the
center of the earth. As surveying technology improved and data acquisition increased worldwide, the
mathematical formulas and the related parameters used to describe the shape of our irregular earth continually
improved

14.Why are there multiple datums, even for the same place on Earth? Define what we mean when we
say there is a datum shift.

Three distinct figures are involved in a geodetic datum for latitude, longitude and height: the geoid, the
reference ellipsoid, and the Earth itself. Due in large measure to the ascendancy of satellite geodesy, it has
become highly desirable that they share a common center.

While the level surface of the geoid provides a solid foundation for the definitions of heights and the
topographic surface of the Earth is necessarily where measurements are made, neither can serve as the
reference surface for geodetic positions. From the continents to the floors of the oceans, the solid Earth's
actual surface is too irregular to be represented by a simple mathematical statement.

The geoid, which is sometimes under, and sometimes above, the surface of the Earth, has an overall shape
that also defies any concise geometrical definition. But the ellipsoid not only has the same general shape as
the Earth, but, unlike the other two figures, can be described simply and completely in mathematical terms.

A good understanding of these ideas is essential to clear comprehension of satellite based positioning. The
next lesson will focus on the most usual manifestations of GPS coordinates in the United States, State Plane
Coordinates and UTM coordinates. We will also have a bit of discussion on an often misunderstood topic-
heights.

Different models of the earth’s shape, and different strategies for assigning coordinates (typically
lat/long/height) to locations can be used in different regions, at different times, or for different purposes. A
datum encompasses all of these concepts.
It’s important to know which datum (and projection) your map uses, so that you can relate it to real locations
and know when it’s appropriate to combine or compare with other maps or data. For example, data in the
NAD83 datum can’t be overlaid with data in NAD27; you need to convert the data into a common datum first.
 The process of converting data from one datum to another is called a datum shift; it’s also called a coordinate
transformation (EPSG, OGC) or geographic transformation (Esri).

15.Explain in detail about the map projections in GIS.

A map projection is a mathematical formula used to transfer all or part of the curved surface of the earth
onto the flat surface of a map.

The process of flattening the earth causes distortions in one or more of the following spatial properties:

• Distance
• Area
• Shape
• Direction
No projection can preserve all these properties; as a result, all flat maps are distorted to some degree.
Fortunately, you can choose from many different map projections. Each is distinguished by its suitability for
representing a particular portion and amount of the earth's surface and by its ability to preserve distance,
area, shape, or direction. Some map projections minimize distortion in one property at the expense of
another, while others strive to balance the overall distortion. As a mapmaker, you can decide which
properties are most important and choose a projection that suits your needs.

Classifications

Map projections can be generally classified according to what spatial attribute they preserve.

• Equal area projections preserve area. Many thematic maps use an equal area projection. Maps of the
United States commonly use the Albers Equal Area Conic projection.
• Conformal projections preserve shape and are useful for navigational charts and weather maps. Shape is
preserved for small areas, but the shape of a large area, such as a continent, will be significantly distorted.
The Lambert Conformal Conic and Mercator projections are common conformal projections.
• Equidistant projections preserve distances, but no projection can preserve distances from all points to all
other points. Instead, distance can be held true from one point (or a few points) to all other points or along
all meridians or parallels. If you will be using your map to find features that are within a certain distance of
other features, you should use an equidistant map projection.
• Azimuthal projections preserve direction from one point to all other points. This quality can be combined
with equal area, conformal, and equidistant projections, as in the Lambert Equal Area Azimuthal and the
Azimuthal Equidistant projections.
• Other projections minimize overall distortion but don't preserve any of the four spatial properties of area,
shape, distance, and direction. The Robinson projection, for example, is neither equal area nor conformal
but is aesthetically pleasing and useful for general mapping.

Choosing a map projection

If you won't be performing queries based on location and distance, or you just want to make a quick map—
you might decide not to transform your data to a projected coordinate system. If, however, you need to make
precise measurements on your map, you should choose a projected coordinate system.

