Objective: To introduce the concept and necessity of protection in generation and transmission, and

applications of switchgears including internal operation of different types of circuit breakers.

NAME OF DEPTT./CENTRE: Department of Electrical Engineering

1. Subject Code: EEN-304

2. Course Title: Protection and Switchgear

3. Contact Hours: L: 3 T: 0 P: 2

4. Examination Duration (Hrs.): Theory: 3 Practical: 2

5. Relative Weight: CWS: 15 PRS: 25 MTE: 20 ETE: 40 PRE: 0

6. Credits: 4 7. Semester: Spring 8. Subject Area: DCC

9. Pre-requisite: EEN-206

1
 Syllabus of Protection and Switchgear (EEN-304)
S. No. Contents Contact Hours

Various types of electromechanical relays, construction and principle of operation and characteristic,
1. applications and limitations; Over and under current, directional, differential, distance and other types of relay; 8
Concept of static relays; Protection system and properties; Introduction to numerical relays.

Protection of transmission lines using overcurrent, differential, directional-overcurrent and distance relays,
2. 6
back-up protection, carrier relaying; Busbar protection.

Protection of transformers against internal faults such as short circuit and turn-to-turn fault using differential
3. 6
and overcurrent relays, protection for other abnormal conditions.

Protection of generators against short circuit and turn-to-turn fault, stator ground fault, field ground fault, loss
4. 6
of excitation, loss of synchronism using different types of relays.

Switchgear, arc and interruption theory, application in different conditions, ratings and selection, principle of
5. 12
operation of air break, oil filled, air blast, vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers, elementary idea of testing methods.

6. Necessity of grounding of system neutral and substation equipments, methods of grounding. 4

Total 42

2
Suggested Books
Year of Publication/
S. No. Name of Authors /Books / Publishers
Reprint

Van A. R. and Warrington C., “Protective Relays - Theory and Practice”, Vol. I and II, 3rd Ed.,
1. 1982
Chapman and Hall.

2. Mason C. R., “The Art and Science of Protective Relaying”, Wiley Eastern Limited. 1987

Ray S., “Electrical Power Systems: Concepts, Theory and Practice”, Prentice Hall of India Private
3. 2008
Limited.

Ravindranath B. and Chander M., “Power System Protection and Switchgear”, New Age
4. 2008
International Private Limited.

Paithankar Y. G. and Bhide S. R., “Fundamentals of Power System Protection”, Prentice Hall of India
5. 2007
Private Limited.
 R eferences

NPTEL Course on Power System Protection

and Switchgear September 2020.

4/3/2021 4
 Introduction of Relaying Scheme

 Subject name: Power System Protection and Switchgear

• Protective Devices: Fuse/MCB/Relay: To sense the

fault
• Switchgear: Circuit Breaker (CB): function is to
isolate the faulty section

5
 Occurrence of a Fault can cause

 Interruption in the power supply to the consumers.

 Substantial loss of revenue due to interruption of
service.
 Loss of synchronism.
 Extensive damage to equipment
 Serious hazard to Personnel

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 6

 Functions of Protective System
Stand watch and in the event of a failure such as
short circuit or abnormal operating conditions,

Deenergize the unhealthy section of the power

system.

To indicate the type and location of failure so as to

access the effectiveness of the protective schemes.

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 7

 Fault?
 Definition
• Flow of current to the undesired path or abnormal stoppage of
current.

Symmetrical Faults Asymmetrical Faults

8
 Symmetrical Fault
• It involves all the three phases.

• Example: LLL/LLLG

9
 Asymmetrical Fault
• It involves one or two phases with or without ground.

• Example: LG/LL/LLG
• LG: R-G, Y-G, B-G
• LL: R-Y, Y-B, B-R
• LLG: R-Y-G, Y-B-G, B-R-G

10
 Causes of Symmetrical Fault
Symmetrical Fault:
• It occurs when line is energized and earthing switch is
inadvertently kept ON.
Remote end
Local end

Circuit Breaker

Earthing switch

11
 Impact of Symmetrical Fault

• When LLL fault occurs, the three line fault

currents may be very high (10 times rated
value).
• However, the vector sum is zero.
• Hence, no current passes through the ground.
• LLL and LLLG are same.
• Difference is in case of overvoltages.

12
 Asymmetrical Fault
• LL fault occurs due to bridging of two phases/conductors
either in machines or in transformers because of failure
of insulation between phases (conductors of different
phases are in the same slot of a stator).
• In O/H TL, two phase wires may get shorted together by
(i) Birds
(ii) Kite strings
(iii) Tree limbs

13
 Asymmetrical Fault
 In monsoon, the two conductors may swing due
to winds and storms. The dielectric strength of air
reduces in monsoon.
 When the distance between these conductors is
reduced due to swinging, a power arc may occur
between them causing a LL fault.

14
 Spacing between Conductors (phases)
Horizontal spacing
SYSTEM Vertical spacing b/n
TYPE OF TOWER b/n
VOLTAGE conductors(mm)
conductors(mm)
A(0-2˚) 1080 4040
SINGLE
B(2-30˚) 1080 4270
CIRCUIT
C(30-60˚) 1220 4880
66 KV
A(0-2˚) 2170 4270
DOUBLE
B(2-30˚) 2060 4880
CIRCUIT
C(30-60˚) 2440 6000
A(0-2˚) 4200 7140
SINGLE B(2-30˚) 4200 6290
CIRCUIT
C(30-60˚) 4200 7150
D(30-60˚) 4200 8820
132KV
A(0-2˚) 3965 7020
DOUBLE B(2-30˚) 3965 7320
CIRCUIT
C(15-30˚) 3965 7320
D(30-60˚) 4270 8540
15
 Spacing between Conductors (phases)
Horizontal
SYSTEM Vertical spacing b/n
TYPE OF TOWER spacing b/n
VOLTAGE conductors(mm)
conductors(mm)
A(0-2˚) 5200 8500
SINGLE B(2-30˚) 5250 10500
CIRCUIT
C(15-30˚) 6700 12600
D(30-60˚) 7800 14000
220 KV
A(0-2˚) 5200 9900

DOUBLE B(2-30˚) 5200 10100

CIRCUIT C(15-30˚) 5200 10500
D(30-60˚) 6750 12600
A(0-2˚) 7800 12760

SINGLE B(2-30˚) 7800 12760

400 KV
CIRCUIT C(15-30˚) 7800 14000
D(30-60˚) 8100 16200

16
 Spacing between Conductors (phases)
• Mecomb’s formula
𝐷𝐷
Spacing(cm) = 0.03048 ∗ 𝑉𝑉 + 4.010 𝑆𝑆
𝑊𝑊
V= Voltage of system in KV
D= Diameter of conductor in cm
S= Sag in cm
W= Weight of conductor in Kg/m
 VDE formula
𝑉𝑉 2
Spacing(cm) =7.5 𝑆𝑆 +
2000
V= Voltage of system in KV
S= Sag in cm
17
 Spacing between Conductors (phases)
 Still’s formula
𝑙𝑙 2
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 5.08 + 1.814 ∗ 𝑉𝑉 +
27.8
Where-
l= average span length(m)
 NESC formula
𝑙𝑙
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) = 0.762 ∗ 𝑉𝑉 + 3.681 𝑆𝑆+
2
Where-
V= Voltage of system in KV
S= Sag in cm
L= Length of insulator string in cm
18
 Spacing between Conductors (phases)
 Swedish formula
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 6.5 𝑆𝑆 + 0.7 ∗ 𝐸𝐸
where-
E= line voltage in KV
S= sag in cm
 French formula
𝐸𝐸
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 8.0 𝑆𝑆 + 𝐿𝐿 +
𝐿𝐿
Where-
E= line voltage in KV
S= Sag in cm
L= Length of insulator string (cm)
19
 Spacing between Conductors (phases)

 Offset of conductors (under ice-loading conditions)

 Sleet Jump:-
The jump of the conductor, resulting from ice dropping off one
span of an ice-covered line, has been the cause of many serious
outages on long-span lines where conductors are arranged in the
same vertical plane.