The following are some reasons for using a projected coordinate system:

• You want to make accurate measurements from your map and be sure that the spatial analysis options you
use in ArcMap calculate distance correctly. Latitude-longitude is a good system for storing spatial data but
not as good for viewing, querying, or analyzing maps. Degrees of latitude and longitude are not consistent
units of measure for area, shape, distance, and direction.
• You are making a map in which you want to preserve one or more of these properties: area, shape, distance,
and direction.
• You are making a small-scale map such as a national or world map. With a small-scale map, your choice of
map projection determines the overall appearance of the map. For example, with some projections, lines of
latitude and longitude will appear curved; with others, they will appear straight.
• Your organization mandates using a particular projected coordinate system for all maps.

Other considerations
Here are a few things to consider when choosing a projection:

• Which spatial properties do you want to preserve?

• Where is the area you're mapping? Is your data in a polar region? An equatorial region?
• What shape is the area you're mapping? Is it square? Is it wider in the east–west direction?
• How big is the area you're mapping? On large-scale maps, such as street maps, distortion may be negligible
because your map covers only a small part of the earth's surface. On small-scale maps, where a small
distance on the map represents a considerable distance on the earth, distortion may have a bigger impact,
especially if you use your map to compare or measure shape, area, or distance.

16.What are some inherent advantages and disadvantages of using globes to display important
cartographic information?

17.What is Global Positioning System (GPS)?

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system using satellites, a receiver and algorithms to
synchronize location, velocity and time data for air, sea and land travel.

The satellite system consists of a constellation of 24 satellites in six Earth-centered orbital planes, each with
four satellites, orbiting at 13,000 miles (20,000 km) above Earth and traveling at a speed of 8,700
mph (14,000 km/h).

While we only need three satellites to produce a location on earth’s surface, a fourth satellite is often used to
validate the information from the other three. The fourth satellite also moves us into the third-dimension and
allows us to calculate the altitude of a device.

18.Explain the trilateration process to obtain the positional information in GPS.

19.Explain the different segments of GPS

The Space segment: The space segment consists of 24 satellites circling the earth at 12,000 miles in altitude.
This high altitude allows the signals to cover a greater area. The satellites are arranged in their orbits so a GPS
receiver on earth can always receive a signal from at least four satellites at any given time. Each satellite
transmits low radio signals with a unique code on different frequencies, allowing the GPS receiver to identify
the signals. The main purpose of these coded signals is to allow for calculating travel time from the satellite to
the GPS receiver. The travel time multiplied by the speed of light equals the distance from the satellite to the
GPS receiver. Since these are low power signals and won’t travel through solid objects, it is important to have a
clear view of the sky.

The Control segment: The control segment tracks the satellites and then provides them with corrected orbital
and time information. The control segment consists of four unmanned control stations and one master control
station. The four unmanned stations receive data from the satellites and then send that information to the master
control station where it is corrected and sent back to the GPS satellites.

The User segment: The user segment consists of the users and their GPS receivers. The number of
simultaneous users is limitless. The user segment comprises of the GPS receiver, which receives the signals
from the GPS satellites and determines how far away it is from each satellite. Mainly this segment is used for
the U.S military, missile guidance systems, civilian applications for GPS in almost every field. Most of the
civilian use this from survey to transportation to natural resources and from there to agriculture purpose and
mapping too.

20.What are the advantages and disadvantages of GPS over conventional surveying methods?

The advantages and disadvantages of GPS for Land Surveying

The Global Positioning System changed the world of land surveying in many ways, most of them good.
There are, however, some downsides to this type of equipment. Here is a quick summary of the pros and
cons for GPS land surveying:
advantages

• It offers a higher level of accuracy than conventional surveying methods

• Calculations are made very quickly and with a high degree of accuracy
• GPS technology is not bound by constraints such as visibility between stations
• Land surveyors can carry GPS components easily for fast, accurate data collection
• Some GPS systems can communicate wireless for real-time data delivery

disadvantages

• GPS land surveying equipment requires a clear view of the sky to receive satellite signal
• Interference from dense foliage and other structures can limit function and communication
• All GPS survey equipment is subject to failure from dead batteries and system malfunction
• Special equipment may be required and can be costly

The world of land surveying is constantly changing as new technology replaces old. Commercial survey
equipment has made leaps and bounds over the past few decades and, with the help of GPS technology, will
only become faster and more accurate over time.

21.What is remote sensing? What is active and passive remote sensing system? Explain the advantages
and limitations of remote sensing.
Remote sensing is an art and science of obtaining information about an object or feature without physically
coming in contact with that object or feature. Humans apply remote sensing in their day-to-day business,
through vision, hearing and sense of smell. The data collected can be of many forms: variations in acoustic
wave distributions (e.g., sonar), variations in force distributions (e.g., gravity meter), variations in
electromagnetic energy distributions (e.g., eye) etc. These remotely collected data through various sensors
may be analyzed to obtain information about the objects or features under investigation
Depending on the source of electromagnetic energy, remote sensing can be classified as passive or
active remote sensing.
In the case of passive remote sensing, source of energy is that naturally available such as the Sun. Most of
the remote sensing systems work in passive mode using solar energy as the source of EMR. Solar energy
reflected by the targets at specific wavelength bands are recorded using sensors onboard air-borne or space
borne platforms. In order to ensure ample signal strength received at the sensor, wavelength / energy bands
capable of traversing through the atmosphere, without significant loss through atmospheric interactions, are
generally used in remote sensing
Any object which is at a temperature above 0o K (Kelvin) emits some radiation, which is approximately
proportional to the fourth power of the temperature of the object. Thus the Earth also emits some radiation
since its ambient temperature is about 300o K. Passive sensors can also be used to measure the Earth’s
radiance but they are not very popular as the energy content is very low.
 In the case of active remote sensing, energy is generated and sent from the remote sensing platform towards
the targets. The energy reflected back from the targets are recorded using sensors onboard the remote
sensing platform. Most of the microwave remote sensing is done through active remote sensing.
As a simple analogy, passive remote sensing is similar to taking a picture with an ordinary camera whereas
active remote sensing is analogous to taking a picture with camera having built-in flash
Advantages of remote sensing are:
a) Provides data of large areas
b) Provides data of very remote and inaccessible regions
c) Able to obtain imagery of any area over a continuous period of time through which the any anthropogenic
or natural changes in the landscape can be analyzed
d) Relatively inexpensive when compared to employing a team of surveyors
e) Easy and rapid collection of data
f) Rapid production of maps for interpretation
Disadvantages of remote sensing are:
a) The interpretation of imagery requires a certain skill level
b) Needs cross verification with ground (field) survey data
c) Data from multiple sources may create confusion
d) Objects can be misclassified or confused
e) Distortions may occur in an image due to the relative motion of sensor and source

22.Explain electromagnetic radiation. What is its significance in remote sensing? What are the types
of Electromagnetic radiation?
Electromagnetic energy or electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is the energy propagated in the form of an
advancing interaction between electric and magnetic fields (Sabbins, 1978). It travels with the velocity of
light. Visible light, ultraviolet rays, infrared rays, heat, radio waves, X-rays all are different forms of electro-
magnetic energy.
Electro-magnetic energy (E) can be expressed either in terms of frequency (f) or wave length (λ) of radiation
as
E = h c f or h c / λ
(1) where h is Planck's constant (6.626 x 10-34 Joules-sec), c is a constant that expresses the celerity or
speed of light (3 x 108 m/sec), f is frequency expressed in Hertz and λ is the wavelength expressed in micro
meters (1µm = 10-6 m). As can be observed from equation (1), shorter wavelengths have higher energy
content and longer wavelengths have lower energy content. Distribution of the continuum of energy can be
plotted as a function of wavelength (or frequency) and is known as the EMR spectrum
Principles of Remote Sensing

Different objects reflect or emit different amounts of energy in different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The amount of energy reflected or emitted depends on the properties of both the material and the incident
energy (angle of incidence, intensity and wavelength). Detection and discrimination of objects or surface
features is done through the uniqueness of the reflected or emitted electromagnetic radiation from the object.