• 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 60 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 / 400

20
 Ground Clearances of Conductors
Ground Clearances
𝑉𝑉−33
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 5.182 + 0.305 ∗ 𝐾𝐾, Where- 𝐾𝐾 =
33

Minimum permissible ground clearance as per IE

Rules, 1956, Rule 77(4)

21
 Ground Clearances of Conductors
Voltage Level Ground
Sr.No
(kV) Clearance (m)
1 ≤33 5.20
2 66 5.49
3 132 6.10
4 220 7.01
5 400 8.84
6 765 14.0

22
 Ground Clearances for conductors
crossing over railway tracks
 Under maximum sag condition, minimum clearance over rail level
(25 kV system). Broad Gauge
System Outside
Inside station
Voltage Level station
limits(m)
limits(m)
≤66 KV 10.3 7.9
132 KV 10.9 8.5
220 KV 11.2 8.8
400 KV 13.6 11.2
23
Ground Clearances when power line
crossing another power line

System Voltage Clearance (m)

level (kV)
≤66 2.40
132 2.75
220 4.55
400 6.00
765 10.0

24
 Asymmetrical Fault (LG)
 Most common fault on O/H conductors.
 80%-90% faults are SLG.
 It occurs due to
(i) flashover across the line insulators
(ii) Failure of insulators due to lightning or switching
overvoltages
(iii) Defective insulators

25
 Practical situation for occurrence of a SLG fault
Cross-arm

Flashover across insulators

String of
Tower
insulators

132 kV conductor
26
 Number of Insulators required
Sr. No. Voltage level (kV) Number of suspension Actual Number of
insulators insulators

1 66 66
�√3 7
𝑁𝑁 = =6.35
11

2 132 132
�√3 9 to 11
𝑁𝑁 = =6.92
11

3 220 220
�√3 12 or 16
𝑁𝑁 = =11.54
11

4 400 400
�√3 23 or 24
𝑁𝑁 = =20.99
11

5 765 765
�√3 42 or 43
𝑁𝑁 = =40.15
11

27
 Asymmetrical Fault (Open Conductor)
 Abnormal stoppage of current can occur due to
(i) open conductors

 (ii) voltage breakdown at equipment due to

occurrence of faults of the first kind in some
parts of the system.

28
 Consequences of Faults
1. Thermal damage:
Fault current is very high (2 to 20 times CMR). This
current will heat the conductor (insulation). If the
equilibrium temperature exceeds the temperature
withstand value of the insulation, the thermal
breakdown of insulation will occur.
It occurs slowly as it is related to temperature. Time
delays isolation is required.

29
 Consequences of Faults

2. Electrodynamic damage:
The repelling forces generated due to this large current
(8-20 times CMR) would deshape and destruct the
whole equipment structurally.

(Instantaneous tripping is required)

30
Probability of occurrence of faults on different element
% of occurrence of
Equipment
fault
Overhead Transmission Line 50%
Underground Cable 10%
Switchgears including CTs and
15%
PTs
Power Transformers 15%
Miscellaneous 10%
31
Probability of occurrence of faults on overhead lines

Type of % of occurrence of
fault fault
LG 80% - 90%
LL 6% - 10%
LLG 3% - 6%
LLL/LLLG 1% or less

32
 Another classification of Faults
1. Transient:
• It occurs due to
a. power arc between two phases
b. flashover across line insulator due to
overvoltage.
• Automatically die out after few cycles.
2. Permanent:
• Remain for a longer duration and damage the
equipment.
33
 Major components of a power system network

• Single line diagram

• Why power is generated at voltages between 11
kV and 22 kV?
• Hence, for each component, a specific protective
device is used (covers a specific region).

34
35
 Abnormalities in Power System Network

• Overload
• Magnetizing inrush
• Power swing
• Prime mover failure
• Stalling

36
 Tripping Mechanism of Relay
The relay is always connected in the secondary circuit of CT and PT.
The main function of any type of relay is to detect/sense the inception of
fault, whereas the tripping task is carried out by auxiliary relay and circuit
breaker.
Since the relay only does the function of sensing, the speed of the relay is
increased, and hence, it operates instantaneously.
 Auxiliary relay
• It carries high value of trip coil current during a fault.
• It also gives signals to perform certain other functions associated
with relays such as alarms and interlocking.

37
 Contacts of Relay

• Normally Open (NO)

• Normally Close (NC)

In control circuit, all relay coils are shown in deenergized condition and all
circuit breakers (CBs) are shown in open condition.

38
 Tripping Mechanism of Relay
Coil of
auxiliary relay
86

CT Relay
contact

PT R

Contact of
auxiliary relay Tripping coil of
circuit breaker
Power circuit Control circuit
39
 Tripping Mechanism of Relay
 Working
• If single input relay is used (current-based relay or voltage-based
relay), then the relay receives a signal from the secondary of CT or PT
only.
• Conversely, for two input relays, it receives signals from the secondary
of both CT and PT.
• The relay R senses the fault within a fraction of second (in
millisecond) and gives signal to the auxiliary relay through its contact.
• The contact of auxiliary relay closes owing to energization of the coil
of auxiliary relay.
• This will further energize the trip coil of the circuit breaker.

40
 Zones of Protection

• A power system is normally segmented into a number of protective

zones.
• A zone is protected by a system of relays, circuit breakers, and
associated equipment.
• The circuit breakers are arranged in a manner that makes it possible
to isolate the protected zone while the remaining system continues
to supply energy to the customers.
• Each zone covers one or more components of the system.

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 41

 Zones of Protection

• To provide complete protection for the entire system, that is, to avoid
having an unprotected region, neighbouring zones are arranged to
overlap each other.
• When a system is experiencing an abnormal condition, the relays first
identify this condition and then send trip signals to appropriate
circuit breakers that open to isolate the affected zone.

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 42

 Zones of Protection
Line zone

G G

Transformer zone

Bus zone

Generator zone

Distribution zone

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 43

 Requirements of Protective System

i. Selectivity
ii. Speed
iii. Sensitivity
iv. Discrimination
v. Stability
vi. Reliability
vii. Economics

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 44

 Requirements of Protective System
 Selectivity
• This is the ability of protection devices to isolate only the faulty
network of the power system from the healthy part to minimize the
outage area and also to maintain normal power supply for the rest of
the power system.

F1
F2

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 45

 Requirements of Protective System
 Selectivity
• The possibility of failure to operate and failure of protective relays
and circuit breakers should be considered in determining the
selectivity of protective relays.

• 1. Absolute: if relay operates for internal faults in any element of PS.

• Exp: Differential Protection
• 2. Relative: if coordinated settings of relays of different zones are
decided based on certain rules. Exp: Distance, O/C.

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 46

 Requirements of Protective System
 Sensitivity
• It is the ability of the protective device to operate correctly to the
faults or abnormal conditions inside the zone of protection.
• It refers to the minimum level of fault current at which the protective
device operates.

IFL=200 A

IFAULT = 2000 A
4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 47
 Requirements of Protective System

 Sensitivity
• Protective devices with good sensitivity can sense any faults within
the zone of protection.
• The sensitivity factor usually determines the sensitivity of protective
relays, which depends on the parameters of protected elements and
operating condition of the power system.

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 48

 Requirements of Protective System
 Speed
• It is apparent that quick disconnection of the faulted area or the
elements can significantly improve the stability of the power system,
reduce outage duration, and minimize the damage of faulted
elements.