A device to detect this reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation from an object is called a “sensor” (e.g.,
cameras and scanners). A vehicle used to carry the sensor is called a “platform” (e.g., aircrafts and satellites).

Radio: Your radio captures radio waves emitted by radio stations, bringing your favorite tunes. Radio waves
are also emitted by stars and gases in space.

Microwave: Microwave radiation will cook your popcorn in just a few minutes, but is also used
by astronomers to learn about the structure of nearby galaxies.

Infrared: Night vision goggles pick up the infrared light emitted by our skin and objects with heat. In space,
infrared light helps us map the dust between stars.

Visible: Our eyes detect visible light. Fireflies, light bulbs, and stars all emit visible light.

Ultraviolet: Ultraviolet radiation is emitted by the Sun and are the reason skin tans and burns. "Hot" objects
in space emit UV radiation as well.

X-ray: A dentist uses X-rays to image your teeth, and airport security uses them to see through your bag.
Hot gases in the Universe also emit X-rays.

Gamma ray: Doctors use gamma-ray imaging to see inside your body. The biggest gamma-ray generator of
all is the Universe.

23.What are the different platforms used in remote sensing?

Remote sensing platforms can be classified as follows, based on the elevation from the Earth’s surface at
which these platforms are placed.

• Ground level remote sensing

o Ground level remote sensors are very close to the ground

o They are basically used to develop and calibrate sensors for different features on the Earth’s surface.

• Aerial remote sensing

o Low altitude aerial remote sensing

o High altitude aerial remote sensing

• Space borne remote sensing

o Space shuttles o Polar orbiting satellites

o Geo-stationary satellites

From each of these platforms, remote sensing can be done either in passive or active mode
24.Write short notes on

a. Scattering

b. Reflectance

c. Spectral signature

d. Different Platforms used in remote sensing

e. Elements of Resolution

Spectral Signature:

Spectral reflectance, [ρ(λ)], is the ratio of reflected energy to incident energy as a function of wavelength.
Various materials of the earth’s surface have different spectral reflectance characteristics. Spectral
reflectance is responsible for the color or tone in a photographic image of an object. Trees appear green
because they reflect more of the green wavelength. The values of the spectral reflectance of objects averaged
over different, well-defined wavelength intervals comprise the spectral signature of the objects or features
by which they can be distinguished. To obtain the necessary ground truth for the interpretation of
multispectral imagery, the spectral characteristics of various natural objects have been extensively measured
and recorded.

The spectral reflectance is dependent on wavelength, it has different values at different wavelengths for a
given terrain feature. The reflectance characteristics of the earth’s surface features are expressed by spectral
reflectance, which is given by:

ρ(λ) = [ER(λ) / EI (λ)] x 100

scattering:

Scattering is the redirection of EMR by particles suspended in the atmosphere or by large molecules of
atmospheric gases. Scattering not only reduces the image contrast but also changes the spectral signature of
ground objects as seen by the sensor. The amount of scattering depends upon the size of the particles, their
abundance, the wavelength of radiation, depth of the atmosphere through which the energy is traveling and
the concentration of the particles. The concentration of particulate matter varies both in time and over
season. Thus the effects of scattering will be uneven spatially and will vary from time to time.

Theoretically scattering can be divided into three categories depending upon the wavelength of radiation
being scattered and the size of the particles causing the scattering

Reflectance

Of all the interactions in the reflective region, surface reflections are the most useful and revealing in remote
sensing applications. Reflection occurs when a ray of light is redirected as it strikes a non-transparent
surface. The reflection intensity depends on the surface refractive index, absorption coefficient and the
angles of incidence and reflection