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 49

 Requirements of Protective System
 Speed
• Therefore, when a fault occurs, the protective relays should identify
the fault and operate as fast as possible.

• The total time to remove the fault is determined as the sum of

operation time of relays and circuit breakers. Typically, a high-speed
relay can operate in the range of 10 to 30 milliseconds.

• Fault Clearing Time = Relay Time + Breaker Time

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 50

 Requirements of Protective System
 Discrimination
• A protection system should be able to discriminate between fault and
loading conditions even when the minimum fault current is less than
the maximum full load current.

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 51

 Requirements of Protective System

 Stability
• A protection system should remain stable during external fault.

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 52

 Requirements of Protective System
 Reliability
• Reliability is the ability of protection devices to operate properly
during the period they are in service. It is also defined as the ability
of protective devices to operate properly during their operational
life. It can be categorized as follows:
• Dependability: It is the certainty of correct operation in response to
system trouble.
• Security: It is the ability of the protection schemes to avoid mal-
operation between faults.

4/3/2021 BRB & RPM 53

 Requirements of Protective System

7) Economics
• Besides the six factors mentioned above, economics of protective
relays is another important factor which should be considered.
• A good protective relay system should combine both features of
maximum protection and minimum cost.
• Moreover, some of these properties are contradictory to one
another, and it is the duty of the protection engineer to maintain
a balance amongst them, when choosing a protection scheme for
a particular application.

54
 Requirements of Protective System
7) Economics: Consider total cost of the system = 100%
Component Name % of total cost
Relays 0.54%
Relay panels 0.27%
Wiring 0.11%
Relay room 0.12%
Current transformers 3.10%
Potential transformers 1.08%
Total Cost of Protective Gears 5.22%
55
 Requirements of Protective System
 Unit Protection
• Unit protection scheme is a scheme that operates for a fault
within its zone.
• Here, zone of protection is decided on the basis of current
transformers (CTs), and it includes each and every fault point
inside the CTs where measurement of currents is carried out.
• This type of protection scheme is widely used in generators,
transformers, and large induction motors. Differential protection
scheme is the best example of this type of protection scheme

56
 Requirements of Protective System

 Non-unit Protection
• A scheme that achieves protection using grading of successive
relays is known as non-unit protection scheme.
• Overcurrent and distance relays are the best examples of non-unit
protection schemes.

57
 Requirements of Protective System
 Primary and Back-up Protection
• Two sets of relays, primary and backup, are usually provided for
each zone of protection.
• Main or primary protection schemes are always there as the first
line of defense.
• Equally important and essential is a second line of defense
provided by backup schemes, which will clear the fault if the
primary protection schemes fail to operate for some reason.
• In order to give ample time to the primary relays to make a
decision, backup relays are time delayed.
58
 Requirements of Protective System
 Primary and Back-up Protection
• The measures taken to provide backup protection vary widely,
depending on the value and importance of the power system
equipment and the consequence of its failure.
• Normally, primary relays have a small operation zone but operate
instantaneously, whereas backup relays have a large operation
zone, namely, overreached area, and operate with a particular
time delay.
There are three kinds of back-up relaying.

59
 Requirements of Protective System
1. Relay back-up
• In this relaying scheme, a separate duplicate set of primary relays,
their CTs and PTs are used. Recently, it has been observed that
local backup is required at the local station to open all the breakers
around the bus, rather than at the remote terminals.

2. Breaker back-up
• This scheme is employed to handle the situation when feeder
breaker fails to operate for a fault condition. In this scheme, a
time delay relay is operated by the main relay and it is connected
to trip all the other breakers on the bus.

60
 Requirements of Protective System

3. Remote back-up
• Remote backup is provided by a relay on the next station towards
the source. This remote relay will trip in a delayed time if the
breaker in the faulty section has not tripped because of some
reason. This is the most widely used form of backup protection.

61
Thank You

62